UNIT 4 POLICY MAKING PROCESSES

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Policy Making Environment
4.4 Societal Elements
4.4.1 Public Opinion
4.4.2 Media
4.4.3 Pressure Groups
4.4.4 Political Parties

4.5 State Institutions

4.5.1 Parliament
4.5.2 The Executive
4.5.3 The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
4.5.4 Other Departments

4.6 Summary
4.7 Exercises
4.8 Suggested Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Formulation of foreign policy, in some sense, is not too different from making public policy in the domestic
arena. However, as public policies are crafted to deal with domestic matters - be it social, economic or
cultural, formulation of such policies are largely subjected to the issues and demands arising from domestic *
constituencies.To that extent an array of domestic pressures conditions them. In the realm of foreign policy,
while domestic constituencies bring to bear on its formulation, external forces and circumstances influence it.
In other words, the international community has direct interest in aspects of the given foreign policy ofthe
country in question. Therefore, each country while formulating its foreign policy has to balance carefully the
domestic pressures against forces emanating from outside. In another respect foreign policy is different frorn
domestic policy formulation because its implementation being outside the country, its efficacy largely depends
on co-operation that a given country can muster in implementing its policies.
Seen in this perspective, Australian government like many other parliamentary democracies looks in two
directions while formulating its foreign poli~y.On the one hand is the global order with its built-in array clf
political, military, economic, and other pressures that constantly compete to influence the country's foreign
policy agenda. On the other hand, no less is the influence of the domestic or internal forces within which the
foreign policy making establishment in the country has to reorder and set its foreign policy objectives and
priorities. It is against these parameters, that any country has to make the choice in dealing with issues in the
realm of its foreign affairs.
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Keeping these in focus, this Unit attempts a descriptive analysis of how Australia's foreign policy is formulated
and implemented. In doing so, the Unit explores the prevalent policy-making environment in Australia and the
elements that make the environment.Further, it will describe the organisational set up and the antecedents c ~ f
the Australian foreign policy establishment, its structure and the way it gathers and incorporates the viems
and perceptions of the different constituencies both in the domestic and foreign arenas that help shape il s
foreign relations.
 4.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

1) understand the role of domestic variables and international environment in the formulation of a nation's
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foreign policy;

2) discuss the structure, process and implementationsofAustralia's Foreign Policy;

3) examine the impact of societal factors on Australia's Foreign Policy making with a particular focus on
the role of public opinion, media, pressure groups and political parties; and

4) analyse the role of different institutions and agencies in the formulation ofAustralia's Foreign Policy,
such as Parliament, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Department of Prime Minister's, Cabinet;
Department of (Aus Aid); Australia Trade Commission and Australian Security Agencies.

4.3 POLICY MAKING ENVIRONMENT

By all accounts, Australia is not a major power comparable to the countries of Western Europe or the United
States. To that extent the scope of its policy initiatives are without doubt somewhat limited. The elements of
geography, demography and the economy of Australia together with its placement - both geo-physical and
geo-political - in the global setting admittedly has set limits to its ability to initiate and pursue an independent
foreign policy. Yet, there is what may be called the mainstream Australian culture, in part inherited from the
British and in part evolved over the long history since federation which has given the people of Australia a
sense of national identity. These values and identity are no less significant and do provide needed directives
and guidelines in the formulation of its foreign policy.
Australia's democratic system of government, largely the legacy of inherited as well as acquired values and
identity, has encouraged an open and pluralist model of policy formulation both in the national and international
contexts. The making of foreign policy in Australia, therefore, is a long process composed of a number of
interlocking variables, which, as has been stated earlier, are factored on the inherent as also the changing
values of the Australian society. Not only is the range of these variables extensive, but also their impact on
the policy process changes from time to time.

Any consideration of foreign policy making in countries such as Australia, therefore, necessarily calls for a
review of these divergent influences that emanate from the societal level to the state apparatus. At the
societal level a variety of elements such as public opinion, the views and perceptions of the mainstream
media, powerful pressure groups and, above all, the political parties - national and regional - exert considerable
influence on the policy formulation. And at the state level, constitutionallyestablished organs of the government
such as the parliament and the executive and its bureaucratic instruments give the final shape to the set of
policies for implementation. At each ofthe levels the different elements ofthe society and the institutions of
the government constantly interact which in the final analysis give the shape and the content of the policy. In
other words, it is a continuoustwo way process rather than simply either the society or the state determining
the content and contours of the policy framework.
Keeping these in view, the following sub-sections attempt a descriptive analysis delineating the different
elements and entities that influence policy choices and formulation both at the societal and state levels.

