CHAPTER 2

SOURCES OF WATER

Prepared By:
Garima Gauli
 INTRODUCTION
2
Classification of Sources of water
 The primary source of water supply is precipitation which is
the water falling from the atmosphere to the surface of the
earth in the form of rain, snow, hail, etc.
 Rainfall is the most important part of precipitation
 Water obtained from the precipitation is retained in surface
depressions, carried away as surface run-off in natural streams
or rivers and percolates into the ground and joins the
groundwater
 Classification of Sources of water
3  The portion of precipitation which may be utilized for
water supply obtained partly at the ground surface and
partly below the ground surface.
 4

Surface Sources
 Those sources of water which are available at the ground
surface.
 The quality and quantity of surface water depends on a
combination of climate and geological factors.
 Surface source of water are stream, river, lake, pond,
impounded reservoir etc.
 The quality of water varies all the time from its origin until it
reaches to oceans.
 Quality may be sufficient.
 5

Surface Sources
 Surface source may carry

➢ suspended solid

➢ gases from atmosphere during rainfall

➢ fertilizers, pesticides from agricultural land

➢ mineral impurities, pathogens, organic matters etc. during

surface runoff

➢ treatment may be required before consumption.

 SURFACE SOURCE
6
1. STREAMS
 Streams are natural drainage channel found in the mountains
regions.
 Either perennial or non-perennial
 The discharge in streams is much in rainy season than other
seasons.
 The quantity of water available in streams is much less in
compared to rivers due to its small catchment area.
 The quality of water in streams is normally good expect the
water of first run-off
 Run-off water while flowing over the ground is mixed with
sand, silt, clay, minerals, and suspended impurities
 SURFACE SOURCE
7
2. RIVERS
 These are the large water course formed by the combination of
discharge of large number of streams.
 Most of the rivers are stream fed rivers.
 Either perennial or non-perennial
 Rivers flow from hills to the low land and finally to the sea.
 Discharge is smaller in hills and it becomes larger in lowland
due to the increment of the catchment.
 Quantity of water available is very large
 Can be used as a source of water supply for towns and cities
 SURFACE SOURCE
8
2. RIVERS
 Quality

➢ It is good at the upstream where settlement is low

➢ Quality is degraded as river approaches plains at it carries lot

of suspended matters, clay, silt, pesticides, fertilizers from
agricultural land, disposal of sewage etc.

➢ Quality of water is less as compared to stream.

➢ It can be used as a water supply source after proper treatment.

 SURFACE SOURCE
9
3. LAKES
 A large natural depression or hollow formed in the earth’s
surface, which gets filled with water is called a lake.
 It is generally found in the mountainous regions.
 The surface runoff from the catchment area contributing to a
lake enters the lake through small natural streams.
 The ground water also may enter a lake through springs.
 If sufficient quantity of good quality water is available from a
lake then it will be very useful sources of water supply
 Quantity of water available from a lake depends upon its size,
catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of the ground
and geological formations
 SURFACE SOURCE
10
4. POND
 A pond is man-made body of standing water smaller than a
lake.
 The ponds are formed by digging of ground and they are filled
up with water in rainy season.
 The quantity of water in a pond is generally very small and
often it contains many impurities.
 As pond is generally not suitable for drinking purposes and it
can be used for other purposes like bathing, washing of clothes
or for animals.
 SURFACE SOURCE
11
5. IMPOUNDED RESERVOIR
 The flow rate of river or natural stream may vary considerably
during different periods of a year.
 It may carry little or no water during dry weather period and
may carry huge amount of water during rainy season.
 If water is drawn directly from a river then during extremely
low flows it may not be possible to meet the demands of the
consumers,
 while during high flows there may be operational problems.
 As such it is essential to create a storage reservoir or an
artificial lake by constructing a bund, weir or dam which
can store the excess water that flows in the river during period
of high flow, called as impounded reservoir
 SURFACE SOURCE
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5. IMPOUNDED RESERVOIR
 Quality of water depends on the quality of the water flowing in
the river
 Can be used to supply water for big cities
 Also used for irrigation, hydro-power generation, navigation,
flood control, etc, called as multipurpose reservoir
 Impounded Reservoir
13
 SURFACE SOURCE
14
5. SEA

 The quantity of water is more but quality is poor because of

the presence of salts

 Can be used for water supply only after heavy treatment

making it costlier for water supply scheme.
 SURFACE SOURCE
15
6. STORED RAINWATER
 In the areas where neither groundwater nor surface water is
available, rainwater may be collected and stored in the tanks from
roofs of buildings.

