FRACTURE

If the material is stressed beyond elastic limit, two things can happen;
1. Material yield.
2. Material ruptures without any visible sign of plastic deformation.
The ultimate rupture or failure of material by breaking into two or more pieces, under the
influence of an external load is called fracture. Fracture is initiated by some kind of imperfection
within the material, generally a microscopic crack.
The applied stress can be compressive, tensile or shear.
Steps in fracture
1. crack formation
2. crack propagation
For engineering materials, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and brittle.

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FRACTURE MECHANISM OR GRIFFITH’S THEORY OF BRITTLE
FRACTURE

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 TRANSGRANULAR & INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE
Transgranular Fracture:
 In this Fracture cracks propagation is through the grains.
 Found In metals that have good ductility and toughness-ductile type fracture
Intergranular fracture:
 In this Fracture, crack propagation is along grain boundaries.
 Usually found in some brittle fractures

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 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

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METHODS OF PROTECTION AGAINST FRACTURE

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION, STRESS RAISERS

In the case of fracture, very small microscopic flaws or cracks are the principal stress
concentrations or stress raisers. These are detrimental to fracture strength because the applied
stress can be amplified or concentrated at the tip of these micro cracks. Magnitude of
amplification depends on orientation and
Geometry of cracks.
Sometimes the ratio σ m/σo is denoted as the stress concentration factor Kt

It may be noted that stress amplification can also occur in macroscopic internal discontinuities
like voids, sharp corners, notches etc. Effect of stress raisers is more significant in brittle
materials than in ductile materials. In a ductile material, large plastic deformation occurs when
amplified stress exceeds yield point. This reduces the stress intensity near the vicinity of stress
raiser.

Effect of Plastic Deformation on Crack Propagation

Ductile fracture occurs after considerable plastic deformation. It happens with slow tearing of
metal. Plastic deformation introduces strain hardening which necessitates higher stresses for
further deformation. Plastic deformation reduces the stress intensity in the vicinity of stress
raisers thereby avoiding brittle failure. Ductile fracture is preceded by localized reduction in area
called necking. It exhibits three stages after necking, namely (i) cavities formation (ii) cavities
coalescence and crack formation. Crack grows outward in direction perpendicular to stress
direction.(iii) final fracture involving rapid propagation at about 45 ° to tensile axis.

Brittle fracture occurs with little or no prior plastic deformation. Crack propagates very rapidly.
The three stages in brittle fracture are: (i) dislocation pile ups at obstacles during the small plastic
deformation (ii) micro crack nucleation and (iii) fast crack propagation and failure.

Effect of Impact Loading on Ductile Material and its Application in Forgings

An impact load is a dynamic load; where load is suddenly applied. When a material is subjected
to a sudden, intense blow, in which the strain rate is extremely rapid, it may behave in much
more brittle a manner than is observed in the tensile test.
Its effect is much greater than a steady load of same magnitude.
Impact test is used to measure the toughness of the material, a measure on the capacity of a
material to store strain energy before it fails.
High toughness is exhibited by materials with high strength and ductility.
During impact loads, the ductile materials with voids and cracks will behave like brittle
materials, and it is not indicated in tensile tests.

A brittle material requires less energy to break and hence lacks toughness than pure ductile

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materials.
Impact test are particularly useful for finding the ductile to brittle transition characteristics of
materials.
The main objective of impact tests is to select materials with high fracture toughness.

Two standard tests, the Charpy and Izod, measure the impact energy (the energy required to
fracture a test piece under an impact load), also called the notch toughness.

APPLICATION IN FORGING

In forging process the forces are applied on the raw material such that the stresses induced are
greater than yield and less than ultimate strength so that material is experiencing plastic or
permanent deformation to get required shape.
But in forging operation force applied can be either continuous or intermittent impact loads.
There are two kinds of forging process, impact forging and press forging. In the former, the load
is applied by impact, and deformation takes place over a very short time. Press forging, on the
other hand, involves the gradual build up of pressure to cause the metal to yield. The time of
application is relatively long.

FATIGUE

Materials subjected to alternating (also called repetitive, cyclic or fluctuating stresses) will fail at
a much lower stress compared to those loaded with steady stresses. Behavior of materials under
such fluctuating or cyclic stresses is called fatigue. Rotating shafts, bridges, machine
components, automobile parts etc. are some of the components subjected to fatigue. Fatigue is
observed in all types of materials. More than 80% failure in metallic materials is due to fatigue.
It is very dangerous because failure occurs without any warning in a brittle fashion.

STRESS CYCLES
In general there are three types of cyclic loading.
1. Sinusoidal stress cycle: The stress alternates from maximum tensile stress to maximum
compressive stress of equal magnitude. Mean stress is zero.
2. Repeated stress cycle: Maximum and minimum stresses are not equal. Mean stress is non-
zero. This type of cycle is commonly observed in engineering applications.
3. Irregular or random stress cycle: Stresses vary randomly. Stress experienced by automobile
shock absorber is an example.

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 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STRESS RAISERS
A stress raiser is defined as a flaw which has the ability to amplify the applied stress in its
vicinity. The stress raisers are divided into two types namely primary stress raisers and
secondary stress raisers.