4.4 SOCIETAL ELEMENTS

In all democratic societies, the perceptions and aspirations of the general citizenry do reflect the policies
pursued. In other words, the way the larger community looks at foreign policy issues certainly impact on
policy choices. When governmentsdevelop policies they tend to take into consideration the general perceptions
of the public. To that extent, the attitudes and beliefs of the public obviously set the broad parameters for
policy formulation.

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4.4.1 Public Opinion
In discussing public opinion, distinction has to be made between the opinion of the general masses and that of
the elite. In contrast to that of the general public, the elite exert more often direct and significant influence oc
policy formulation by virtue of their position. By and large, the elite is composed of key members of the
government, the opposition leaders, opinion makers in the media, the business community and other pressure
groups. However, the elite opinion is evolved within the loose framework provided by the foreign policy mood
of the general public. Yet, on occasions, specific issues -be it political or economic -may be dealt with t)y
the government on the basis of elite opinion alone. On larger issues such as, for instance, involvement in
major wars like the Vietnam war or Australia's involvement in the war on Iraq, unless public opinion is
supportive, it will be quite difficult for the government to take a decision on its own. But public opinion
changes with changing times. At the time of Federation, Australia was largely composed of white Australians
who saw themselves as a European outpost in a potentially hostile regional environment. In the earlier years,
Australian public opinion, therefore, was quite supportive of Australia's reliance on the British Empire and
subsequently the American alliance against the perceived threats emanating from Asia. However, since the
end of the Second World War and, more so, since the abrogation of the 'White Australia' and the consequent
large scale immigration of Asians, public opinion was supportive of giving priority to developing links with
Asia and became critical of the government's Euro-centric foreign policy. No doubt, Australia's foreign
policy orientation changed in the 1980s and 1990s. But as some observers suggest, this change was more in
response to Australia's economic imperatives than it was to the prevalent public opinion, though the government
couched its policy statements by saying that its Asian orientation was part of its 'new vision' for Australia.
4.4.2 Media
Given that media generally subserves specific pressure groups or the elite class, the influence they exert Ion
foreign affairs is only marginal. In Australia, the print media is largely confined to metropolitan centres such
as Sydney and Melbourne and their readership is to that extent is restricted. Among visual and audio media,
the two leading are the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and the Special Broadcasting Service
(SBS), both of which may be described as elitist. However, it may be added that media do play some role in
informing their audience and clientele about international affairs. Still the emphasis is more on attracting the
attention of the viewers to its programmes than offering cogent analysis of the critical issues involved. Its
influence is largely related to the extent it helps shape public opinion on a given issue. Certainly, in the case of
Australia, on specific matters concerning immigration issues or policy towards the Australian aboriginal, the
media have greatly helped to encourage forceful public opinion. To that extent, it has less direct influence on
policy formulation and the government deals with specific foreign policy issues.
4.4.3 Pressure Groups
Unlike public opinion or opinion-making media, pressure groups representing particular elements or interests
within Australian society exert greater influence in policy making. But the role of the pressure groups on
policy formulation in Australia will have to be seen on the basis of what they intend to do as specific interest
groups. For, there are pressure groups, which are sectional such as the Australian Chambers of Manufacturers,
Australian Council of Trade Unions and the Australian Mining Industry Council. Their interests are 1argt:ly
confined to policy matters concerning tariffs, worker rights and investment rules. In other words, they campaign
for the causes that these sectional groups represent. Then there are promotional pressure groups such as
Australian Conservation Foundation, Amnesty International, East Timor Independence Group whose interests
are on larger issues concerning global environmental and human rights issues. Quite often they articuLate
quite forcefully on these issues based on their perceptions in concert with pressure groups outside the country.
The techniques adopted by these pressure groups are also different from that of public opinion makers. Th,ey
focus attention on the executive government where the key decisions about Australian foreign policy iue
made. This may involve liaising and lobbying with the members of the cabinet and members of the parliament
alongside embarking on 'mass' campaigns. 3
the major political parties - Australian Labor Party, Liberal Party and the National Party (formerly known as
the Country Party) -define and articulate foreign policy on behalf of their members. Notwithstanding their
complex organisational structure at the national and local levels, the resolutions anived at in intervals in the
national conference of these parties become binding in respect of policy choice or the course of action to be
pursued by the party in power. While these resolutions, often described as the party's national platform,
indicate the general line or course of action to be pursued yet in day-to-day affairs the party in power cannot
wield much influence on the conduct of the policy.
Given that the overall national interest is involved in foreign policy making, it is observed that there exists a
general consensus among the political parties and an unwritten tradition of bi-partisanship in matters relating
to Australia's international affairs. However, a closer scrutiny of the stance taken by the leading Australian
political parties would suggest the contrary. On specific larger. issues, the position taken by the Labor party
has been different from that of the National and Liberal parties. Labor has consistently taken the view that
Australia should remain independent and that its focus should be regional (i.e Asia-Pacific) rather than Euro-
centric. With respect to dealing with international disputes, the Labor party has been of the view that Australia
should adopt an internationalist stance rather than Western alliance orientation.And above all, it has maintained
an all-inclusive approach to the Australian community's role in foreign policy. Yet there have been occasions
when the Labor party had adopted a position somewhat similar to that of the other parties with some differences
in emphasis and style.