 This is called rainwater harvesting.

 Rainwater is collected from roofs and pucca courtyards through

channels.

 It cannot be used for water supply scheme as the quantity of

water is not sufficient.

 It may contain some impurities which should be treated.

 It is used in Rajasthan, Arabian countries and some parts of

Nepal.
SUB SURFACE SOURCES/ GROUND SOURCES
16

 The water which is available below the ground surface is

termed as ground water.
 Precipitation is the main source of groundwater
 Entrance of water into the ground is called infiltration, which
depends on rainfall intensity, porosity of soil and soil cover
 The quality of groundwater is generally good due to natural
filtration as it percolates to deeper strata.
 As G/W is not exposed to atmosphere it may be free from direct
contamination and pollution from run-off.
SUB SURFACE SOURCES/ GROUND SOURCES
17

 The occurrence of groundwater and its transmission largely

depends on the type of water bearing formation and the
geological characteristics of the region.
 Polluted water from agricultural areas that percolate to the
groundwater can contains herbicides, pesticides and nutrients
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS
18
1. Aquifer
 It is saturated and permeable geological formation which
contains, transmits and yields significant quantity of water to
wells and springs. Sand and gravels are examples of aquifer.
2. Aquiclude
 Geological formation of relatively impermeable material which
permits storage of water but is not capable of transmitting
water in sufficient quantity. Clay is an example of such a
formation.
4. Aquifuge
 An aquifuge is defined as a geological formation of relatively
impermeable material which neither contains nor transmits
water. Solid granite belongs to this category of formation.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS
19
4. Aquitard
 It is a geologic formation of poorly permeable material or
semipermeable material which permits storage of water but
obstruct groundwater movement and does not yield water freely
to wells.
 It may transmit (seepage) appreciable quantity of water to and
from adjacent aquifers.
 Example: sandy clay.
 PERMEABILITY
20
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS
21
 AQUIFER
22

 An aquifer is a geological formation that contains sufficient

permeable material which permits storage as well as
transmission of water.
 Thus an aquifer contains saturated material which will yield
significant quantities of water to springs and wells
 Unconsolidated sands and gravels are the examples of the
formations which serve as aquifers. There are two types of
aquifers
 AQUIFER
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 AQUIFER
24
 AQUIFER
25
 TYPES OF AQUIFER
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 TYPES OF AQUIFER
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 TYPES OF AQUIFER
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 UNCONFINED AQUIFER
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 CONFINED AQUIFER
30
 CONFINED AQUIFER
31
 TYPES OF AQUIFERS
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A. Unconfined Aquifer
 An unconfined aquifer is one in which water table forms the
upper surface of the zone of saturation. Phreatic/ Non-Artesian
Aquifer
B. Confined Aquifer
 A confined aquifer is the one in which groundwater is confined
under pressure greater than atmospheric pressure by overlaying
relatively impermeable strata. Artesian/Pressure Aquifer.
C. Perched Aquifer
 If an impermeable soil layer is found above GWT level and it is
underlying on the permeable layer, then the permeable layer can
be the source of GW and is called perched aquifer.
 TYPES OF AQUIFERS
33
 SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER
34
1. Springs
2. Wells
3. Artesian wells
4. Infiltrations galleries
5. Infiltrations wells
 SPRINGS
35
 A spring is a natural outflow of groundwater which appears at
the ground surface as a current or stream of flowing water.
 Formed when water table is higher than ground level
 Springs may be classified into:
A. Those resulting from gravitational forces, and
B. Those resulting from non- gravitational forces
 Springs are capable of supplying very small amount of water.
 Good developed spring may sometimes be used in small town
specifically in hilly area as a water supply source.
 Sometimes spring discharge hot water due to the presence of
sulphur and can be useful for the treatment of certain skin
diseases.
 TYPES OF SPRINGS
36

1. Gravity Springs
 In this type of spring, movement of water is due to gravity and
under hydrostatic pressure.
 TYPES OF SPRINGS
37