Primary stress raisers:

Non-uniformities like steps at change in cross section, collars, holes, abrupt corners, key ways,
grooves, threads, spline, press fitted/shrink fitted attachments etc. are primary stress raisers.
Primary stress raisers initiate the failure.

Secondary stress raisers:

Surface discontinuities arising from fabrication such as surface roughness, seams, nicks, notches,
machining marks, identification marks, forging laps, pitting and corrosion etc. are secondary
stress raisers. Internal discontinuities like porosity, inclusions, cracks and voids also come under
the category of secondary stress raisers.
For example, a change in diameter of a shaft (primary stress raiser) can result in stress
intensification at the transition zone. If there is a surface discontinuity (secondary stress raiser) in
this zone, stress is sharply increased around the discontinuity resulting in failure of shaft.

FATIGUE TESTS
Fatigue tests are conducted to generate S-N curves and to assess the capability of the material to
withstand cyclic loading. Many different types of machines are used which are classified based
on type of load and method of application of load. The most commonly used machine is the
rotating beam fatigue testing machine shown in figure.

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The machine is a constant load type. It contains an electric motor for rotating the machine,
bearings and collets to support the specimen and a revolution counter to determine number of
cycles. Test specimen is placed in the machine. A dead weight is attached at the center portion of
the specimen. When the specimen is rotated, the centre of the specimen is under tension on the
lower surface and compressive on the upper surface due to the dead weight. Hence during
rotation, the specimen is subjected to alternate tensile and compressive stresses in a sinusoidal
fashion. The stress is maximum at the surface.
Number of cycles to failure (N) depends on applied stress (S). When the stress is high, N is
small. When S is lowered, N increases. As S is lowered continuously, an ultimate value will be
reached at or below which failure does not occur. A number of specimens are tested at various S
values and the corresponding N values are obtained. A semi-logarithmic plot with N along X
axis and S along Y axis is plotted. This is the S-N curve for the material.

S-N Curve

Fatigue is represented by a curve called S-N curve. Typical S-N curves for alloy steel and
aluminum alloys are shown in figure. Fatigue test is conducted on a specimen by stress cycling at
a maximum stress amplitude of σmax (less than tensile strength). No of cycles to failure is
counted. Test is repeated at progressively lower stress levels. A plot of stress (S) versus log
number of cycles to failure (log N) is prepared. This is the S-N curve for the material

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In general, higher the stress lower is the cycles to failure. For materials like steel, S-N curve
become horizontal at higher N values. Corresponding stress level at horizontal portion is called
Endurance Limit. It is the largest fluctuating stress which will not cause failure after infinite
number of cycles. Generally it is 40-50% of tensile strength. For materials like aluminum alloys
there is no specific endurance limit. In such materials, fatigue strength is taken as the stress level
at which failure occurs after a given number of cycles (usually 107 cycles).

FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE STRENGTH

1. Stress Concentration
Non-uniformities like steps at change in cross section, collars, holes, abrupt corners, key ways,
grooves, threads etc. are primary stress concentrations. Surface discontinuities arising from
fabrication such as surface roughness, notches, machining marks, identification marks, pitting
and corrosion and internal discontinuities like porosity, inclusions, cracks and voids come under
the category of secondary stress concentration. All these can reduce fatigue strength drastically.

2. Size Effect
Generally, larger component has more number of imperfections (defects) and hence lower
fatigue strength.

3. Surface Roughness
Generally maximum stress occurs at the surface. The surface is also exposed to harsh
environments like corrosion and unexpected loads like impact. Therefore surface roughness has a
significant effect on fatigue strength. Rough surface gives much lower fatigue life than fine
surface .

4. Change in Surface Properties

Decarburization at the surface of steel significantly reduces fatigue strength. The strength can be
regained by recarburizing the surface. Surface alloying methods like carburizing, nitriding and
carbo- nitriding can appreciably increase fatigue strength.

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5. Surface Residual Stress
Residual stresses are produced by fabrication and finishing operations. Residual stresses on the
surface can seriously affect fatigue properties. Compressive residual stresses at the surface of a
part increase fatigue appreciably. Tensile residual stresses at the surface reduce the fatigue
strength.

WAYS TO IMPROVE FATIGUE LIFE

1.Surface Treatments:
Fatigue occurs due to tensile stresses at stress concentration. Introducing compressive stresses at
the surface cancels the applied tensile stresses and thereby increase fatigue life. This is done by
plastically deforming the surface using the following methods.
(i) Shot peening : blasting of surface with hard steel or cast iron balls.
(ii) Surface rolling: pressing between contoured rolls.

2. Grain refinement:
Fine grains improve fatigue resistance. Hence grain refinement improves fatigue life.

3. Proper Design:
Avoiding stress concentrations like notches, sharp corners, sudden changes in cross section etc.
improves fatigue resistance. Manufacturing methods which reduce surface and internal defects
(discontinuities) should be adopted. Prevention from corrosive, chemical or abrasive conditions
can also increase fatigue life.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FATIGUE

It is well understood that temperature affects fatigue life of a structure. Under the same cyclic or
repeated stress or strain loading conditions, fatigue life of a structure could vary significantly in
different temperature environments. An increase in temperature decreases fatigue strength. At
higher temperatures, the initiation and propagation of slip bands/micro-cracks within grain is
increased, grain boundary cavitations occur, phase transformations, oxidation, corrosion and
creep damage happen in the material. Net effect of all these is reduction in fatigue life.