4.5 STATE INSTITUTIONS'

In this section an attempt is made to identify the different institutions and agencies that are engaged in the
foreign policy formulation. These institutions are the different organs of the government such as importantly
the legislature and the executive, which are constitutionally assigned the task of policy making. What are
these tasks and how effective are these institutions in foreign policy making and implementation is described
in this section.

4.5.1 Parliament
According to the Constitution of Australia, the powers of the national government are vested in the federal,
legislature. But in respect of foreign policy, the Parliament has only a modest role compared to the executive
branch of the government. This is in sharp contrast to the presidential form of government as in the United
States where power is divided between the legislature and the executive. Congressional committees such as
the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations in the US have a major role in foreign policy formulation and
selection of key officials in the Department of State. II
In Australia, the parliament at best provides a forum in which major foreign policy issues are discussed. More
often, it is the executive that explains its position and the opposition presents its critique. These debates are a
useful means to inform the general public about the governments thinking. Rarely however, do these debates
lead to any major modification in the policy content. There are the parliamentary committees such as the
Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade and Senate Standing Committee on Foreign
Affairs, Defence and Trade. They not only invite testimonies from interested groups and individuals but also
discuss at length the issues involved. On the basis of these deliberations, these committees submit reports,
which are made public. The impact of these reports is only at the level of influencing the general environment
within which the policy is formulated. In reality, it is the executive branch of the government that assumes the
charge of actual policy formulation and implementation.

