Established quality standard

Learning out comes

Lo1. Establish quality specification for process
Lo2. Identify hazard and critical control points
Lo3. Assist in planning of quality assurance procedure
Lo4. Implement quality assurance procedure
Lo5. Monitor quality of work outcomes
Lo6. Participate in maintaining and implement quality at work
Learning guide 1. Establish quality specifications for product
INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY ASSURANCE and TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
DEFINING QUALITY
Quality can be defined in many ways, ranging from “satisfying customers ’requirements” to
“fitness for use” to “conformance to requirements.” It is obvious that any definition of quality
should include customers, satisfying who must be the primary goal of any business. Experience
during the last two decades in the U.S. and world markets has clearly demonstrated that quality
is one of the most important factors for business success and growth.
Businesses achieving higher quality in their products enjoy significant advantage over their
competition; hence, it is important that the personnel responsible for the design, development,
and manufacture of products understand properly the concepts and techniques used to
improve the quality of products. Statistical quality control provides the statistical techniques
necessary to assure and improve the quality of products.
Different meaning could be attached to the word quality under different circumstances. The
word quality does not mean the quality of manufactured product only. It may refer to the
quality of the process (i.e., men, material, and machines) and even that of management. Where
the quality manufactured product referred as or defined as “Quality of product as the degree in
which it fulfills the requirement of the customer. It is not absolute but it judged or realized by
comparing it with some standards”.
Quality begins with the design of a product in accordance with the customer specification
further it involved the established measurement standards, the use of proper material,
selection of suitable manufacturing process etc., quality is a relative term and it is generally
used with reference to the end use of the product. Crosby defined as “Quality is conformance
to requirement or specifications”. Juran defined as “Quality is fitness for use”. “The Quality of a
product or service is the fitness of that product or service for meeting or exceeding its intended
use as required by the customer.”

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Quality means fitness for use.
•There are two general aspects of fitness for use: quality of design and quality of conformance
The quality of design is how well the product conforms to the specification required by the
design. These design differences include the types of materials Used in construction,
specifications on the components, reliability obtained through engineering development of
engines and drive trains, and other accessories or equipment.
Quality of conformance is influenced by a number of factors including the choice of
manufacturing processes, the training and supervision of the work force, the type of quality
assurance system used ( process controls, tests, inspection activities etc.,), the extent to which
these quality–assurance procedures are followed and the motivation of the workforce to
achieve quality.
 Webster’s Dictionary: degree of excellence of a thing
 More than average; more than “good enough”
 American Society for Quality:
According to the American Society for Quality, “quality” can be defined
in the following ways:
✔ Based on customer’s perceptions of a product/service’s design and how well the design
matches the original specifications.
✔ The ability of a product/service to satisfy stated or implied needs.
✔ Achieved by conforming to established requirements within an organization.

 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines quality as “the degree (of
excellence of a thing) to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements”
(ISO9000:2000).
Quality is simply defined as
Meeting the requirements of the customer.
Fitness for purpose or use.
The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability
to satisfy stated or implied needs
A degree of excellence
Conformance with requirements
The totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or
implied needs
Freedom from defects imperfections or contamination
Delighting customers
Dimensions of quality:
•The quality of a product can be evaluated in several ways.
•It is often very important to differentiate these different dimensions of quality.

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•Key points concerning these dimensions of quality as follows:
 Performance (will the product do the intended job?) Potential customers usually evaluate a
product to determine if it will perform certain specific functions and determine how well it
performs them. For example, you could evaluate spreadsheet software packages for a PC to
determine which data manipulation operations they perform. You may discover that one
outperforms another with respect to the execution speed.
 Reliability (how often does the product fail?) Complex products, such as many
appliances,automobiles,or airplanes,will usually require some repair over their service life.
For example, you should expect that an automobile will require occasional repair, but if the
car requires frequent repair, we say that it is unreliable. There are many industries in which
the customer’s view of quality is greatly impacted by the reliability dimension of quality.
 Durability (how long does the product last?) This is the effective service life of the product.
Customers obviously want products that perform satisfactorily over a long period of time.
The automobile and major appliance industries are examples of businesses where this
dimension of quality is very important to most customers.
 Serviceability (how easy is it to repair the product?) ) There are many industries in which
the customer’s view of quality is directly influenced by how quickly and economically a
repair or routine maintenance activity can be accomplished. Examples include the appliance
and automobile industries and many types of service industries (how long did it take a
credit card company to correct an error in your bill?)
 Aesthetics (what does the product look like?) This is the visual appeal of the product, often
taking into account factors such as style, color, shape, packaging alternatives, tactile
characteristics, and other sensory features. For example, soft-drink beverage manufacturers
have relied on the visual appeal of their packaging to differentiate their product from other
competitors.
 Features (what does the product do?) sually, customers associate high quality with products
that have added features; that is,those that have features beyond the basic performance of
the competition. For example, you might consider a spreadsheet software package to be of
superior quality if it had built-in statistical analysis features while its competitors did not.
 Perceived quality (what is the reputation of the company or its product?) In many cases,
customers rely on the past reputation of the company concerning quality of its products.
This reputation is directly influenced by failures of the product that are highly visible to the
public or that require product recalls, and by how the customer is treated when a quality-
related problem with the product is reported. Perceived quality, customer loyalty, and
repeated business are closely interconnected. For example, if you make regular business
trips using a particular airline, and the flight almost always arrives on time and the airline
company does not lose or damage your luggage, you will probably prefer to fly on that
carrier instead of its competitors.

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 Conformance to standards (is the product made exactly as the designer intended?) We
usually think of a high-quality product as one that exactly meets the requirements placed on
it. For example, how well does the hood fit on a new car? Is it perfectly flush with the
fender height, and is the gap exactly the same on all sides? Manufactured parts that do not
exactly meet the designer’s requirements can cause significant quality problems when they
are used as the components of a more complex assembly. An automobile consists of several
thousand parts. If each one is just slightly too big or too small, many of the components will
not fit together properly, and the vehicle (or its major subsystems) may not perform as the
designer intended.

Quality Management System (QMS):- Quality management can be defined as the total of
activities and decisions performed in an organization to produce and maintain a product with
desired quality levels against minimal costs. A QMS can therefore be defined as ‘management of
a system to ensure quality product’.
i. QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance is the set of activities that ensures the quality levels of products and services are
properly maintained and that supplier and customer quality issues are properly resolved.
Documentation of the quality system is an important component. Quality system documentation
involves four components: policy, procedures, work instructions and specifications, and records. Policy
generally deals with what is to be done and why, while procedures focus on the methods and personnel
that will implement policy. Work instructions and specifications are usually product-, department-, tool-,
or machine-oriented. Records are a way of documenting the policies, procedures, and work instructions
that have been followed. Records are also used to track specific units or batches of product, so that it
can be determined exactly how they were produced. Records are often vital in providing data for dealing
with customer complaints, corrective actions, and, if necessary, product recalls. Development,
maintenance, and control of documentation are important quality assurance functions. One example of
document control is ensuring that specifications and work instructions developed for operating
personnel reflect the latest design and engineering changes.

