Compiled by Mr. C.

Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

In the realm of architectural design and construction, shopfronts and cladding

represent pivotal elements that merge functionality with aesthetic innovation. This
course module aims to provide an in-depth understanding of these components,
which are essential in defining the character and performance of modern buildings.

Shopfronts act as the dynamic interface between the commercial interior and the
public exterior, influencing customer engagement and business success. Their design
demands a careful balance of transparency, accessibility, and visual appeal,
integrating branding elements to create an inviting and distinctive frontage. We will
explore various design principles, materials, and technologies that enhance the
effectiveness of shopfronts in different commercial contexts.

Cladding, encompassing the exterior layer applied to buildings, serves multiple critical
functions. It offers protection against environmental factors, enhances thermal
insulation, and contributes significantly to the building's aesthetic quality.
Understanding the wide range of cladding materials, from traditional brick and stone
to modern composites and metals, will be a key focus. Additionally, we will examine
the sustainability aspects of cladding, emphasizing energy efficiency and
environmental impact.

Engage actively with the course material, participate in discussions, and apply critical
thinking to real-world scenarios. Your journey through this module will equip you with
the knowledge to create visually compelling and structurally robust designs that meet
contemporary standards.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

This note should be reviewed alongside the recommended handbook. Details

pertinent to this chapter will be provided.

Advanced Construction Technology

5th edition
Roger Greeno, R. Chudley, Mike Hurst, Simon Topliss

Refer to the following in the handbook:

6.1 Cladding Panels p396

6.2 Infill Panels p402
6.3 Composite Panel Façade Systems p410
6.4 Jointing p417
6.5 Mastics, Sealants & Gaskets p427
6.6 Curtain Walling p430
6.7 Rainscreen Cladding p440
6.8 Structural Glass Cladding p447
6.9 Sustainable Construction p457

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Curtain Walling

 Glass Curtain Walling

 Industrial Cladding

 Prefabricated Cladding

 Stone Cladding

 Timber Cladding

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

CURTAIN WALLING

Assessment Criteria:
By the conclusion of this module, you will be able to articulate the requirements of
cladding and curtain walling in terms of structural stability, weatherproofing,
dimensioning, and installation.

Definition:
Cladding refers to the application of one material over another to create a protective
skin or layer. Its primary purpose is to manage weather infiltration and enhance the
building’s aesthetic appeal. While cladding does not always provide a waterproof
barrier, it functions as a control element, directing water and wind to prevent them
from penetrating the building structure (The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture, 1980).

Functions of Cladding:
cladding vs facing

Primary Functions:
The primary role of cladding is to separate the building's interior environment from
external elements, maintaining an indoor climate suitable for its intended use (Edward
Allen, 1990).

1. Water Protection: Cladding must prevent water ingress from rain, snow, and ice,
especially when wind drives water against the building at high velocities.
Effective drainage is crucial to prevent water penetration through cracks or
holes.

2. Air Leakage Prevention: Cladding must minimize unintended air passage

between the interior and exterior. Air leaks waste conditioned air, carry
moisture into the walls, cause condensation, and allow noise penetration.

3. Light Control: Cladding regulates light entry, particularly sunlight, which can
cause glare and ultraviolet damage to interior materials.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

4. Heat Radiation Control: Cladding should manage radiant heat from the sun,
maintaining comfortable interior temperatures.

5. Heat Conduction Control: Cladding must resist heat conduction, avoiding

thermal bridges that can cause condensation and energy loss.

6. Water Vapour Control: Cladding must impede water vapour passage to

prevent condensation within wall assemblies, which can cause staining,
insulation loss, and structural damage.

7. Sound Control: Cladding should provide sound isolation, blocking external

noise and maintaining a quiet interior environment.

Secondary Functions:

1. Wind Force Resistance: Cladding must withstand the pressures and suctions
exerted by wind, especially on taller buildings where wind speeds are higher.