2. Non gravity or pressure or fissure spring

 Non-gravity springs include volcanic
springs and fissure springs.
 The volcanic springs associated with
volcanic rocks and fissure result from
fractures extending to great depths on the
earth crust
 These are usually thermal springs and
discharge is highly mineralized and often
contains sulphur.
 However, the water obtained from some of
hot springs is found to be useful for cure Figure: Fissure spring
of certain skin disease.
 TYPES OF GRAVITY SPRINGS
38
1. Depression Spring/ shallow spring
 Where the ground surface intersects the WT, overflowing of WT
occurs and this type of spring is formed.
 water bearing stratum is exposed to the atmosphere
 Flow from such spring is variable with the rise and fall of WT.
 TYPES OF GRAVITY SPRINGS
39
2. Surface spring/ contact spring
 It is formed when a permeable water bearing stratum overlaying
a less permeable or impermeable formation intersects the ground
surface.
 It has small amount of underground storage.
 Flow is uncertain at likely to cease during drought period.
 It is a common type of spring
 It can be developed by the construction of cutoff trench or cutoff
well
 Flow from such spring is variable with the rise and fall of WT.
 TYPES OF GRAVITY SPRINGS
40

Figure: Contact Spring

 TYPES OF GRAVITY SPRINGS
41

3. Artesian spring
 Artesian spring are formed due to release of
water under pressure from confined aquifers
either at an outcrop of an aquifer or through
opening in the confining bed.
 The amount of water available in an
artesian spring may be larger if catchment
area is large.
 The rain water flowing on the surface enters
into the basin through the exposed portions
on the top, flows down and is finally stored
between the two impervious layers under
hydrostatic pressure.
 2. WELLS
42

 A well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated in the ground

for bringing groundwater to the surface.
 Wells may be classified as :
A. Opens wells or dug wells or percolation well,
B. Tube wells
 A. OPEN WELL/ DUG WELL/ PERCOLATION
43 WELL
 Opens wells are the wells which have comparatively large
diameters but low yields and are not very deep.
 Diameters of the open wells usually vary from 1 to 10 meters
 The depths of opens wells may generally range from 2 to 20
meters
 Since these wells are usually constructed by digging, these are also
known as dug wells
 The walls of an open well may be built of brick or stone masonry
or precast concrete rings
 The thickness generally varies from 0.5 to 0.75 meter depending
on the depth of the well.
 Can be used for individual use not not suitable for larger water
supply scheme.
 TYPES OF OPEN WELL
44

➢ Shallow open wells are those which rest in the top water bearing
strata and draw their supplies from the surrounding materials.
Have risk of contamination of water due to the topmost pervious
layer. Cheap in construction and can be used by individual
households in rural areas and small towns. Yield is small as
compared to deep dug well.
 Deep open wells are those which rest on impervious strata and
draw their supplies from the permeable formation lying below the
impervious strata through bore holes made in the impervious
strata. Quantity and quality is high compared to shallow open
wells. Since the pervious formation below the impervious layer
contain large quantity of water, the yield is more as compared to
shallow well.
 TYPES OF OPEN WELL
45

Figure: Shallow open well, deep open well and tube well
 B. TUBE WELL
46

 Tube well is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or
more water bearing strata.
 Compared to open wells the diameter of tube wells are much less
(80mm – 600mm).
 The tube wells may also be further classified as
a. Shallow tube wells (yield – max 20 cum/hr)
b. Deep tube wells (yield – max upto 800 cum/hr)
➢ Depth of tube wells up to 30 m is shallow tube wells and up to
600 m are deep tube wells
 CLASSIFICATION OF TUBE WELL
47

A. Strainer type Tube well

 It is the most common
and widely used tube well
 The pipe introduced into
the ground is an assembly
of strainer pipes and blind
pipes which are
alternatively placed.
 The strainer pipe rest
against water bearing
strata and the blind pipes
rest against impervious
strata.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TUBE WELL
48