THERMAL FATIGUE

 Thermal stresses can develop when change in dimensions of a member due to high
temperature is prevented by some constraints. If a bar with fixed supports is heated,
thermal stresses will develop by the temperature change. The value of this thermal stress
is σ = αE ∆T where σ = thermal stress, α = coefficient of linear expansion, E=Elastic
modulus and ∆T = change in temperature.
 If the failure occurs by a single application of thermal stresses, it is called thermal shock.
 If the failure occurs after repeated application of thermal stress, it is called thermal
fatigue. It is obvious that stress levels for thermal fatigue is appreciably lower than the
stresses for thermal shock.
 Principle of thermal fatigue is made use of in thermo-mechanical machining. The method
is used for removing burrs and fins.
 Another area, where thermal fatigue is significant, is in metal cutting tool life.

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 MECHANISM OF FATIGUE/STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF FATIGUE

The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:

1. Crack initiation, wherein a small crack forms at some point of high stress concentration;
2. Crack propagation, during which this crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle;
3. Final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has reached a critical size.
Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always initiate (or nucleate) from the surface of
acomponent at some point of stress concentration.
Crack nucleation sites include surface scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads, dents, and the
like.
In addition, cyclic loading can produce microscopic surface discontinuities resulting from
dislocation slip steps thatmay also act as stress raisers, and therefore as crack initiation sites.

DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION TEMPERATURE (DBTT)

DBTT is the temperature or range of temperature at which a normal ductile fracture in a material
turns into brittle fracture.
The conditions favoring this transition are
(a) Lower temperature
(b) Higher strain rate and
(c ) presence of notches or stress raisers.
In steels, DBT occurs with decreasing temperature. It is an important engineering phenomenon.
Ductile to brittle transition is seen in BCC (steels) and HCP, but not in FCC. It is because slip is
easy in FCC since number of slip systems are more. DBT temperature is generally below room
temperature.

STRUCTURAL CHANGES DURING ‘DBTT’

Appearance of failure surface is indicative of the nature of fracture. In ductile fracture, the
surface appears dull or fibrous (shear character). Totally brittle surfaces have a granular (shiny)
texture and cleavage character. During DBTT, features of both types will be present. DBTT can
have different definitions. But the most conservative definition is that DBTT is the temperature
at which 100% fracture is a ductile fracture.

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APPLICATIONS OF ‘DBTT’

Structures, constructed from alloys that exhibit DBT behavior, should be used only at
temperatures above DBTT in order to avoid brittle and catastrophic failure.
Classic example of this type of failure occurred during World War II, a number of welded
transport ships suddenly split in half and sunk. It has been noted that low strength FCC metals
(including aluminum and copper alloys) and HCP metals do not experience DBT. On the other
hand, high strength materials and low strength steels are prone to DBT. These aspects should be
considered while selecting materials for low temperature applications. Decreasing the grain size
lowers DBTT.

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 Mechanism of Creep Deformation

Creep strain is due to atomic processes viz. (i) dislocation cross slip (ii) dislocation climb (iii)
vacancy diffusion and (iv) Grain boundary sliding.

1. Cross slip happens when a screw dislocation encounters an obstacle. The dislocation shifts to
a new intersecting slip plane and continue moving. Thus plastic strain continues with time.

2. Dislocation climb is seen in edge dislocations. If an edge dislocation is faced with a barrier, it
moves in to a parallel slip plane. Again plastic strain occurs with time.

3.Vacancies move in response to applied stress. The movement is from a perpendicular direction
to a parallel direction with respect to stress axis. This will elongate the specimen resulting in
creep.

4.At higher temperatures, grain boundaries lose their strength. They become weaker than the
grain interior. At temperatures above 0.5 Tm grain boundaries behave like a viscous liquid. They
allow the neighboring grains to slide against each other. This is called grain boundary sliding.
This sliding creates creep strain.

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 Prevention against Creep

1. Materials with high thermal stability and high melting point: They have better creep
resistance.

2. Coarse grained materials:

Fine grained materials have higher mechanical properties at low temperatures. However coarse
grains have better creep resistance because at high temperature the grain boundaries are weaker
than grain interior.

3. Precipitation hardened alloys:

Fine insoluble precipitates prevent dislocation motion and grain boundary sliding. Hence such
alloys are more creep resistant.

4. Dispersion hardened alloys:

Fine, hard, insoluble particles, uniformly distributes in the matrix material enhance creep
resistance by resisting movement of grain boundaries.