Is a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products and avoiding problems

when delivering solutions or services to customers.
QA is applied to physical products in pre-production to verify what will be made meets
specifications and requirements, and during manufacturing production runs by validating lot
samples meet specified quality controls.

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Two principles included in Quality Assurance are: "Fit for purpose", the product should be
suitable for the intended purpose; and "Right first time", mistakes should be eliminated. This is
also known as a ‘zero defects’ approach.
In quality assurance, there is more emphasis on ‘self-checking’, rather than checking by
inspectors. Advantages include:
 Costs are reduced because there is less wastage and re-working of faulty products as the
product is checked at every stage.
 It can help improve worker motivation as workers have more ownership and recognition
for their work.
 It can help break down ‘us and them’ barriers between workers and managers as it
eliminates the feeling of being checked up on.
 With all staff responsible for quality, this can help the firm gain marketing advantages
arising from its consistent level of quality.
 An overall management plan to guarantee the integrity of data (The “system”)
Quality assurance is defined as a procedures or a set of procedures intended to ensure that a
product or a service under development (before work is complete, as opposed to after words)
meets specified requirements. Quality assurance is sometimes expressed together with quality
control as a single expression quality assurance & quality control. In order to implement an
effective quality control program. An enterprise must first decide which specific standards the
product or service must be meet.
Quality is an essential ingredient in building successful businesses and marketing.
Not only do products and services need to be of high quality, but potential customers
also need to have assurance that the products will be of high quality.
Organizations that have developed a quality system have found that it is becoming a
vital part of their business strategy
The quality assurance system
 The organizational structure, the processes and procedures necessary to ensure that the
overall intentions and direction of an organization as regards quality are met and that the
quality of the product or service is assured.

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The history of quality assurance:
Quality Assurance Systems were first widely introduced during WWII.
There was a need to tighten controls on industry output, particularly in the military
industry.
These were initially just inspection and testing, and relied on catching the defects at the
end of the process.
As the demand for better quality and more reliable products and services increased, the
quality systems evolved to become the ISO 9000 series.
These now rely on PREVENTION RATHER THAN CURE, and are applicable to all
industries, including the construction industry.
The quality assurance standards:

In 1987 respected industry representatives from around the globe assisted the International
Standards Organization (ISO) to develop the ISO 9000 series of quality system standards.

These standards have been recognized and are in use in over 90 countries including the
United Kingdom, the European Community

The two most commonly used standards in the ISO 9000 series are ISO 9001 and ISO 9002:

 ISO 9001 sets out the requirements to be met by the Quality System when a business is
involved in design, development, production, and installation and/or servicing.
 ISO 9002 sets out the requirements of the QA system when a business is involved in
development, production, and installation and/or servicing.
As you can see, the only difference between the two standards is the "Design" element.
If a product fulfills the customer’s expectations, the customer will be pleased and consider
that the product is of acceptable or even high quality.
If his or her expectations are not fulfilled, the customer will consider that the product is of
low quality. This means that the quality of a product may be defined as “its ability to fulfill
the customer’s needs and expectations”.
Quality needs to be defined firstly in terms of parameters or characteristics, which vary
from product to product.

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For example, for a mechanical or electronic product these are performance, reliability,
safety and appearance. For pharmaceutical products, parameters such as physical and
chemical characteristics, medicinal effect, toxicity, taste and shelf life may be important. For
a food product they will include taste, nutritional properties, texture, and shelf life and so
on.
ii. Quality Control:
Quality control is the testing of completed products to uncover defects, and reporting to
management who make the decision to allow or deny the release of the product within the
broader Quality Management System

PRODUCT QUALITY

Should have precise limits of acceptability so that the production team can manufacture the
product strictly according to specification and drawings.

To achieve the above, those responsible for design, production and quality should be
consulted from the sales negotiation stage onwards. The overall design of any product is
made up of many individual characteristics.

For example these may be:

 Dimensions, such as length, diameter, thickness or area;
 Physical properties, such as weight, volume or strength;
 Electrical properties, such as resistance, voltage or current;
 Appearance, such as finish, color or texture;
 Functional qualities, such as output or kilometer or per litter;
 Effects on service, such as taste, feel or noise level.

Manufacturing drawings and specifications are prepared by the designers and these should
indicate to the production team precisely what quality is required and what raw materials
should be used.
Preparation for manufacture
After the design, including the manufacturing drawings, has been reviewed and finalized, it is
time to plan for manufacture. This will include the following steps:

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 A. Deciding on the method of manufacture. Methods must be devised that permit the
operators and processes to make the product in the quickest, easiest and most
foolproof way, including preparation of manufacturing instructions, setting up
procedures, listing various operations and so on;
B. Providing the necessary machines, plant, tooling and other equipment. Everything that is
required for manufacture must be selected, taking care that all the elements are
capable of achieving the standard of quality demanded;
C. Obtaining satisfactory raw materials. No one can make a good product from
unsatisfactory raw materials, so every material must have a precise written buying
specification so that the purchasing department can buy exactly what is required. Often
purchasers are expected to buy from suppliers who have been assessed and approved
by them and when supplies arrive the goods should be checked before acceptance into
stores. Quality requirements and manufacturing processes should be discussed with the
suppliers, as well as the inspection activities to be carried out by the purchaser on the
goods on arrival;
D. Obtaining and training suitable operators. Operators who are willing and able to do the
work in a satisfactory manner must be chosen and given whatever training they need;
E. Planning inspection and shop floor quality control.
 Plans for inspection activities should be prepared, proper workplaces provided for
inspection staff, written inspection Product quality:
 a guide for small and medium-sized enterprises procedures prepared, inspection
equipment provided, checking and calibration of inspection equipment planned for,
inspection personnel selected and trained and prepilot and pilot runs carried out.

One should never attempt to solve a quality problem by carrying out more inspections.
During Manufacturing process

Once the design and planning for manufacture have been completed, the manufacturing
can begin. If the planning has been well done, there should not be too many problems.
During manufacture the following are the most common factors that can affect quality:

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 A. Set-up. Some processes, such as punching, cutting, printing and labeling, are so
consistent that, if the initial set-up is correct, the whole lot will conform to the
specifications. However, the initial set-up has to be checked by carrying out first-piece
inspection;
B. Machines and tools. From time to time changes can occur in machine or tool settings,
which can then lead to defects. Processes of this type include machining, resistance
welding and filling. Here it is necessary to carry out periodic checks by patrol inspection;
C. Operator. There are some processes where the result depends on the skill and attention
of the operator, such as welding, hand soldering and painting processes. For such
processes it is necessary at the manufacture planning stage for the operator’s working
methods to be decided upon;
D. Materials and components. It is important to ensure the quality of raw materials and
components by undertaking regular checks on the suppliers’ processes and also where
necessary by carrying out incoming inspection.
REASONS FOR SETTING UP A QUALITY SYSTEM:
A well developed and implemented QA system should:
1. Improve your product and service quality
2. Give your customers confidence that their needs will be met.
3. Standardize your business by giving it a consistent approach to its operations
4. Improve work processes, efficiencies, morale and reduce waste
The benefits that businesses should derive from a properly implemented QA System are:
A. Improving customer satisfaction
B. Improving efficiency
C. Improving effectiveness
D. Reducing rework and waste
E. Creating a well-planned business
F. Adding credibility to the business
G. Enabling the business to compete on an equal basis with larger businesses