2. Movement Accommodation: Cladding must adapt to thermal expansion and

contraction, moisture changes, and structural movements without damage.
This includes accounting for differential expansion, contraction, and building
settlement.

3. Fire Resistance: Cladding must comply with building regulations for fire safety.

4. Weathering Gracefully: Cladding should maintain the building's visual quality

over time.

Conceptual Approaches to Watertightness in Cladding:

1. Total Exclusion: Keeping water completely away from the wall, although
impractical without extensive overhangs.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

2. Seam Elimination: Sealing every seam in the wall to prevent water entry.

3. Neutralizing Forces: Eliminating or neutralizing forces (gravity, momentum,

surface tension, capillary action, wind currents) that drive water through the
wall.

Sealant Joints in Cladding:

All cladding systems require sealant joints to fill gaps between components,
preventing air and water infiltration while accommodating movement. Sealants are
crucial in joining panels and dissimilar materials.

Sealant Joint Design:

 Cold Weather Installation: Sealant must stretch minimally in cold weather but
compress significantly in summer.
 Hot Weather Installation: Sealant must compress minimally in hot weather but
stretch significantly in winter.

Curtain Wall:
A curtain wall is a non-load-bearing exterior cladding supported by the building's
structural frame. It is lightweight and does not carry vertical loads, making it suitable
for tall buildings. Curtain walls must meet the same functional requirements as other
external walls and are typically prefabricated.

Connection of Curtain Walls:

Curtain wall fixings should be stainless steel or non-ferrous metals, designed to bear all
loads even if one fixing fails. Adjustability is crucial to accommodate structural
inaccuracies and movement. Common fixing methods include cast-in anchor
channels for concrete frames and bolted plates for steel frames.
By mastering these principles, you will be equipped to design and implement effective
cladding and curtain wall systems that enhance both the functionality and aesthetics
of modern buildings.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

GLASS CURTAIN WALLING

Definition:
A glass curtain wall is a cladding system comprising a frame or grid of members fixed
to the face of a typically framed structure, usually at each level. This system includes
an infill of panels, which can be glazed or solid, serving the dual functions of windows
and walls. A metal curtain wall, an exterior non-loadbearing wall, may combine
metal, glass, and other surfacing materials supported by or within a metal framework.
The key distinction lies in the material of the supporting framework rather than the
surfacing material.

Classification:
1. Wall Type: Designating whether the design is unique or standardized.
2. Wall System: Referring to the method of installation.

Design and Construction Coordination:

Combining a field-constructed frame with a factory-made skin requires higher
coordination and precision than purely on-site construction methods due to the need
for dimensional control.

Wall Types:

1. Custom Type:
 Designed specifically for a single project.
 Typically used in high-rise, high-quality commercial, institutional, and
monumental buildings.
 Often incorporates substantial areas of glass.

2. Standard Type:
 Uses components and details designed and standardized by
manufacturers.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

 Architectural: Utilizes extruded framing members and large glass areas,

often including opaque panels.
 Industrial: Combines pre-formed metal sheets in standard patterns and
sizes with standard windows.
 Note: "Standard" does not imply a fixed design. Products vary among
manufacturers and can be adapted for diverse aesthetic expressions.

Costs:
Complex standard designs can sometimes be more expensive than simpler custom
designs. Each project requires a cost-benefit analysis.

Wall Systems:

1. Stick System:
 Installed piece by piece.
 Lower transport and handling costs.

2. Unit System:
 Composed of large, factory-assembled framed units, often pre-glazed.
 Units are usually bulky.

3. Unit-and-Mullion System:
 A compromise between the stick and unit systems.
 Mullions are installed first, followed by pre-assembled framed units.
 Less bulky than the unit system but requires more labour.