4.5.2 The Executive

In the executive branch of the government, the primary responsibility is reposed in two key figures - the
prime minister and the foreign minister. Of these two, the prime minister cansplay a decisive role if he so
desires. Not only because he heads the ruling government, in Australia certain historical antecedents also
account for his paramount role in foreign policy making. Although at Federation, the Department of External
Affairs was established, it did not function as an autonomous department with independent charge on m
 and the administration of territories. In 19 1 1 when the Prime Minister's Department was established, some
of the functions ofthe Department of External Affairs were transferred to the Prime Minister's Department.
For all practical purposes the Department of External Affairs was downsized and even ceased to function as
a separate department. And in 1916 the Department itself was abolished. Ever since, and even after the
setting up of an autonomous Department of External Affairs in 1935,Australia's Prime Minister continues to
wield considerable power in the formulation of the country's foreign policy. Instances are aplenty in :Tubsecluent
years too when the prime minister had even over-ruled his foreign minister's view on key foreign p l i c y
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issues ofAustralia. For example, Prime Minister Ben Chifley openly resisted his foreign minister's move and
aligned firmly with the US in the Cold War in late 1940s and early 1950s.Again there are instances where the
i prime minister himselfhad served concurrently as the foreign minister or chose a weaker person 8.x aforeign
1 minister so that he could assert himself effectively in foreign affairs. It is true that the foreign minister has
t bureaucratic support through his department now known as the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
1 Yet, quite often the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (DPM and C) with its own International
Division and the Ofice of National Assessments (ONA) established in 1977 outmatches foreign ministry.
I The officials of the International Division of the DPM and C occupy places of central importance i n the
I conduct of Australia's foreign policy. It consists of three branches -Foreign Affairs; APEC, Trade and
Multilateral; and Defence and 0f&e of Security and Intelligence Co-ordination. While it may be said thiit the
responsibilities of these agencies are generally in matters of foreign policy co-ordination, they nonetheless on
occasions have been the prime force in policy making. As these agencies directly report and make their
discreet recommendations to the Prime Minister on a range of issues, which fall in the domain of foreign
I policy, overall the DPM and C remain an important part of the foreign affairs bureaucracy.
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I 4.5.3 The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
Headed by the foreign minister, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) bears the primary
responsibility for the making and conduct of Australia's foreign affairs and policy. The responsibility of
DFAT. among others, includes importantly management ofAustralia's foreign, political, security, legal and
trade relations at both bilateral and multilaterdl levels. Besides it administers the country's overseas culi.ura1,
trade and public affairs programmes through three agencies -Australian Agency for Internat~onal
Development (AusAID); Australian Trade Commission (AusTRADE); and Australian Security Intelligence
Service (ASIS).

Although DFAT's antecedents go back to 190 1 when the Commonwealth government ofAustralia came into
existence, it is still not a very large ministry. At the time when the Australian federal public service was
I established, the foreign minist@ was one among the seven foundation government agencies. Howeber, it
1 went through a process of restructuring - sometimes even ceased to exist! Mention was made earlier that
I with the setting up ofthe Prime Minister's Department in 1911, many of the functions ofthe foreign ministry
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were taken away, and in 1916 it even ceased to exist. However, in 1935 when it was re-established, it had
struggled through for a long time to establish its autonomy as an administrative authority against the power of
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1 other more established departments such as Trade and Defence. It was only in 1987 when steps were laken
as part of the administrative reforms, the existing Department of External Affairs was merged with parts of
the Department ofTrade - Multilateral Trade and the Economic and Trade Development Groups, sections of
the Bilateral Trade Group and the Trade Development Council Secretariat. With the amalgamatior1 and
restructuring, the ministry since then came to be known as the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
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The restructuring enhanced the department's capacity for integrated policy formulation and implementation
across a wide range of political, economic, social and security issues in the international affairs. Yet another
notable innovation of the restructuring has been the appointment of two ministers of equal cabinet star us to
the DFAT. ,

The restructi~ringof the DFAT brought to end the traditional rivalry between the then existing Departments
of foreign affairs and trade. It has also facilitated the reorientation of Australia's foreign policy to focus
increasingly on Asia and the Pacific unlike in the past when these departments pulled Australia between two
directions -one towards the West and the other towards Asia-Pacific region. - Now, the Department has a
clearer sense its mission giving it an effective delivery system in respect of its varied services. In turn, the

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 restructuring has enhanced substantially the DFAT's status and standing as a key agency of the government
in foreign affairs thanks to which not only the agenda ofAustralia's foreign policy has become broader but
also the policy choices that it makes allows the country to realise its targets.

4.5.4 Other Departments

Of the other departments/ministries that exercise functional policy responsibilities, the Department of Defence
(DoD) is the most important. While the elements ofthe DoD concerned with foreign policy matters is rather
modest, its involvement with foreign policy derives from the responsibility the DoD has for the defence and
security ofAustralia. During most part of the Cold War period when issues of security were at the forefront
ofthe country's foreign policy agenda, DoD had a crucial role in directing Australia's international relations.
With the end of the Cold War, new imperatives be it in terms ofAustralia's growing interest in co-operative
security or in respect of fighting international terrorism have made DoD's influence in respect of foreign
policy making rather pervasive. In turn, these developments have signalled closer liaison between DoD and
DFAT.
Besides the DoD, other ministries that orchestrate on foreign policy matters are the Department of Immigration
and Multicultural Affairs (DIMA) which has very recently been renamed as the Department of Immigration
and Citizenship, the Department ofTreasury, the Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth
Affairs and the Department of Environment. Given the involvement of other ministries in many foreign policy
issues, admittedly there exists scope for inter-departmental conflict in policy formulation. Such conflicts are
sorted at two levels. One is the Cabinet where the ministers heading the different ministries discuss matters
and engage in negotiations and compromise. The other is at the lower level where officials of the different
ministries sit at inter-departmental committees and settle differences.