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TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Total quality management (TQM) is a strategy for implementing and managing quality
improvement activities on an organization wide basis. TQM began in the early 1980s, with the
philosophies of Deming and Juran as the focal point. It evolved into a broader spectrum of
concepts and ideas, involving participative organizations and work culture, customer focus,
supplier quality improvement, integration of the quality system with business goals, and many
other activities to focus all elements of the organization around the quality improvement goal.
Typically, organizations that have implemented a TQM approach to quality improvement have
quality councils or high-level teams that deal with strategic quality initiatives, workforce-level
teams that focus on routine production or business activities, and cross-functional teams that
address specific quality improvement issues.
TQM has only had moderate success for a variety of reasons, but frequently because there is
insufficient effort devoted to widespread utilization of the technical tools of variability
reduction. Many organizations saw the mission of TQM as one of training. Consequently, many
TQM efforts engaged in widespread training of the workforce in the philosophy of quality
improvement and a few basic methods. This training was usually placed in the hands of human
resources departments, and much of it was ineffective. The trainers often had no real idea
about what methods should be taught, and success was usually measured by the percentage of
the workforce that had been “trained,” not by whether any measurable impact on business
results had been achieved.
Now-a-days, customers demand products/services with greater durability and reliability at the
most economic price. This forces producers to strictly follow quality procedures right from
design till shipment and installation of the products. So that goal of any competitive industry is
to provide a product or service at the most economical costs, ensuring full customer
satisfaction. This can be achieved through
Total Quality Management (TQM), because, quality is not a technical function, but a systemic
process extending throughout all phases of the business, e.g., marketing, design, development,
engineering, purchasing, production/operations. As per Feigebaum, “Total Quality
Management is an effective system of integrating the quality development, quality
maintenance and quality improvement efforts of various groups in an organization so as to
enable marketing, engineering, production and service at the most economical levels which
allow for full customer satisfaction”.
Benefits of TQM
The benefits of TQM can be classified into the following two categories:
1. Customer satisfaction oriented benefits.
2. Economic improvements oriented benefits.
1. Customer satisfaction oriented benefits: The benefits under this category are
Listed below: this is for customer

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(a) Improvement in product quality.
(b) Improvement in product design.
(c) Improvement in production flow.
(d) Improvement in employee morale and quality consciousness.
(e) Improvement of product service.
(f) Improvement in market place acceptance.

2. Economic improvements oriented benefits: The benefits under this category are as follows:
(a) Reductions in operating costs.
(b) Reductions in operating losses.
(c) Reductions in field service costs.
(d) Reductions in liability exposure.
Objectives of TQM:
 Process improvement
 Defect prevention
 Priority of effort
 Developing cause-effect relationships
 Measuring system capacity
 Developing improvement checklist and check forms
 Helping teams make better decisions
 Developing operational definitions
 Separating trivial from significant needs
 Observing behavior changes over a period of time
TQM Tools
1. Quality Improvement Teams
2. Benchmarking
3. Statistical process control
4. Commitment
5. Training
1. Quality Improvement Teams

These are small groups of employees who work on solving specific problems related to
quality and productivity, often with stated targets for improvement.

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 Quality improvement teams are proving to be highly successful at tracking down the causes
of poor quality as well as taking remedial action.
2. Benchmarking
This is the process of identifying the best practices and approaches by comparing
productivity in specific areas within ones' own company to other organizations both within
and outside the industry.
3. Statistical process control
 This is a statistical technique that uses periodic random samples taken during actual
production to determine whether acceptable quality levels are being met or whether
production should be stopped in order to take remedial action.
 Because most processes produce some variation, statistical process control uses statistical
tests to determine when variations fall outside a narrow range around the acceptable
quality level.
4. Commitment

In order for the Eye on the Future Model to be a success, each member in an organization
must be committed to the change process.

It cannot be viewed as the new flavor of the month, but should rather be regarded as an
exciting life changing process.

If necessary inspirational speakers should be employed to enthuse staff to a new attitude of
commitment. Once again, people are lead by example.

 If it appears that management is not committed to the change process, this is the attitude
the people will develop. However, if commitment is perceived (supposed) to be the attitude
of management, then the people are most likely to follow.
5. Training
Training must be a part of the organizations succession planning.

In today's business environment any training which is less than visionary will not help the
organization meet its' future goals and objectives.

Training objectives must be supportive of the company's vision and mission.

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 In order to identify training, the employees must be involved.

System deficiencies including non-conformance reports, customer complaints and job

performance appraisals will highlight the most urgent areas for development.

Training programmes must be devised and implemented to help bridge the gap identified
previously.

The results of the training must be evaluated to ensure that effective improvement has
been achieved and that employees are competent to use the skills acquired.

Management must promote the need for continuous training, as it will facilitate the following:
1. Employees will be more confident and motivated in their work
2. Reduce staff turnover
3. Reduce errors
4. Improve productivity
5. Improve the organization competitiveness.

Training must help each individual in the organization to maintain a growing knowledge of
their business environment. It must be implemented to each individual, from the directors
to the cleaners (janitors).

1.1. Develop and agree upon Quality specifications

SPECIFICATIONS: A specification is the minimum requirement according to which a producer or
service provider makes and delivers the product and service to the customer. In setting specification
limits, the following should be considered:-
 The user’s and/or customer’s needs
 Requirements relating to product safety and health hazards provided for in the
statutory and regulatory requirements
 Requirements provided for in national and/or international standards
 The competitor’s product specifications, in order to gain marketing advantages
In designing the product, the capacity of processes and machines should be kept in mind. It is also
necessary to maintain a balance between cost and value realization. The clearer the specification, the
better the possibility of creating and delivering quality products.

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Quality characteristics covered by the specifications
Quality characteristics cover the following area:
 identification of the active substance(s);
 Evaluate of active substances (and also for herbal medicines, quantitative determination of
the constituents with known therapeutic activity);
 identification of colorants used,
 identification and assay (Evaluate) of antimicrobial agents or antioxidant preservatives
(with acceptance limits);
 purity tests (if necessary, the investigation of breakdown products, residual solvents or
other process related impurities, microbial contamination);

In order to determine the specifications of the finished product, the quality characteristics
related to the manufacturing process should be taken into account.