4. Panel System:
 Similar to the unit system but uses homogeneous rather than framed
units.
 Provides an overall pattern for the wall rather than a grid or a strong
vertical/horizontal accent.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

5. Column-Cover-and-Spandrel System:
 Consists of column cover sections, long spandrel units spanning
between column covers, and infill glazing units.
 Allows for a design that expresses the structural frame and offers a wide
range of aesthetic options.

Structural Capacity:

 Strength and Stability:

 The curtain wall must support its own weight and resist wind forces,
transmitting them to the structure.
 Wind loads increase with building height and exposure; framing
members and fixings must be designed to withstand these forces.

 Thermal Movement:
 Joints must accommodate deformation due to temperature changes,
allowing individual components to move independently.

 Differential Movement:
 The facade is more exposed to external influences than the structure it
protects, necessitating accommodation for differential movement
between the framing and the structure.

Requirements for Fixing Devices:

 Must allow for differential movement.
 Must be adjustable in any direction to accommodate structural inaccuracies.

Design Problems:

 Weather Resistance:
 Use of impervious infilling materials can lead to wind-driven rain entering
through joints.
 Joints must accommodate movement and remain weatherproof.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

 Thermal Insulation and Condensation:

 Both the framing system and infilling panels must provide adequate
thermal insulation.
 Impervious panels can cause condensation; a vapour barrier is needed
to prevent moisture damage.

 Fire Resistance:
 Fire resistance in curtain walling is complex and will be addressed by a
specialist guest lecturer.

By understanding these aspects, you will be better equipped to design and

implement effective glass curtain wall systems that meet both functional and
aesthetic requirements.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

INDUSTRIAL CLADDING

Traditionally, masonry construction involved stone bonded to a brick backing, with

both materials working together structurally. The advent of framed structures,
incorporating solid infill panels, led to the use of thin applied slabs of stone or precast
concrete as facings. As framed structures became more common, there was a
concerted effort to reduce the dead load of non-structural enclosing constructions,
giving rise to modern cladding systems.

Definitions

Facings: Facings refer to methods of finishing that require a continuous background

structure to provide necessary support and a fixing interface for the external materials.
These facing materials do not bear any loads other than their own weight.

Claddings: Claddings are used to enclose a framed building structure by attaching

elements that can span between specified points of support on the building's facade.
This eliminates the need for a continuous background structure.

Advantages of Claddings

1. Reduced On-Site Workforce: Claddings minimize the number of workers

required on-site at any given time.

2. Protection of Finishes: The use of claddings reduces the risk of finished surfaces
being damaged by subsequent construction activities.

Design Considerations

1. Structural Integrity: Cladding systems must be robust enough to transfer wind

loads to the primary building structure.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

2. Fixing Systems: The type of fixing system depends on the cladding system and
its operational requirements.

3. Material Handling: Efficient handling techniques are essential for the proper
installation of cladding materials.

4. Transport and Logistics: Transport and logistical considerations must be

factored into the design and implementation process.

5. Aesthetics and Design: Cladding should contribute to the overall aesthetic

appeal of the building while fulfilling functional requirements.

6. Cost: Cost implications of different cladding systems and materials need

thorough analysis.

Types of Cladding

1. Heavy Cladding:
 Precast Concrete: Durable and robust, ideal for industrial applications.

2. Lightweight Cladding:
 Metal:
 Profiled metal sheets offer stiffness and can be storey-high.
 Interlocking vertical joints accommodate thermal movement
and resist water penetration.
 Fibre Cement:
 Often used for its durability and ease of installation.
 Plastic:
 Lightweight and easy to install.
 Glass Curtain Walling:
 Used for both aesthetic and functional purposes, providing a
modern look and allowing natural light.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

Metal and Fibre Cement Sheeting

1. Stiffness and Height:

 Profiled metal and fibre cement sheets provide the necessary stiffness
and can be fabricated to storey-high dimensions.

2. Thermal Movement and Water Resistance:

 Interlocking vertical joints accommodate thermal expansion and
contraction while resisting water infiltration.