5. Substitutional solid solution alloys: These alloys exhibit improved creep resistance .

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 CREEP TEST

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 THRESHOLD FOR CREEP

PREVENTION AGAINST CREEP

1. Usage of coarse grained materials will prevent Fracture

2. Strain hardening will be useful to avoid creep fracture
3. The material free from any residual stresses and dislocations will prevent creep fracture
4. Precipitation hardened alloys can be used to prevent creep fracture
5. Heat treatment of materials reduces occurance of creep fracture

STRUCTURAL CHANGES DURING CREEP

Various structural changes occurring in a material during creep deformation are given below:

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1. Deformation by Slip
New slip systems become operative at high temperatures. At these temperatures, slip occurs
simultaneously on many slip systems. Many dislocations which are held at obstacles also get
freed due to climb. Net effect is that the dislocations move freely causing creep strain.

2. Sub Grain Formation

Subgrains are regions separated by low angle grain boundaries (sub boundaries). These sub
boundaries are formed after annealing of cold worked (bending) material by rearrangement of
dislocations of the same sign. In creep deformation lattice bending can occur near grain
boundaries and consequently sub grains can get formed. Sub grain boundaries serve as less
effective barriers to dislocation motion. Therefore dislocation motion can be continued thereby
increasing creep strain.

3. Grain Boundary Sliding

As temperature increases, grain boundaries lose strength faster than grains. At a temperature
called ‘equi-cohesive temperature”, the strength of grain boundaries is equal to that of grain
interior. Above this temperature, grain boundaries are weaker. At temperatures above 0.5 Tm
(Tm is melting point in Kelvin) the grain boundaries behave like a low viscosity fluid. Hence
they can slide (move) relative to each other. This process is called grain boundary sliding. The
strain resulting from grain boundary sliding can be as high as 50% of total strain. It contributes to
creep strain.

SUPER PLASTICITY
Super plasticity refers to the ability of some materials to deform extensively (as much as 2000%)
at elevated temperature and slow strain rates. The following conditions are to be satisfied for
obtaining super plasticity.
1. Very fine grain size .
2. High strain rate sensitivity
3. High temperature .
4. Low strain rate .
Most super plastic alloys are of eutectic or eutectoid compositions.

APPLICATIONS OF SUPERPLASTICITY
 Super plastic phenomenon is widely employed in metal forming processes like thermo
forming, blow forming, vacuum forming, deep drawing etc.
 Large, deep and complex shapes can be made in one piece in a single operation.
 Superplastic forming is used for the fabrication of aerofoils in gas turbines from super
alloys.

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 COMPOSITE MATERIAL

A composite material is made by combining two or more materials, often ones that have very
different properties. The two materials work together to give the composite unique properties.
However, within the composite you can easily tell the different materials apart as they do not
dissolve or blend into each other. Composites are one of the most widely used materials because
of their adaptability to different situations and the relative ease of combination with other
materials to serve specific purposes and exhibit desirable properties. Most composites have 2
phases. The phase in larger amount is called matrix. It is the continuous phase. Other phase
which is surrounded by the matrix phase is called reinforcing phase.

MATRIX PHASE
It is the continuous material constituent which encloses the composite and give it its bulk form.
Matrix phase may be metal , ceramic or polymer.

FUNCTIONS OF A MATRIX
 Holds the fibers together.
 Protects the fibers from environment.
 Distributes the loads evenly between fibers so that all fibers are subjected to the same amount of
strain.
 Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.

DESIRED PROPERTIES OF A MATRIX
 Reduced moisture absorption.
 Low shrinkage.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
 Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).


DISPERSION PHASE OR FIBRE PHASE

It is the structure constituent , which determines the internal structure of composite.

Also called ‘Reinforcement’.
Eg: Fibers, particles, flakes,whiskers etc

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ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES

i. Light in weight
ii. Ratios of Strength-to-weight and Stiffness-to-weight are greater than steel or aluminum.
iii. Fatigue properties are better than common engineering metals.
iv. Composites cannot corrode like steel..
v. Toughness is improved.
vi. Fabrication or production is cheaper.

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 NEED OF DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSITES

Modern technological applications necessitate materials with unusual and often conflicting
combination of properties which existing materials like metals, alloys, ceramics and polymers do
not have. For example, aerospace engineers were looking for materials which are light, strong,
stiff and abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant and high temperature resistant. This combination
of properties cannot be obtained with any existing material. Most of metals and alloys are
generally dense and therefore heavy. They lose their strength at high temperatures. Ceramics on
the other hand are brittle and dense materials with low impact strength. Polymers are light, but
lack strength and high temperature resistance. It was found that certain combination of materials
(composites) yielded the desired combination of properties. Demand for materials with specific
properties for applications in automobile, marine, manufacturing etc. also accelerated
development of composites. There is also a need for developing totally new materials with
precise combination of properties to meet specific design requirements for the future.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES

BASED ON TYPE OF MATRIX

1. POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC)

 In these composites a polymer (high molecular weight plastic) is used as matrix and high
strength or high stiffness continuous fibers are used as reinforcements.
 These are used in the largest quantity.
 PMCs possess low density, high specific strength, high specific stiffness, ease of
fabrication, good mechanical and electrical properties. Thermosetting plastics like
epoxies and phenolics are the common matrices. Epoxies are better in terms of properties,
but costlier. Thermo plastics are also used as matrix in a limited way.
 Glass, graphite, carbon and aramid (Kevlar) are commonly used as reinforcing fibers.
(a) Fiber glass
Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) is known as fiber glass.
Glass fibers are embedded in polymer matrix. Fibers may be continuous or discontinuous.
This composite has high strength, stiffness and rigidity. It cannot be used at high temperatures. It
is used for automobile bodies, storage containers, industrial flooring, rocket motor cases etc.