An appropriate specification for each aspect of quality studied during the phase of
development and during the validation of the manufacturing process should be determined.
PRINCIPLES FOR CONSIDERATION IN SETTING SPECIFICATIONS
Characterization
Acceptance criteria should be established and justified based on data obtained from lots used in
preclinical and/or clinical studies, data from lots used for demonstration of manufacturing
consistency and data from stability studies, and relevant development data.
At the time of submission, the product should have been compared with an appropriate
reference standard, if available.
When feasible and relevant, it should be compared with its natural counterpart. Also, at the
time of submission, the manufacturer should have established appropriately characterized in-
house reference materials which will serve for biological and physicochemical testing of
production lots.
New analytical technology and modifications to existing technology are continually being
developed and should be utilized when appropriate

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1.2. Document and introduce Quality specifications to organization staff / personnel in
accordance with the organization policy

Quality specifications should be documented and introduced to organization staff / personnel

in accordance with the organization policy.
Internal documentation and archiving

As part of general (Quality Control) QC procedures, it is good practice to document and archive
all information required to produce the national emissions inventory estimates.

This includes:
 Assumptions and criteria for selection of activity data and emission factors;
 Emission factors used, including references to the IPCC document for default factors or to
published
references or other documentation for emission factors used in higher tier methods;
• Activity data or sufficient information to enable activity data to be traced to the referenced
source;
• Information on the uncertainty associated with activity data and emission factors;
• Rationale for choice of methods;
• Methods used, including those used to estimate uncertainty;
• Changes in data inputs or methods from previous years;
1.3. Update Quality specifications when necessary

Quality specifications must be updated when necessary

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LO2. Identify hazards and critical control points
Identify Critical control points impacting on quality
Correction of quality deficiencies

In spite of all the efforts made, the required quality will sometimes not be attained and one
may be faced with a pile of scrap and rework.

This means that something has gone wrong during the quality planning and maybe also
during the manufacturing process. The reason for the trouble must be located and
permanently corrected so that it cannot happen again. The following are obvious
possibilities:
 The shop-floor operators had no clear idea what standard of quality was required;
 The method was such that it was very difficult to get the job right, but very easy to get
it wrong;
 The machine and equipment were incapable of achieving the tolerances required;
 The incoming materials and components were unsatisfactory;
 The operators were untrained and not up to the job;
Shop-floor quality control was either not properly planned or not properly executed, or
both.

2.2 Determine Degree of risk for each hazard

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Risk Assessment and Job Hazard Analysis

This is Fast Fact intended for use by managers, supervisors, workers and joint health and
safety committee members.

It outlines the steps in a risk assessment and provides details on completing a job hazard
analysis.

Identifying hazards and assessing the level of risk associated with those hazards is the most
important activity you perform every day, at work and away from work.

Effective health and safety management is based on a universal understanding of risks and
how to control them through good planning
A Risk Assessment (RA) is a process that:
 identifies hazards
 evaluates the risk of harm from those hazards
 implements measures to eliminate or control those hazards
 prioritizes occupations that require Job Hazard
Analysis
A Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) is a processthat:
 offers a step-by step approach to recognize, assess and control hazards and monitor
the ongoing effectiveness of controls
 systematically evaluates certain jobs, tasks or processes
 helps to eliminate or reduce risks or hazards in order to protect workers from injury or
illness
Part A – Steps in a Risk Assessment

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1. Inventory of Occupations select the occupation

Every department and/or position must be considered in order to conduct an effective

risk assessment. Create an inventory of occupations. A risk assessment should be
performed for all occupations.
2. Identify Job Tasks

Identify the job tasks within each occupation. This will provide you with an inventory of
all job tasks within all occupations from which you can evaluate risk.

Focus on hands-on work as opposed to administrative duties associated with each

occupation or major work assignment.
3. Evaluate Risks

Using frequency, probability and consequence as your guide, evaluate the risk of an
injury or illness occurring as a result of the job tasks within each occupation.

Think about the number of times that job task is done;

 Is it often, frequent or rarely performed?
 What are the consequences of something going wrong?
 What are the chances that something could happen?
 Think globally. Has this happened in another organization, community, province
or country?
4. Prioritize Job Tasks by Risk

Take all the job tasks you inventoried and prioritize them by risk. This will provide you
with an inventory of job tasks and help you to select the job tasks with the highest degree
of risk from all of the occupations at your organization. From this, you can develop an
action plan to complete your JHA’s in a systematic way based on risk.
5. Conduct the Job Hazard Analysis (JHA)

Conduct the JHA on the inventoried job tasks. It is recommended this be done as a team
effort with representatives from management, workers, the joint health and safety
committee (JHSC) or Health and Safety Representative (HSR), and expertise from a
qualified person where required. The use of safety professionals, occupational hygienists,

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 infection control specialists, etc. should be considered in the process. See Part B of this
Fast Fact for detailed steps in conducting a JHA.
6. Re-evaluate

This entire process should be a in a written procedure and a requirement to reevaluate on

a regular basis must be incorporated into the process.
Part B - Steps in a Job Hazard Analysis

Now that you have completed a prioritized inventory of job tasks, the next step is creating
a Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) for each job task. The JHA provides an analysis of each task
identifies the hazard with each job step and assists in the creation of a job procedure.

1. Select a job task from the inventory

 Always start with the highest priority job task; priority is assigned based on the risk
assessment.
2. Break the job down into its basic steps or tasks
 Observe and list all the main steps needed to perform the job. Some steps may not be
performed every time; however, if that step is generally part of the job it should be
listed.
 You should not have more than 15 steps in your job. If you do, combine steps, eliminate
unnecessary detail, or break the job into two procedures.
 To determine where a step begins or ends, look for a change of activity, change in
direction or movement.

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  Discuss documented information with the worker to ensure accuracy.
3. Identify ALL hazards present with each of the identified steps
 Include those produced by the environment or conditions and those connected with the
job procedure.
 Identify how someone completing the activity can get hurt, become ill, or how the
equipment used can become damaged.
 Consider hazard types and hazard sources.
Hazard Types:
 Chemical – gases, vapors, liquids, solids, plasma, dust, fume or mist.
 Biological – living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, mould, parasites and fungi.
 Physical – noise, vibration, electricity, heat and cold, pressure and radiation.
 Ergonomic – poorly designed equipment or work process which place undue strain on
the body by repetitive or strenuous activity.
 Psychosocial – risks of crime and violence and harassment in the workplace; production
pressures which can influence the pace of work.
 Safety – housekeeping, falls, pinch points, sharp points, sharp edges, moving
machinery, dropping items, pressure systems and fire and explosion.
Hazard Sources – a useful technique for analyzing and observing a job task is to consider:
 People – training, coaching, communication, education, hygiene practices.
 Equipment – protective equipment, repair and maintenance.
 Materials – correct use, adequate supply, repair and maintenance, storage.
 Environment – noise, air quality, lighting, physical layout , housekeeping.
 Process – work design, flow, reporting requirements, policies and procedures.
4. Assess risk
The following formula can be used to determine risk potential:
 Risk = Frequency x Probability x Consequences
 Frequency: There are two ways to look at frequency. One is to estimate how often the
job task is done. Another is to determine how often an injury or illness has resulted
from performing the job task.