3. Fixing Methods:
 Fixed to frames using timber, steel tubular, or angle framing.
Manufacturer specifications should be followed for spacing.
 Attachment methods include hook bolts, screws, and secret fixing with
concealed clips.

4. Waterproofing:
 Horizontal butt joints are made waterproof with Z-flashing, and various
accessories are available for finishing and waterproofing.

5. Insulation:
 Insulation can be added separately or as part of an integrated
sandwich panel system.

6. Curvature:
 Metal and fibre cement sheets can be curved within specified minimum
and maximum radii as provided by manufacturers.

Understanding the history, definitions, advantages, and design considerations of

cladding systems is crucial for their effective application in industrial buildings. These
insights ensure that the cladding not only enhances the building’s functionality and
aesthetic appeal but also meets structural and logistical requirements efficiently.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

PREFABRICATED CLADDING

Definition:
Prefabricated cladding panels are a type of curtain walling consisting of lightweight
non-loadbearing external cladding. These panels form a complete or partial
envelope around the structural frame of a building, independent of any infill walling.

Types:

1. Undersill Cladding Panels:

 Span from column to column and provide a seating for windows
located above.
 Levelling is typically done by wedging and packing from the lower edge
before fixing with grouted dowels.

2. Storey Height Cladding Panels:

 Span vertically from beam to beam and can be fenestrated if required.
 Levelling is usually carried out by wedging and packing from floor level
before fixing by bolts or grouted dowels.

Materials and Categories:

 Solid Sheets:
 Uninsulated panels made from heavy-gauge metal (such as polished
stainless steel, porcelain-enamelled steel, and anodized aluminium),
structural glass, fibre cement, or glass reinforced concrete panels (GRC).

 Hollow Metal Pans:

 Formed by flanging metal sheets into shallow pans, attached back to
back to form hollow panels which usually contain insulation.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

 Laminated (Sandwiched) Assemblies:

 Composite constructions with thin dense surfaces adhesively bonded
onto both sides of a low-density core material, often offering good
thermal properties.

 Precast Concrete Units:

 Panels made of reinforced concrete, either cast in factories or on-site,
with or without a core of insulating material, and various surface finishes.

Functional Requirements:

1. Self-supporting between Framing Members:

 Cladding panels must support their own weight and resist external loads
between framing members.

2. Resistance to Penetration by Natural Elements:

 Panels should provide a barrier against water, wind, and other
environmental elements to protect the building interior.

3. Resist Positive and Negative Pressures:

 Cladding panels should withstand both positive pressures (e.g., wind)
and negative pressures (e.g., suction forces during storms).

4. Fire Resistance:
 Panels must meet required fire safety standards to prevent the spread
of fire within or outside the building.

5. Sound Insulation:
 Cladding panels should contribute to soundproofing by minimizing the
transmission of external noise into the building interior.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

6. Thermal Insulation:
 Panels should provide adequate thermal insulation to maintain
comfortable indoor temperatures and reduce energy consumption.

By meeting these functional requirements, prefabricated cladding panels contribute

to the overall performance, durability, and aesthetics of industrial buildings. Their
efficient installation and versatility make them a popular choice for modern
construction projects.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

STONE CLADDING

Historical Background:
Natural stone stands as one of humanity's oldest building materials, utilized from
primitive shelters to grand monuments and places of worship. Its application evolved
from rough-hewn rubble to intricate architectural marvels like the Pyramid of Cheops
and the treated Athenian columns. Over time, its use transitioned from structural to
ornamental, primarily as an ornamental veneer.

Use and Economics:

 Durable but Expensive:

 Natural stone is durable but costly, primarily used as a facing material
veneer fixed to a solid background or frame.
 High site labour costs restrict its use in solid walling, typically limited to
outer leaf of cavity walls or bonded to loadbearing reinforced concrete
or masonry walls.