4.6 SUMMARY
Although foreign policy formulation is not too different from domestic policy enunciation, it has to take into
consideration not only the domestic views but also those of external constituencies such as other nation-
states and multilateral organisations. Seen in this light, Australian government like many other parliamentary
democracies looks in two directions while formulating its foreign policy. One the global order with its built-in
array political, military, economic, and other pressure that constantly compete to influence the country's
foreign policy agenda. The other is the influence ofthe domestic or internal forces within which the foreign
policy making establishment in the country has to reorder and set its foreign policy objectives and priorities.
In the foregoing descriptive analysis, an attempt was made to identify the different domestic elements that
direcfand guide the foreign policy making process in Australia. When the government develops policies it
tends to take into consideration the general perceptions of the public. Yet with some exceptions, public
opinion has not made any significant influence in foreign policy issues. Similarly, the media as an opinion
maker has less direct influence on policy formulation dealing with specific foreign policy issues.
However, pressure groups representing particular elements or interests within Australian society exert greater
influence in policy making. As an overwhelming influence on the policy making process, Australia's political
parties without doubt excel all other societal elements including the pressure groups. It has been an established
Australian tradition that the major political parties - Australian Labor Party, Liberal Party and the National
Party (formerly known as the Country Party) - define and articulate on their views and stance on specific
foreign policy issues.
At the governmental level, the parliament at best provides a forum in which major foreign policy issues are
discussed in Australia. There are also the parliamentary committees such as the Joint Standing Committeeon
Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade and Senate Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade,
which review foreign policy issues. Without doubt, the execitive branch of the government wields greatest
authority in foreign policy formulation.
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Not only because the office of prime minister heads the government, but also because of certain historical
antecedents in Australia he exercises paramount role in foreign policy making. Ever since, and even after the
 setting up of an autonomous Department of External Affairs in 1935, Australia's prime minister continuzd to
wield considerable power in the formulation of the country's foreign policy. So vast is his influence that at
some instances the Australian prime ministers had even over-ruled his foreign minister's views on key
foreign policy issues. At times, the prime minister himself had served concurrently as the foreign minister or
chose a weaker person as a foreign minister so that he could assert himself effectively in foreign affairs.
It is true that the foreign minister has bureaucratic support through his department now krjown as' the
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Headed by the foreign minister, the Department of Foreign Affairs
and Trade (DFAT) bears the primary responsibility for the making and conduct of Australia's foreign affairs
and policy. At the time when the Australian federal public service was established, the foreign ministry was
one among the seven foundation government agencies. Yet it did remain pre-eminent in policy maiing until it
was restructured in 1987.The restructuring enhanced the department's capacity for integrated policy formulation
and i~nplementationacross a wide range of political, economic, social and security issues in the internatitma1
affairs.
Yet, looking at the track record ofAustralia's foreign policy posturing in recent decades on major foreign
policy issues both regionally and internationally, it may be said that DFAT's role in formulating policy choices
have been quite encouraging. In turn, it also reflects that the structures and the processes have admittedly
played an influential role in policy making.

4.7 EXERCISES
1) Identify the different societal elements that influence foreign policy making in Australia.

2) Write a brief note on the role ofAustralia's Parliament in foreign policy formulation.

3) Give reasons as to why the Prime Minister in Australia wields paramcunt influence in the making of
foreign policy.

4) Sketch briefly the functions and the role of Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade in the formulation
and implementation ofAustralia's foreign policy.

4.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Forward, Roy (ed.) Public Policy in Australia (Melbourne: Cheshire, 1974)
Trood, Russell (ed.) The Making of Australian Foreign Policy (Brisbane: Griffith University, 1997)
Mediansky, F. (ed.) Australian Foreign Policy into the New Millennium (South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1997)
Smith, Gary, Dave Cox & Scott Burchill, Australia in the World: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy
(Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 200 I )
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