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  Probability: Look for the probability of loss – which may come in the forms of:
 injury
 incident
 illness
 property damage
 loss of production
 loss of money etc.
 Consequences: Ask yourself “what’s the worst thing that can happen?” When
determining consequences, assume controls are not in place for the initial assessment.
 Controls should be considered later in the process of completing the Job Hazard
Analysis. Illustrating the risk reduction as a result of implementing controls is an
important component of your risk assessment process.
5. Determine control measures
 Decide what actions or procedures are necessary to eliminate or minimize the hazards
identified that could lead to an incident, injury or occupational illness.
 Options include:
 At the Source: elimination, substitution, redesign, isolation, automation
 Along the Path: relocation, barriers, absorption, dilution
 At the Worker: administrative controls, orientation, training and supervision, work
procedures, emergency planning, housekeeping, hygiene practices, personal
protective equipment

Begin by trying to:

A. Eliminate, substitute or isolate the hazard
If you have tried all options listed above then your next steps are to:
B. Engineer the hazard out
C. Provide guards, safety devices, etc.
D. Provide personal protective equipment
E. Provide job instructions and training
F. Maintain good housekeeping

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 G. Ensure good ergonomics (positioning the person in relation to the machine or other
elements in such a way to improve safety)
6. Assess the risk again

Review your JHA for accuracy and completeness. Determine if the recommended actions
or procedures have been put in place. Re-evaluate the JHA on a regular basis.
7. Develop job procedures

Job procedures should be developed from the recommended control measures.

8. Communicate the job procedures

Communicate job procedures to all staff affected by a particular job task (supervisor,
employee, and contractor) and monitor for continued effectiveness of controls.
Accomplish Necessary documentation in accordance with organization quality procedures

Necessary documentation must be a accomplished in accordance with organization

quality procedures

LO3. Assist in planning of quality assurance procedures

Quality improvement is the reduction of variability in processes and products Excessive
variability in process performance often results in waste. For example, consider the wasted
money, time, and effort that is associated with the repairs represented Therefore, an alternate
and frequently very useful definition is that quality improvement is the reduction of waste.
This definition is particularly effective in service industries, where there may not be as many
things that can be directly measured (like the transmission critical dimensions). In service
industries, a quality problem may be an error or a mistake, the correction of which requires
effort and expense. By improving the service process, this wasted effort and expense can be
avoided.
Quality Improvement for Manufacturing and Production
There are many avenues/ways manufacturers take to become more attractive to their
customers. They lower their prices even though it hurts their margins. They increase costly
inventory to ensure they have product on hand when their customers order. They may even try
to leverage their relationships to ensure business keeps coming. There are many paths to short-
term customer satisfaction success, but only one can sustainably make manufacturers a go-to
supplier: high quality products at a reasonable cost. Typical benefits of Quality Improvement
include:

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  Less warranty cost
 Less scrap and rework
 Fewer Internal Defects
 Proactive Quality Organizational Culture
 Lower Cost of Quality & focus on proactive quality efforts
 Higher Customer Satisfaction based on Quality & Proactive
 More effective Quality Management System and Certification Support
 Classification of defects for quality
Most buyers separate defects into three types based on the standard definition commonly used
by third party inspection companies as follows (here are more examples):
 A critical defect is likely to result in hazardous or unsafe conditions for individuals using
or maintaining the product.
 A major defect is one, other than critical, that is likely to result in failure, or to reduce the
usability of the unit of product for its intended purpose.
 A minor defect is not likely to reduce the usability of the product for its intended
purpose.
Buyers can change the definition of critical, major and minor defects based on its own
requirement and quality expectations. In this case, it is necessary to inform the supplier and the
inspection company at the order confirmation.
To supporting product to drive forward quality and implementing best practice in
manufacturing / services there are three systems:
 Engaging with Quality plan;
 Engaging with Quality in Primary product; and
 Closing the Gap through experimental (PDSA)
Fundamental Factors Affecting Quality
The nine fundamental factors (9 M’s), which are affecting the quality of products and services,
are: markets, money, management, men, motivation, materials, machines and mechanization.
Modern information methods and mounting product requirements.
1. Market: Because of technology advancement, we could see many new products to satisfy
customer wants. At the same time, the customer wants are also changing dynamically. So, it is
the role of companies to identify needs and then meet it with existing technologies or by
developing new technologies.
2. Money: The increased global competition necessitates huge outlays for new equipment and
process. This should be rewarded by improved productivity. This is possible by minimizing
quality costs associated with the maintenance and improvements of quality level.
3. Management: Because of the increased complex structure of business organization, the
quality related responsibilities lie with persons at different levels in the organization.
4. Men: The rapid growth in technical knowledge leads to development of human resource with

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different specialization. This necessitates some groups like, system engineering group to
integrate the idea of full specialization.
5. Motivation: If we fix the responsibility of achieving quality with each individual in the
organization with proper motivation techniques, there will not be any problem in producing the
designed quality products.
6. Materials: Selection of proper materials to meet the desired tolerance limit is also an
important consideration. Quality attributes like, surface finish, strength, diameter etc., can be
obtained by proper selection of material.
7. Machines and mechanization: In order to have quality products which will lead to higher
productivity of any organization, we need to use advanced machines and mechanize various
operations.
8. Modern information methods: The modern information methods help in storing and
retrieving needed data for manufacturing, marketing and servicing.
9. Mounting product requirements: Product diversification to meet customers taste leads to
intricacy in design, manufacturing and quality standards. Hence, companies should plan
adequate system to tackle all these requirements.
The process through which the standards are established and met with standards is called
control. This process consists of observing our activity performance, comparing the
performance with some standard and then taking action if the observed performance is
significantly too different from the standards.
The control process involves a universal sequence of steps as follows:
1. Choose the control object
2. Choose a unit of measure
3. Set the standard value
4. Choose a sensing device which can measure
5. Measure actual performance
6. Interpret the difference between actual and standard
7. Taking action.
HUMAN FACTORS IN PRODUCT QUALITY
It is commonly believed that most quality problems are caused primarily by lack of interest or
care on the part of the worker in the production department. However, it is usually not the
worker who can be blamed for this, since the conditions necessary to carry out the work
correctly often do not exist. For example, instructions may be inadequate, the incoming
material may be defective, the machines may not be capable of producing goods of the
required quality, and proper conditions for conducting inspection of the product are not given
to the workers and so on.
In Japan, it is generally believed that 40% of quality problems are caused by poor product
design, 30% of quality problems are caused by wrong or defective materials being purchased