 Structural Considerations:
 Solid stone walls are thicker than brick and block-work, requiring
relatively massive foundations and more roofing for a given usable floor
area.

Definition:
 Stone is an aggregate or combination of minerals, each composed of
inorganic chemical substances.

Qualities of Stone as a Construction Material:

 Strength: Most types of stone offer adequate compressive strength, although
shear strength is typically about 1/10 of its compressive strength.
 Hardness: Important for applications such as flooring, paving, or stairs.
 Durability: Resistance to weathering effects is crucial for exterior stonework.
 Workability: Stone must be quarryable, cuttable, and shapable.

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 Density: Porosity affects resistance to frost action and staining.

 Appearance: Factors include colour, grain, and texture.

Classification:
 Geological Origin:
 Igneous (e.g., granite)
 Sedimentary (e.g., limestone, sandstone)
 Metamorphic (e.g., marble, slate)
 "Koppie" Stone: Local unclassified stone

Structural Characteristics:
 Stone masonry, similar to modular brick or block masonry, is used in
compression but may not be uniform in size.

Types of Stonework:
 Rubble: Rough, uncut stone primarily used for walling.
 Ashlar: Stone sawn or dressed to blocks of given dimensions, featuring fine
joints.
 Flagstones: Flat slabs for flooring and horizontal surfacing.

Failures:
 Deformation of Structure:
 Drying shrinkage, elastic deformation, and creep can lead to structural
deformation.
 Differential Thermal Movement:
 Adequate allowance must be made for differential thermal movement
between concrete and cladding materials.
 Other Causes of Failure:
 These include differential settlement, inaccurate positioning of fixing
holes, inadequate support, thin cladding material, defective pointing,
insufficient joint thickness, and oversized slabs.

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Understanding the properties, classifications, and potential failures of natural stone in

construction is essential for effective utilization and maintenance in architectural
projects.

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CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 7A – SHOPFRONTS & CLADDING

TIMBER CLADDING

Origin:
Timber cladding, stemming from traditional log construction introduced from
Scandinavian countries, finds extensive use in the USA. In South Africa, despite
resistance from some local authorities, it remains appropriate, particularly in holiday
settings. Its ease of erection, modification, and addition make it popular, although
extreme variations in daily temperatures pose challenges.

Context:
 Timber cladding is utilized in timber-frame constructions in balloon or platform
configurations, consisting of poles or studs.
 Guidelines for stud-framing include maximum sizes and unsupported heights,
ensuring structural integrity.

Factors in Selection of Cladding:

1. Wall Finish Desired:
 Considerations include colour, texture, pattern, and jointing.
2. Door and Window Openings:
 Structural and modular limitations on size impact cladding choices.
3. Weather Tightness and Control:
 Address heat flow, air infiltration, moisture, water vapour flow, and sound
transmission.
4. Accommodation of Services:
 Ensure provision for plumbing, electrical services, and outlets.
5. Fire Resistance:
 Compliance with building codes for fire-resistance ratings.

Definition - Solid Board Wall Panelling:

 Comprising solid timber pieces positioned horizontally side-by-side.
 Choices include square-edged boards or specially milled edges for overlap or
interlock.

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Milling Profiles:
1. Square Edge: Basic profile.
2. Tongue-and-Groove: Interlocking mechanism for seamless joints.
3. Shiplap: Overlapping profile for enhanced weatherproofing.

Specifications:
 Thickness: Nominal, ranging from 16mm to 38mm.
 Widths: Varied, from 76mm to 300mm.
 Grading: Options include clear or knotty.
 Texture: Smooth or resawn rough.
 Origin: Boards sourced from salvaged weathered timber or kiln-dried "new"
timber.

Precautions:
 Conditioning: Allow boards to acclimatize by stacking them for 7 to 10 days to
prevent warping and buckling before installation.

Understanding the origin, context, selection factors, and specifications of timber

cladding is crucial for ensuring optimal performance and durability in construction
projects.

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