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(b) CFRP
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are advanced composites.
Carbon fibers have the highest specific strength and specific modulus and they retain their
properties at high temperatures. These are used for air craft and space applications as structural
materials.

(c) Kevlar (Aramid) fiber reinforced composites

Aramids, chemically known as polyamides, have specific strength and specific modulus greater
than metals.
They have high toughness, impact resistance, creep resistance and fatigue limit.
Typical applications of these composites include bullet proof vests, armor, sporting goods, tires,
ropes, pressure vessels, brake lining, gaskets etc.

2. METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES.

 Some of the advantages of MMC over PMC are their high operating temperatures, non
flammability and greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids.
 However MMCs are much more expensive.
 Ductile metals such as Al, Cu, Ti, Mg and their alloys are used as matrix and fibers
(continuous/discontinuous) are commonly used as reinforcements.
 Al alloy matrix reinforced with aluminum oxide and carbon fibers are popular. They have
light weight and good wear resistance. They are more expensive than polymer matrix
composites. They are used in aero space and automobile sectors.
3. CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
 Ceramics have high melting points, good resistance to oxidation and excellent high
temperature properties.
 But they are brittle. They also have poor tensile strength, impact strength and thermal
shock resistance. Particles, fibers and whiskers (thin long single crystals) of one ceramic
material is embedded into a matrix of another ceramic material. Such materials are called
ceramic matrix composites.
 CMCs are used for components in automobile and aircraft gas turbine engines. Carbon
fiber reinforced carbon matrix composites is an advanced engineering material.
 Carbon –carbon composite is highly expensive. It is used in aircraft, aerospace and high
performance automobiles.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES

1. Aircraft and Aerospace applications

 PMCs are used for windows, ceiling panels, overhead storage bins, consoles, landing
gear, doors etc of aerospace vehicles
 . They are also used for structural components like body, wings, rudder, helicopter rotor
blades and propellers.
 MMCs with aluminum or super alloy as matrix are used for compressors and fan blades.
 Carbon-carbon composites are used for elevated temperature applications like rocket
motors and gas engine components.

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2. Industrial applications

Automotive applications:

 Light weight PMCs are used as body components for automotive applications.
 MMCs are employed for transmission shafts.
 Rubber-carbon or epoxy-are used for manufacture of tires.

Other industrial applications:

 Injection molded reinforced thermoplastics and polyester composites are extensively used
for many consumer items like Kitchen equipment, electrical equipments, television and
computer casings furniture, helmets etc.
 Storage vessels, pressure vessels, pipings, valves, centrifuges etc for chemical industries
are also made of GFRP or CFRP.

Electrical and civil Engineering Industries:

 Electrical industries use components such as electricalncontacts, printed circuit boards,

casings for electrical equipments and high strength insulators made out of composites.
 GFRP and CFRP composites are fast replacing wood in civil engineering.

3.Marine Applications

 A vast range of components like hull, body, ladder, walkways, storage tanks, piping,
flooring etc. are made of GFRP composites.
 Applications include surface vessels, under water systems and offshore structures.

4. Sporting Industry

 High strength, rigidity and light weight make composites ideal for sports goods.
Examples of components are tennis rackets, hockey sticks, cricket bats, golf clubs,
vaulting poles, skiing poles, archery equipment, surf boards, canoes, skate boards etc.
 PMCs are mostly used for such applications
.

MODERN ENGINEERING MATERIALS

INTERMETALLICS

 An intermetallic compound contains two or more metallic elements, producing a new

phase with its own composition, crystal structure, and properties.
 Intermetallic compounds are almost always very hard and brittle.

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  Intermetallic or intermetallic compounds are similar to ceramic materials in terms of their
mechanical properties.
 An intermetallic compound is a chemical compound just like H2O or CH4 or any other
compound. It exists as its own thing, different from its constituents. Water is nothing like
hydrogen or oxygen.
 Examples of intermetallic compounds are Mg2Sn, Mg2Pb, Mg3Sb2 and Mg3Bi2 . These
intermetallic compounds have higher melting point than either of the parent metal.
 Applications: Intermetallic platinum silicide is used in micro-electronics.Nb3Sn is used
as superconductor. Titanium aluminides Ti3Al and TiAl are considered for a variety of
applications including gas turbines.

MARAGING STEEL

Fundamentals and need:

 Maraging steels are carbon free iron-nickel alloys with additions of cobalt, molybdenum,
titanium and aluminum.
 The term maraging is derived from the strengthening mechanism, which is transforming
the alloy to martensite with subsequent age hardening.
 With yield strength between 1400 and 2400 MPa maraging steels belong to the category
of ultra-high-strength materials. The high strength is combined with excellent toughness
properties and weldability.