24
from suppliers and the remaining 30% are due to errors made during the manufacturing
process.
Both design and purchase problems can be solved only by intervention of the management and
workers have no control over them. One could argue that the remaining quality problems in
manufacturing are caused in equal proportion by managers (by not providing adequate training
for workers) and by workers (e.g. by not paying adequate attention to machine settings).
Thus 85% of problems come under management control, whereas 15% are under worker
control. Here too the worker can only be held responsible for the defects if:
 He or she knows what he or she is supposed to do
 He or she knows the result of his or her own work
 He or she has the means to influence the result.
There is another method that product quality can be improved through propaganda and other
motivational activities. This is based on the false assumption that human errors are primarily
the result of lack of interest or care on the part of the people involved. Experience shows that
considerably better results can be achieved if instead it is ensured that the proper conditions
exist for doing good work or getting things right the first time, for example:
 The product specification must be clear and unambiguous
 The technical conditions must be such as to enable the quality requirements to be
met, for example, the materials must be appropriate for the work and the machines
must be capable of producing the required quality. Everyone must know what to do
to prevent poor work.
 Everyone must know the consequences of poor work for the organization. For an
organization to reach an adequate standard of quality, the people at all levels must
cooperate actively. This means continuous staff development. The Japanese
“revolution in quality” is largely the result of comprehensive education and training
aimed at all functions and levels, from the top management to the worker level
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality Control (QC) may be defined as a system that is used to maintain a desired level of
quality in a product or service. It is a systematic control of various factors that affect the quality
of the product. It depends on materials, tools, machines, type of labor, working conditions etc.
QC is a broad term, it involves inspection at particular stage but mere inspection does not mean
QC. As opposed to inspection, in quality control activity emphasis is placed on the quality future
production. Quality control aims at prevention of defects at the source, relies on effective
feedback system and corrective action procedure.
Quality control uses inspection as a valuable tool. According to Juran “Quality control is the
regulatory process through which we measure actual quality performance, compare it with
standards, and act on the difference”. Another definition of quality control is from ANSI/ASQC
standard (1978) quality control is defined as “The operational techniques and the activities

25
which sustain a quality of product or service that will satisfy given needs; also the use of such
techniques and activities”. Alford and Beatty define QC as “In the broad sense, quality control is
the mechanism by which products are made to measure up to specifications determined from
customers, demands and transformed into sales engineering and manufacturing requirements,
it is concerned with making things right rather than discovering and rejecting those made
wrong”.
All processes can be monitored and brought ‘under control’ by gathering and using data. This
refers to measurements of the performance of the process and the feedback required for
corrective action, where necessary. Once we have established that our process is ‘in control’
and capable of meeting the requirements, we can address the next question: ‘Are we doing the
job correctly? Which brings a requirement to monitor the process and the controls on it?
Managers are in control only when they have created a system and climate in Which their
subordinates can exercise control over their own processes – in other words, the operator of
the process has been given the ‘tools’ to control it.
If we now re-examine the first question: ‘Have we done it correctly?’ we can see that, if we
have been able to answer both of the questions: ‘Can we do it correctly?’ (Capability) and ‘Are
we doing it correctly? (Control) with a ‘yes’, we must have done the job correctly – any other
outcome would be illogical. By asking the questions in the right order, we have removed the
need to ask the ‘inspection’ question and replaced a strategy of detection with one of
prevention. This concentrates attention on the front end of any process – the inputs – and
changes the emphasis to making sure the inputs are capable of meeting the requirements of
the process. This is a managerial responsibility and these ideas apply to every transformation
process, which must be subjected to careful and detail examine of the methods, the people, the
skills, the equipment and so on to make sure they are correct for the job.
Note. A process is the transformation of a set of inputs, which can include materials, actions,
methods and operations, into desired outputs, in the form of products, information, services or
generally results.
In each area or function of an organization there will be many processes taking place. Each
process may be analyzed by an examination of the inputs and outputs. This will determine the
action necessary to improve quality
Types of Quality Control
QC is not a function of any single department or a person. It is the primary responsibility of any
supervisor to turn out work of acceptable quality. Quality control can be divided into three
main sub-areas, those are:

1. Off-line quality control,

2. Statistical process control and
3. Acceptance sampling Plans.

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1. Off-line quality control: activities relate to the activities employed before the manufacturing
/production process is actually set up. These activities are usually associated with process and product
design in the development cycle. Its procedure deal with measures to select and choose
controllable product and process parameters in such a way that the deviation between the
product or process output and the standard will be minimized. Much of this task is
accomplished through product and process design.
Example: Taguchi method, principles of experimental design etc.
2. Statistical process control: SPC involves comparing the output of a process or a service with
a standard and taking remedial actions in case of a discrepancy between the two. It also
involves determining whether a process can produce a product that meets desired specification
or requirements. On-line SPC means that information is gathered about the product, process,
or service while it is functional. The corrective action is taken in that operational phase. This is
real-time basis.
3. Acceptance sampling plans: is generally used to sort good products from bad. As the process is
approaching line qualification, requirements, which generally come for quality assurance organization,
are given to the manufacturing engineer to demonstrate that the line is able to provide a good product
and that process controls are in place to prevent problems. A plan that determines the number of
items to sample and the acceptance criteria of the lot, based on meeting certain stipulated
conditions (such as the risk of rejecting a good lot or accepting a bad lot) is known as an
acceptance sampling plan.

Steps in Quality Control

Following are the steps in quality control process:
1. Formulate quality policy.
2. Set the standards or specifications on the basis of customer’s preference, cost and profit.
3. Select inspection plan and set up procedure for checking.
4. Detect deviations from set standards of specifications.
5. Take corrective actions or necessary changes to achieve standards.
6. Decide on salvage method i.e., to decide how the defective parts are disposed of, neither
entire scrap nor rework.
7. Coordination of quality problems.
8. Developing quality consciousness both within and outside the organization.
9. Developing procedures for good vendor-vendee relations.
Objectives of quality control:
1. To improve the companies income by making the production more acceptable to the
customers, i.e., by providing long life, greater usefulness, maintainability etc.
2. To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses due to defects.

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3. To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large scale production.
4. To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
5. To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or services or high quality level, to build
customer goodwill, confidence and reputation of manufacturer.
6. To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
7. To check the variation during manufacturing.
The broad areas of application of quality control are incoming material control, process control
and product control.

QC TOOLS THROUGH PDCA-CYCLE

In successful application of quality tools an implemented quality management system is an
advantage. The quality management principles are a starting point for the company’s
management striving for continuous efficiency improvement over a long period of time and
customer satisfaction. A quality management system is based on the integrity of all production
and support resources of a certain company. It enables a faultless process flow in meeting
related contracts, standards and market quality requirements. Implementation of a quality
management system is always a part of a company’s development process, having a quality
management system in place is a prerequisite for its successful application on a day-to-day
basis. The management has to show commitment to development and improvement of a
quality management system.
Through a quality management system the company’s leadership Implements their quality
policy. Furthermore, a quality management system has to be well documented. When in
function, the quality management system provides useful information obtained by different
process analyses and audits. If a company’s focus is on the customer, the company has to select
the most efficient ways of data acquisition and market survey to confirm that the company’s
products or services meet customer demands and expectations. The gathered information is
invaluable in the decision making process based on fact. Data collection and analysis is also
significant in defining opportunities for further processes and product quality improvement.
Continuous improvement as a fifth principle of QMS (ISO 9001:2000) could not be realized
without quality tools which are presented through four groups of activities of Deming’s quality
cycle or PDCA-cycle, The PDCA-cycle is an integral part of process Management and is designed
to be used as a dynamic model because one cycle represents one Complete step of
improvement.