B. Cavity Tube well

 It consists of pipe sunk into
ground and resting on the
bottom of a strong strata.
 In the initial stage of
pumping fine sand comes
out with water and
consequently a cavity is
formed at the bottom.
 Though in the beginning
sandy water is obtained
from a cavity type tube well
but with the passage of time
clear water is obtained
 CLASSIFICATION OF TUBE WELL
49
C. Slotted type Tube well
 It consists of a pipe which is slotted for
part of its length at one end and the rest
of length its plain pipe.
 The mixture of gravel and coarse sand
placed around the pipe to prevent the
fine sand entering the well pipe.
 The slotted portion of pipe is
surrounded by mixture of gravel and
coarse sand called shrouding which is
filled between casing pipe and slotted
pipe.
 The well pipe of 150 mm diameter
casing pipe about 400 mm diameter is
required .
 CLASSIFICATION OF TUBE WELL
50

D. Perforated Type tube

well
 Perforated type tube well
is shallow depth tube well
and used for short
duration such as in
construction site.
 The pipes having pores
covered by jute ropes act
as strainer and which
prevent the fine particles
entering the well pipe.
 3. ARTESIAL WELL
51

 An artesian well is a pumpless water source retained in

confined aquifer, which flows automatically under pressure.
 The altitude that the pressurized aquifer pushes water up a well
tapping it is the "piezometric level“
 If the piezometric level is below the land surface altitude, the
water will not shoot out of the well at the land surface, the well
is called an artesian well.
 But if the piezometric level is higher than the well head altitude
at the land surface, the water will be pushed upward in the well
and emerge at the land surface, with no pump needed. This
kind of well is a flowing artesian well.
 3. ARTESIAL WELL
52
 4. INFILTRATION GALLERIES
53

 A horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel having permeable

boundaries for tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or
streams are called infiltration galleries
 Usual depth at which gallery is placed ranges from 3 to 10 m
 Infiltration galleries may be constructed with dry brick
masonry wall or porous concrete blocks with weep holes and
RCC slab roof or an arch roof
 Perforations covered by gravel filters to prevent the entry of
fine sand particles
 The gallery is laid at a slope and the water collected in the
gallery is led to a sump from where it is pumped out and
supplied to consumers after necessary treatment.
 4. INFILTRATION GALLERIES
54
 5. INFILTRATION WELL
55

 A shallow well constructed in series along the banks of a river

to collects the water seeping through the banks of the river is
called infiltration wells
 These wells are constructed of brick masonry with open joint
and RCC slab in the top with manhole for the inspection.
 Various infiltration wells are connected by porous pipes to a
collecting sump well known as jack well.
 The water from the jack well is pumped to the treatment plant
and supplied to the consumers after treatment.
 The quality of the water varies with the quality of river water
and the depth and distance of the well from the riverbank.
 5. INFILTRATION WELL
56
 6. POROUS PIPE GALLERY
57
 Where there is a large quantity of ground
water available over a wider area
(marshy land or water bodies), it
becomes cheap to collect the ground
water by laying porous pipe network
under the ground and stored in storage
tank then used for water supply after
some treatment. This is called porous
pipe gallery.
 Longitudinal and cross porous pipes are
laid in certain slope to collect water in
the collection well.
 To increase the quality and intake
capacity, theses pipes should be
surrounded with sand, gravel and broken
stone pieces.
 SELECTION OF WATER SOURCE
58
 The following factors are generally considered while selecting the
source of water supply
a. Location
 Should be near to the consumer’s area or town inorder to reduce the
cost of transmission.
 Source located at higher elevation saves pumping cost as water flows
by gravity so it should be preferred.
b. Quantity of water
 Source should have sufficient quantity of water to meet the demand for
the design period in the wet and dry season.
 Two or more sources can be combined to achieve the desired quantity.
 If possible there should be sufficient quantity to meet the need for
future extension of the project.
 SELECTION OF WATER SOURCE
59
c. Quality of water
➢ Source should be free from pollutants, bacteria and other micro
organisms, and should be safe such that treatment cost becomes cheap.
d. Cost
➢ Source should be such that water of good quality and adequate quantity
can be supplied at low cost.
➢ Cost is affected by various factors such as location of the source and
distribution area, distance between source and distribution area etc.
➢ Cost becomes lesser if source contains lesser impurities rendering less
treatment cost.
➢ Gravity flow system should be preferred for lower cost.
➢ Less distance between source and the distribution area reduces the cost
of pipelines and other appurtenances.
 CAPACITY CALCULATION OF IMPOUNDED
60 RESERVOIR
1. If flow in the river or stream (inflow) > demand or draft (outflow)
throughout the year, no need of reservoir.
2. If flow in the river or stream (inflow) < demand or draft (outflow)
during dry periods and maximum in other period, the impounded reservoir
should be required to reserve water during high runoff time to meet the
demand during dry period
➢ The capacity required for impounded reservoir can be determined from
any of the following two methods.
a. Mass curve (graphical) method
b. Analytical method
 1. MASS CURVE (GRAPHICAL) METHOD
61
➢ A mass inflow or cumulative runoff curve is the plot of the cumulative
inflow in the reservoir with respect to time.
➢ A demand curve or outflow curve is a plot between cumulative demand
or outflow with respect to time.
➢ This method is easy if rate of outflow is constant throughout the time
considered.
 1. MASS CURVE (GRAPHICAL) METHOD
62
➢ PROCEDURE
a. From available inflow, calculate cumulative inflow and from demand
calculate cumulative demand.
b. Plot time vs cumulative inflow graph . Keep time at X – axis and
cumulative inflow at Y-axis (mass inflow curve)
c. Plot time vs cumulative demand in same graph . Keep time at X – axis
and cumulative inflow at Y-axis (demand curve)
d. From apices of the mass inflow curve, draw tangent parallel to the
demand curve.
e. Measure the maximum vertical intercepts between tangent and mass
curve.
f. The largest vertical intercept is the required reservoir capacity.
 1. MASS CURVE (GRAPHICAL) METHOD
63
 2. ANALYTICAL METHOD
64