Properties:
 Freedom from decarburization, minimum distortion during heat treatment, good
formability, machinability and weldability and low coefficient of thermal expansion are
some of the attributes of maraging steel.
Applications:
 Typical applications of maraging steels include: rocket motor casings, light aircraft
landing
gear, power shafts, low temperature tooling etc.

SUPER ALLOYS

Fundamentals and Need:

 Super alloys are high performance alloys for elevated temperature applications.
 They are classified into three categories namely nickel based, iron based and cobalt
based.
Properties and applications:
 Super alloys exhibit high strength and creep resistance at high temperatures. These
properties are achieved by mechanisms of solid solution strengthening,
precipitation hardening and dispersion hardening.

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  Other important properties of super alloys are fatigue life, oxidation resistance and
corrosion resistance.
Typical applications
 include vanes and blades for turbine and jet engines, heat exchangers, chemical reaction
vessel components, and heat-treating equipment.
 Incoloy is an example of iron-nickel base super alloy. It is widely used for heat exchangers.

TITANIUM
Fundamentals and need:
 Titanium is an allotropic metal.
 It exists as α (hcp) up to 8800C. Above 8800C it has a β structure (bcc).
 It can be hot worked and cold worked.
 Important alloying elements to titanium are Al, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Mo and Sn. They increase
the mechanical strength. Among these, Fe, Cr and Al provide highest strength. Ti alloys
respond to age hardening.
Properties and applications:
 Pure Ti is strong, ductile and light weight . It has very good corrosion resistance and high
strength at elevated temperature. Hence Ti is widely used as a structural metal. Ti-6Al-
4V is the most widely used titanium alloy. Another popular alloy is Ti-5Al-2.5.Sn. Ti
alloys exhibit high creep resistance, fatigue strength, specific strength and high
temperature strength.
 Ti alloys are used for aircraft structures, aircraft turbines, rocket motor cases, gas bottles
etc. It is also widely used for chemical processing equipments, valves and tanks.

CERAMICS

 Ceramics are compounds formed by the combination of metallic and non-metallic

elements.
 All metal oxides, carbides, nitrides and silicates are considered as ceramics. Refractories,
glasses, abrasives, clays, cement etc are ceramic materials.
 Ceramics have high hardness, melting point and creep resistance; but they are brittle.
They are chemically inert and electrically insulating. They are atomically bonded by
ionic and covalent bonds.

COORDINATION NUMBER AND RADIUS RATIO

In ionic compounds (NaCl, CsCl, ZnS etc) or ceramic materials ( MgO, WC etc) there are two
types of ions. Metallic ions (Na, Mg etc.) are positively charged and are called cations. Non
metallic ions (Cl, O etc) are negatively charged and are called anions.
The ratio of radii of cation and anion is called radius ratio.
𝑟
Radius ratio= 𝑟𝑐
𝐴

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In general, non-metallic ions (anions) are larger in size. Hence radius ratio is less than one. Each
cation likes to have as many anion neighbors as possible. Likewise, anion is surrounded by many
cations.
Coordination number refers to nearest neighboring atoms. Hence there is a close relation
between radius ratio and coordination number.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

1. AX TYPE STRUCTURE

 Ceramic materials having equal numbers of cations and anions are called AX compounds.
 ‘A’ represents cation and ‘X’ represents anion.
 Well known AX type structure is that of NaCl.
 Some other ceramic materials having AX type crystal structure are CsCl ,MgO, MnS, LiF and
FeO.

2. AM XP TYPE STRUCTURE

 If the charges on the cations and anions are not the same, a compound can exist with the
chemical formula AxMp where m and p are not equal.
 An example would be for which a common crystal structure is found in fluorite (CaF2).
 Some other compounds of this type are ZrO2 and ThO2.

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3. AM BN XP TYPE STRUCTURE

 It is also possible for ceramic compounds to have more than one type of cation; for two
types of
 cations (represented by A and B). Their chemical formula can be designated as AmBnXp.
 This material has a perovskite crystal structure.
 Some examples are BaTiO3, SrZnO3, MgAl2O4 and FeAl2O4

Barium titanate (BaTiO3), having properties.both Ba2+ and Ti4+ cations falls into this
classification.

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 HOT WORKING AND COLD WORKING

HOT WORKING

 Hot working is accomplished at a temperature above the recrystallization temperature .

 Every metal has a characteristic hot working temperature range over which hot working
may be performed.
 The upper limit of working temperature depends on the composition of the metal, prior
deformation, and impurities within the metal.
 The changes in structure from hot working improves mechanical properties such as
ductility, toughness, resistance to shock and vibration, % elongation, % reduction in area,
etc.

Hot Working Advantages

 Due to hot working, no residual stresses are introduced in the metal.

 Hot working refines the grain structure .
 Any impurities in the metal are disintegrated and distributed throughout the metal.
 The porosity of the metal is minimized by the hot working.
 Hot working produces raw material which is to be used for subsequent cold working
operations.

Hot Working Disadvantages

 Due to the loss of carbon from the surface of the steel piece being worked, the surface
layer loses its strength.
 This weakening of the surface layer may give rise to fatigue crack which results in failure
of the part.
 Close tolerances cannot be obtained.
 Hot working involves excessive expenditure on account of high tooling costs.