The PDCA-cycle is used to coordinate continuous improvement efforts. It emphasizes and

demonstrates that improvement programs must start with careful planning, must result in
effective action, and must move on again to careful planning in a continuous cycle – the
Deming’s quality cycle is never-ending. It is a strategy used to achieve breakthrough

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improvements in safety, quality, morale, delivery cost, and other critical business objectives.

The completion of one cycle continues with the beginning of the next. A PDCA-cycle
Consists of four consecutive steps or phases, as follows:
Plan - analysis of what needs to be improved by taking into consideration areas that hold
opportunities for change. Decision on what should be changed.
Do - implementation of the changes that are decided on in the Plan step.
Check - Control and measurement of processes and products in accordance to changes made in
previous steps and in accordance with policy, goals and requirements on products. Report on
results.
Act - Adoption or reaction to the changes or running the PDCA-cycle through again. Keeping
improvement on-going.
The main purpose of PDCA-cycle application lies in process improvement. When process
improvement starts with careful planning, it results in corrective and preventive actions
supported by appropriate quality assurance tools which lead to true process improvement. The
application of the seven basic quality tools in correlation with four steps of PDCA-cycle
Other good practices
While the above seven quality control tools can help operators and supervisors to monitor
their processes and find the causes of variations, there are other simple practices that have
been very successfully practiced in Japanese industry. They are:
 Japanese 5S
 Quality circle
 Kaizen
1. Japanese 5S
5S is the name of a workplace organization method that uses a list of five Japanese words:
Transliterated into Roman script, they all start with the letter The list describes how to organize
a work space for efficiency and effectiveness by identifying and storing the items used,
maintaining the area and items, and sustaining the new order. The decision-making process
usually comes from a dialogue about standardization, which builds understanding among

29
employees of how they should do the work.
Japanese factories are reputed for their cleanliness and orderliness. They follow the well-
known “5S” practice, which refers to the following five Japanese words:
Sort; is used to identify what is needed, when and how often
This means separating things that are necessary for the job from those which are not, or
keeping the number (inventory) of necessary ones as low as possible and at a convenient
location. In other words, unnecessary items in the workplace should be sorted out and
discarded.
Set In Order … to ensure that things are available where and when they are needed – and
things that are not needed are removed

 Arrange all necessary items so that they can be easily selected for use.
 Prevent loss and waste of time by arranging work station in such a way that all tooling /
equipment is in close proximity.
 Make it easy to find and pick up necessary items.
 Make workflow smooth and easy.
 All of the above work should be done on a regular basis.
 Maintain safety.
The necessary items should be arranged in good order so that they can be easily picked out
for use. In other words, a place for everything and everything in its place.
Shine … ensuring things are clean, in good working order and ready to use
 Clean your workplace on daily basis completely or set cleaning frequency
 Use cleaning as inspection.
 Prevent machinery and equipment deterioration.
 Keep workplace safe and easy to work.
 Keep workplace clean and pleasing to work in.
Standardize … establishing systems that make the first three steps part of routine practice
 Standardize the best practices in the work area.
 Maintain high standards in workplace organization at all times.
 Maintain orderliness. Maintain everything in order and according to its standard.
 Everything in its right place.
Sustain … sometimes the hardest step, ensuring that these practices are maintained and the
improvements in productivity are ongoing.
 Not harmful to anyone.
 Also translates as "do without being told".
 Perform regular audits.
 Training and discipline

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A workplace with good habits should be created. Training should be given to everyone who
needs it and everyone should put their training into practice.
2. QUALITY CIRCLES
The quality circles begun in Japan in 1960s. The concept of quality circles is based on the
participating style of management. It assumes that productivity will improve through an uplift
of morale and motivations which are in turn achieved through consultation and discussion in
informal groups. One organizational mechanism for worker participation in quality is the quality
circle. It is typically an informal group of people that consists of operators, supervisors,
managers and so on who get together to improve ways to make the product or deliver the
service.
According to Juran, quality circle defined as “a group of work force level people, usually from
within one department, who volunteer to meet weekly (on company time) to address quality
problems that occur within their department.”
Quality circle members select the problems and are given training is problem-solving
techniques. A quality circle can be an effective productivity improvement tool because it
generates new ideas and implements them. Where the introduction of quality circle is capably
planned and where the company environment is supporting they are highly successful.
The benefits fall into two categories: those are measurable saving and improvement in the
attitudes and behavior of people. Quality circles pursue two types of problems, those
concerned with the personal well-being of the worker and those concerned with the well-being
of company.

Benefits of QC
The most important benefit of quality circles is their effect on people’s attitudes fall into three
categories:
1. Quality Circles Effect on Individual Characteristics
(a) Quality circles enable the individual to improve personal capabilities—group participation
and learning specific problem-solving tools.
(b) Quality circles increase the individual’s self-respect.
(c) Quality circles help worker change certain personality characteristics—shy person become
as active.
2. Quality Circles Effect on Individuals Relations with Other
(a) Quality circles increase the respect of the supervisor for the worker.
(b) Quality circles increase workers understanding of the difficulties faced by supervisors’
problem selection, solving and implementations.
(c) Quality circle increase management’s respect for worker.
3. Quality Circles Effect on Workers and Their Attributes

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(a) Quality circles change some workers negative attitudes.
(b) Quality circle reduces conflict stemming from the working environment.
(c) Quality circles help workers to understand better the reasons while many problems solved
quickly.
Quality circles, as a management tool, are based on the following basic principles of people:
(a) People want to do a good job.
(b) People want to be recognized as intelligent, interested employees and to participate in
decisions affecting their work.
(c) People want information to better understand goals and problems of their organization and
make informed decisions.
(d) Employees want recognition and responsibility and a feeling of self-esteem. Motivational
methods are not enough for successful quality circle programs. Management support, technical
knowledge, and statistical procedures are essential.
3. Kaizen.
Kaizen means improvement, continuous improvement involving everyone in the organization
from top management, to managers then to supervisors, and to workers. In Japan, the concept
of Kaizen is so deeply engrained in the minds of both managers and workers that they often do
not even realize they are thinking Kaizen as a customer-driven strategy for improvement This
philosophy assumes according Imai that ‘’our way of life – be it our working life, our social life
or our home life – deserves to be constantly improved’’
There is a lot of controversy in the literature as well as the industry as to what Kaizen signifies.
Meaning of the Japanese words ‘Kai’ and ‘Zen’, which translate roughly into ‘to break apart and
investigate’ and ‘to improve upon the existing situation’. The Kaizen Institute defines Kaizen as
the Japanese term for continuous improvement.