 This method is based on the assumption that the reservoir is

full at the beginning of the dry period.
 This method is easily calculated in tabular form and is
suitable when demand or outflow also varies with respect to
time.
 2. ANALYTICAL METHOD
65

 Procedure
a. Denote inflow or runoff as ‘I’ and monthly draft or
demand as ‘O’.
b. Determine the deficit ‘D’ or surplus ’S’ by (I-O). Deficit
(D) occurs if (I-O) is –ve and surplus occurs if (I-O) is
+ve.
c. Calculate the cumulative deficit (∑D), which is the
required storage capacity of the impounded reservoir.
Note: If ∑D is greater than ∑S, the project is not feasible
because of low inflow.
 NUMERICALS
66

Q. 2.1 The yield of water from a catchment area during each successive month is given
below.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Inflow 1.4 2.1 2.8 8.4 11.9 11.9 7.7 2.8 2.52 2.24 1.96 1.68

Determine the minimum capacity of impounding reservoir required to allow the above
volume of water to be drawn off at a uniform rate assuming that there is no loss of water
over the spillway.

Use i) analytical method ii) Mass Curve Method

 ANALYTICAL METHOD
67
 ANALYTICAL METHOD
68
 ANALYTICAL METHOD
69
 MASS CURVE METHOD
70
 MASS CURVE METHOD
71

S2= 46.2 Mm3

S3= 14.35 Mm3

S4= 33.48 Mm3

S1= 6.3 Mm3

Capacity of reservoir =(S3-S1)+(S2-S4) = (14.35-6.3)+(46.2-33.48) = 20.77 Mm3

 NUMERICAL
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2.2 A runoff on a river for 12 month period is observed as shown in the table below. Is the
project feasible? If feasible, calculate analytically the storage capacity of a impounded
reservoir to meet a constant draft of 0.15 cumecs of water.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Inflow
4.7 3.25 1.95 1.42 0.53 0.33 0.28 0.36 0.38 0.27 9.35 12.5
(m3/s)

Solution:
Given, constant draft or demand = 0.15 m3/s < inflows in all months. So project is feasible
but there is no need of reservoir.
 NUMERICAL
73

2.3 The following data gives the monthly inflows during the critical low water period at the
site of the proposed dam. Determine analytically the storage capacity required for the
impounded reservoir to maintain a constant draft of 3000 million litres of water per month.
Discuss the feasibility of project.

Month Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Inflow
1.87 2.99 3.31 0.75 0 0 0 0.4 0.56 0.85 1.25 1.84
(m3/s)

Note: Feb is of 28 days, Sep, Nov, Apr, June are of 30 days and all others are of 31 days
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