COLD WORKING

 The working of metals at temperatures below their recrystallization temperature is called

as cold working.
 Most of the cold working processes are performed at room temperature.
 Unlike hot working, it distorts the grain structure and does not provide an appreciable
reduction in size.
 Cold working requires much higher pressure than hot working.
 If the material is more ductile, it can be more cold worked.

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Cold Working Advantages

 Better dimensional control is possible because there is not much reduction in size.
 The surface finish of the component is better because no oxidation takes place during the
process.
 Strength and hardness of metal are increased.

Cold Working Disadvantages

 The ductility of the metal is decreased during the process.

 Only ductile metals can be shaped through cold working.
 Over-working of metal results in brittleness

BAUSCHINGER EFFECT

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RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION AND GRAIN GROWTH

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WORK HARDENING OR STRAIN HARDENING

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 ALLOY STEEL

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.

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FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS ALLOYING ELEMENTS

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 CAST IRON
 Cast Iron is generally defined as an alloy of Iron with 2 to 4.5% Carbon, and usually with
more than 0.1% Silicon.
 The three main ingredients are
Iron
Carbon
Silicone
 Cast iron containing more of these materials than steel.
 Cast-iron is manufactured by re-melting pig-iron with coke and limestone.This re-melting
is done in a furnace know as the cupola furnace.

PROPERTIES OF CAST-IRON

 If placed in salt water, it becomes soft.

 It does not rust easily.
 It is fusible.
 It is hard, but it is brittle also.
 It shrinks on cooling.
 Its melting temperature is about 1250*

TYPES

1. GREY CAST IRON

 Graphite flakes surrounded by a matrix of either Pearlite or Ferrite

 Grey colour due to presence of carbon in graphite form.
 Has Wide range of applications
 Low ductility
 Grey cast iron forms when Cooling is slow, as in heavy sections.
Application
 Engines
 Pressure pipe fittings
 Machinery beds
 Furnace parts

2. WHITE CAST IRON

 No graphite, because carbon forms Fe3C or more complex carbides

 Large amount of carbide phases in the form of flakes, surrounded by a matrix of Pearlite
 The absence of graphite causes white iron's light-colored appearance.

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Application
 Stairs
 Decorative features
 Tools and utensils

3. DUCTILE CAST IRON

 Inoculation with Mg causes graphite to form as spherulites, rather than flakes

 Also known as spheroidal graphite (SG).
 Far better ductility than grey cast iron.
Application
 Automotive industry 55% of ductile iron used
Crankshafts
front wheel spindle supports
steering ; disc brake callipers
 Pipe and pipe fittings (joined by welding)

4. MALLEABLE IRON

 Graphite in nodular form

 Produced by heat treatment of white castiron
 Graphite nodules are irregular clusters
 Similar properties to ductile iron

Application
Similar applications to ductile iron
 Malleable iron is better for thinner castings
 Vehicle components
 Railway components
 Pipe fittings

HIGH SPEED STEELS

 High Speed Steel is a highly alloyed tool steel capable of maintaining hardness even at
elevated temperatures.
 High-speed tool steels are so named primarily because of their ability to machine
materials at high cutting speeds.
 High speed steel has unusually high resistance to softening at temperatures up to 600C. It
is called, red hardness.
 They are complex iron-base alloys of carbon, chromium, vanadium,Nmolybdenum, or
tungsten, or combinations thereof, and in some cases substantial amounts of cobalt

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  Especially suited to applications involving complicated tool shapes: drills, taps, milling
cutters, and broaches.

Properties of HSS
 High Working hardness.
 High wear resistance.
 High retention of hardness and red hardness.
 Excellent toughness.

Two basic types of HSS (AISI)
1. Tungsten type, designated T- grades
2. Molybdenum type, designated M-grades

NON FERROUS ALLOYS

COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

 Most extensively used among non ferrous materials.

 Its color is pinkish red.
 Important properties are excellent electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance
 It occupies the second place among engineering materials.
 It is also having very good thermal conductivity, and also it can be easily machined,
welded, brazed and soldered.
 But, it lacks sufficient strength which makes it unsuitable for structural applications

APPLICATION OF COPPER
 For making electrical parts,
 Heat exchangers,
 Screw maching products,

ALLOYS OF COPPER

1. BRASS
 Brasses contain zinc as the principle alloying element.
 Brasses are high resistance to corrosion and it is easily machinable.
 It also act as good bearing material.
 Zinc in the brass increases the ductility along with strength.
 it has a lower thermal and electrical conductivity.

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TYPES OF BRASSS

1. Cartridge brass
 70% Copper and 30% zinc.
 In the fully annealed condition it has strength of over 300N/mm2.
 Used in caps of electric lamp bulbs, door furniture etc.
.
2. Admiralty brass

 71%, Zn 28% and Sn 1%.

 used for the tubes and other parts of condenser cooled by fresh water and for many other
purpose.

3. Muntz metal or yellow metal

 60% of copper and 40% of zinc .

 ship sheathing, perforated metal, valve stems, condenser tubes, architecture.
4. Aluminium brass

 76% Cu, 22% Zn and 2% Al, a little arsenic is added to inhibit dezincification.