Kaizen emphasizes that the process is the target and employees can provide improvements by
understanding how their jobs fit into the process and changing it.
It is achieved by breaking down a process to find ways to make it better. It includes:
• observing the process

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Quality inspection
The act of monitoring or observing (usually involving sampling and related sampling plans), a
process, procedures or services to ensure compliance with operational definition and to ensure
that all customers’ requirements or internal pre-requisites are meet. Visual inspection, physical
inspection, ongoing inspection and finishing product inspection
 Advantages - inspection is intended to prevent faulty products reaching the customer.
This approach means having specially trained inspectors, rather than every individual
being responsible for his or her own work.
 Disadvantages – individuals are not necessarily encouraged to take responsibility for the
quality of their own work. Giving workers responsibility for their own work helps to
improve motivation by increasing the interest and variety in the job, so quality
assurance tends to be preferred for this reason as well.

Inspection is an important tool to achieve quality concept. It is necessary to assure confidence

to manufacturer and aims satisfaction to customer. Inspection is an indispensable tool of
modern manufacturing process. It helps to control quality, reduces manufacturing costs,
eliminate scrap losses and assignable causes of defective work.
The inspection and test unit is responsible for appraising the quality of incoming raw materials
and components as well as the quality of the manufactured product or service. It checks the
components at various stages with reference to certain predetermined factors and detecting
and sorting out the faulty or defective items. It also specified the types of inspection devices to
use and the procedures to follow to measure the quality characteristics. Inspection only
measures the degree of conformance to a standard in the case of variables. In the case of
attributes inspection merely separates the nonconforming from the conforming. Inspection
does not show why the nonconforming units are being produced.
Inspection is the most common method of attaining standardization, uniformity and quality of
workmanship. It is the cost art of controlling the production quality after comparison with the
established standards and specifications. It is the function of quality control. If the said item
does not fall within the zone of acceptability it will be rejected and corrective measure will be
applied to see that the items in future conform to specified standards.
Objectives of Inspection
1. To detect and remove the faulty raw materials before it undergoes production.
2. To detect the faulty products in production whenever it is detected.
3. To bring facts to the notice of managers before they become serous to enable them discover
weaknesses and over the problem.
4. To prevent the substandard reaching the customer and reducing complaints.
5. To promote reputation for quality and reliability of product.

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Purpose of Inspection
1. To distinguish good lots from bad lots.
2. To distinguish good pieces from bad pieces.
3. To determine if the process is changing.
4. To determine if the process is approaching the specification limits.
6. To rate accuracy of inspectors.
7. To measure the precision of the measuring instrument.
8. To secure products-design information.
9. To measure process capability.
Types of Inspection
Types of inspection are:
1. Floor inspection
2. Centralized inspection
3. Combined inspection
4. Functional inspection
5. First piece inspection
6. Pilot piece inspection
Floor inspection
In this system, the inspection is performed at the place of production. It suggests the checking
of materials in process at the machine or in the production time by patrolling inspectors. These
inspectors move from machine to machine and from one to the other work centers. Inspectors
have to be highly skilled. This method of inspection minimize the material handling, does not
disrupt the line layout of machinery and quickly locate the defect and readily offers field and
correction.
Advantages
1. Detection of errors of the source reduces scrap and rework.
2. Correction is done before it affects further production, resulting in saving cost of unnecessary
work on defective parts.
3. Material handling time is reduced.
4. Job satisfaction to worker as he can’t be held responsible for bad work at a later date.
5. Greater number of pieces can be checked than a sample size.
6. Does not delay in production.
Disadvantages
1. Delicate instruments can be employed.
2. Measuring or inspection equipment have to be recalibrated often as they are subjected to
wear or dust.
3. High cost of inspection because of numerous sets of inspections and skilled inspectors.
4. Supervision of inspectors is difficult due to vibration.

34
5. Pressure on inspector.
6. Possibility of biased inspection because of worker.
Centralized inspection
Inspection is carried in a central place with all testing equipment; sensitive equipment is housed
in air-conditioned area. Samples are brought to the inspection floor for checking. Centralized
inspection may locate in one or more places in the manufacturing industry.
Advantages
1. Greater degree of inspection due to sensitive equipment.
2. Less number of inspectors and tools.
3. Equipment needs less frequency of recalibration.
4. Cost of inspection is reduced.
5. Unbiased inspection.
6. Supervision of inspectors made possible.
7. No distraction to the inspector.
Disadvantages
1. Defects of job are not revealed quickly for prevention.
2. Greater material handling.
3. High cost as products are subjected to production before they are prevented.
4. Greater delay in production.
5. Inspection of heavy work not possible.
6. Production control work is more complicated.
7. Greater scrap.
Combination of two methods whatever may be the method of inspection, whether floor or
central. The main objective is to locate and prevent defect which may not repeat itself in
subsequent operation to see whether any corrective measure is required and finally to maintain
quality economically.
Functional inspection
This system only check for the main function, the product is expected to perform. Thus an
electrical motor can be checked for the specified speed and load characteristics. It does not
reveal the variation of individual parts but can assure combined satisfactory performance of all
parts put together. Both manufacturers and purchasers can do this, if large number of articles is
needed at regular intervals. This is also called assembly inspection.
First piece or first-off inspections
First piece of the shift or lot is inspected. This is particularly used where automatic machines are
employed. Any discrepancy from the operator as machine tool can be checked to see that the
product is within in control limits. Excepting for need for precautions for tool we are check and
disturbance in machine set up, this yields good result if the operator is careful.
Pilot piece inspection

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This is done immediately after new design or product is developed. Manufacturer of product is
done either on regular shop floor if production is not disturbed. If production is affected to a
large extent, the product is manufactured in a pilot plant. This is suitable for mass production
and
Products involving large number of components such as automobiles aero planes etc., and
modification are design or manufacturing process is done until satisfactory performance is
assured or established.
Final inspection
This is also similar to functional or assembly inspection. This inspection is done only after
completion of work. This is widely employed in process industries where there are not possible
such as, electroplating or anodizing products. This is done in conjunction with incoming
material inspection.
Methods of Inspection
There are two methods of inspection. They are: 100% inspection and sampling inspection.
1. 100% INSPECTION
This type will involve careful inspection in detail of quality at each strategic point or stage of
manufacture where the test is involved is non-destructive and every piece is separately
inspected.
It requires more number of inspectors and hence it is a costly method. There is no sampling
error. This is subjected to inspection error arising out of fatigue, negligence, difficulty of
supervision etc.
Hence, completer accuracy of influence is seldom attained. It is suitable only when a small
number of pieces are there or a very high degree of quality is required.
Example: Jet engines, aircraft, medical scientific equipment.

2. SAMPLING INSPECTION
In this method randomly selected samples are inspected. Samples taken from different patches
of products are representatives. If the sample proves defective, the entire concerned is to be
rejected or recovered. Sampling inspection is cheaper and quicker. It requires less number of
Inspectors. It is subjected to sampling errors but the magnitude of sampling error can be
estimated. In the case of destructive test, random or sampling inspection is desirable. This type
of inspection governs wide currency due to the introduction of automatic machines or
equipment’s which are less susceptible to chance variable and hence require less inspection,
suitable for inspection of products which have less precision importance and are less costly.
Example: Electrical bulbs, radio bulbs, washing machine etc.

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