2. BRONZE
 Bronze is basically an alloy of copper and tin.
 It possesses superior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance than brass.
 it is comparatively hard and it resist surface wear.
 It can be rolled in to wire, rod, and sheets.

TYPES OF BRONZE
(1) Phosphor bronze
 The most important copper-tin alloys are those which have been deoxidized with
phosphorus during the refining process and hence are known as phosphor bronze.

(2)Aluminium bronze

 89% Cu, 7% Al, and 3.5% Sn.

 It possess the following properties, good strength, high corrosion resistance, good heat
resistance, good cold working properties etc
(3)Silicon bronze
 1-4% si,0.5-1.0% iron, 0.25-1.25% Mn, and balance amount of copper.
 It possess high strength and toughness as that of mild steel and corrosion resistance as
that of copper.

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 ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
 Aluminium occupies the third place among commercially used engineering materials.
 It has low density, low melting point and high electrical and thermal conductivities.
 It has low strength and hardness, but high ductility and malleability.
 On exposure to atmosphere, it forms a strong film of aluminium oxide on its surface,
which prevents further oxidation and corrosion.
 It is employed for lightly loaded structures and for electrical cables and similar items.
 It is non-magnetic, non-toxic, easily available and less expensive.
 The main drawback is its low strength and hardness.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
1.Duralumin
 A typical composition is 94% Al, 4% Cu and 0.5% each of Mg, Mn, Si and Fe.
 High tensile strength and electrical conductivity.
 Widely used for aeroplanes, surgical and orthopedic equipments.
2.Y-alloy
 Composition of this alloy is 92.5% Al, 4% Cu, 2% Ni and 1.5% Mg.
 High strength and hardness even at high temperature such as 200oC.
 Used for cylinder heads and crank cases of engines.
3. Magnelium:
 The major alloying elements in this alloy are magnesium and copper with Ni,
 Sn, Fe, Mn and Si in small amounts.
 Better tensile strength and machinability, but it is brittle.
 Used by aircraft and automobile industries.
4.Silumin alloys
 Alloys based on Al-Si system are known as silumin alloys.
 A typical silumin is the eutectic alloy with 88% Al and 12% Si.
 Having good castability, corrosion resistance, high ductility and low density.

MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

 Magnesium has the HCP crystal structure.

 It is lighter and less ductile than aluminium.
 It is having poor modulus of elasticity, poor resistance to wear, fatigue and
creep.
 Its response to strengthening mechanisms also is relatively poor.
 Solubility of aluminium in magnesium increases with temperature
 This alloy responds well to age hardening also.

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MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
 Addition of aluminium to magnesium increases strength, hardness and castability.
 Addition of manganese to magnesium has very little effect on the mechanical properties,
but it improves the corrosion resistance.
 Magnesium-aluminium-zinc alloys have higher mechanical properties and good corrosion
resistance.

NICKEL AND ITS ALLOY

 Belongs to the transition metals.
 It is hard and ductile
 Crystal structure – FCC
 It is only one of four elements that are magnetic at near or roomtemp.
 Its Curie temperature is 355°c (means it is non-magnetic above this temp.)

Properties
• Silvery shiny appearance
• High toughness and ductility
• Good high and low temperature strength
• High oxidation resistance
• Good corrosion resistance (slow rate of oxidation at room temp.)
• It is Ferro-magnetic.

Limitations
• Not mixed with cheap alloying elements
• Relatively high cost

Applications:-
• Ni and its alloys are used in making coins.
• Nickel is used in rechargeable batteries such as Ni-Cd & in magnets.
• Its alloys are also used for armour plate and burglar proof vaults.

NICKEL ALLOYS

1.Nickel Copper Alloys (Monels)

Ni and Cu form complete solid solution.

• Ni-Cu alloy contains 67%Ni and 33%Cu, called Monels.
 Good weldability
 Excellent corrosion resistance
 Resistant to Sea Water, Chlorine

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Applications
• Steam turbine blades (UTS-525 Mpa & Yield Strength-230 Mpa)
• High temperature valves
• Centrifugal pump impellors & water meter parts.

2.Nickel Chromium Alloys

Inconel 600
• consists of (79.5% Ni + 15.5% Cr + 8% Fe) is a standard engineering alloy.
Properties
• High corrosion resistance at high temp.
• High strength and workability.
• Difficult to machine.

Applications
• Gas turbine combusters and blades.
• Chemical and food processing equipment.
• Furnace muffle & rocket skins.

3.Nickel Base Superalloys

High temperature heat-resistance alloys, which can retain high strengths at elevated
temperatures.
There are three types of Ni-base superalloys;
• Ni base, Ni- iron base and cobalt base.
The alloys contain high Cr with Ti, Al to from precipitates and additions of Mo, Co, Nb, Zr, B,
Fe.
• Microstructures are complex.

Properties
• Heat resistant and high strength at high temperature (760-980°C).
•Good corrosion & oxidation resistance.

Applications
• Aircrafts, space vehicles, rocket engines
• Industrial gas turbines, high temp applications.
• Nuclear reactors, submarines.
• Steam power plants, petrochemical equipment.

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