Chap_1

1. Explain interference of light in wedge shaped film and 2.What is Diffraction? What are types of diffraction? (4 Marks)
3.what is specific rotation with neat lableled diagram explain
prove that for air film β = λ/2θ [Def of diffraction=1 ; Discussion of types of diffraction with the Laurent half shade polarimeter?
(5 marks) diagram=3 ] ANS- The specific optical rotation of a liquid substance is the
- Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light angle of rotation measured as specified in the monograph,
around the corners of the small obstacles calculated with reference to a layer 100mm thick and divided by
Diffraction can be classified into two types. the relative density measured at the temperature at which the
• Fresnel diffraction: Fresnel diffraction is caused by the light rotation is measured. A measure of the opticall activity of a
from a point source. In Fresnel diffraction, the incident and the sample is the rotation produced for a 1mm slab for a solid or a
diffracted wavelengths are spherical or cylindrical. The source 100mm path length for a liquid. This measure is called the
and the screen are at a finite distance from the obstacle causing specific rotation. Liquids usually rotate the light much less than
diffraction. The incident beam from the point source will be a solids. A polarimeter is an instrument used for determining the
divergent beam, whereas the diffracted beam is a convergent optical rotation of solutions Construction: - glass tube for
beam. holding the solution between Nicol prisms – monochromatic
• Fraunhofer’s diffraction: The incident and the diffracted light incidents on the polarizer (N1) – light transmitted is plane
wavefronts are both planes. The incident and diffracted beams polarized – polarized beam passes through the halfshade plate
are parallel. The source and the screen are at infinite distance and glass tube containing the solution– Light emerging from the
from each other. solution incidents on the analyzer( N2) – Light is observed
through the telescope T – Analyzing Nicol (N2) can be rotated
about the axis of the tube and the rotation can be measured

4.explain Huygens theory of double refraction .

Two light beams are produced when an unpolarized beam of light enters a
birefringent crystal at normal incidence (but not along the optic axis).
Double refraction is the name given to this phenomenon, which the
Vikings first noticed in calcite

Explanation: rod is observed. This is called Magnetostriction. The charge in the human ear Piezoelectric Effect:-
length is propotional to the strength of megnetic field. The • When a mechanical compression or tension is applied to
 The crystal is directly penetrated by one beam, which we refer to as the some crystals like quartz, a potential difference is developed
increase in length is very small in practice. Amongst all
usual ray. ferromagnetic substances, increase in length is maximum for across the crystal which is proportional to the applied
Nickel. Construction: The circuit diagram of magnetostriction pressure. This phenomenon is known as Piezo-electric Effect.
 The other ray, known as the exceptional ray, diverges and becomes
ultrasonic generator is as shown in the figure1 A short • Also if the potential difference is applied across the crystal, a
displaced as it travels through the crystal. The two emerging beams'
permanently magnetized nickel rod is clamped in the middle mechanical compression or tension is developed. This is called
respective polarizations are orthogonal. Inverse Piezo-electric Effect.
between two knife edges. A coil L1 is wound on the right hand
• A variable capacitor (C) and an inductor (L2) form a tank
 Here is an illustration of a calcite crystal. The crystal allows the common portion of the rod. C is a variable capacitor. L1 and C1 form the
circuit.
ray to travel right through it. The remarkable beam creates the second resonant circuit of the collector-tuned oscillator. Coil L2 wound • The frequency of the oscillations can be changed by
line. The exceptional beam defies Schnell's law, which only applies to on the LHS of the rod is connected in the base circuit. The coil L2 changing the value of capacitance.
isotropic materials. is used as a feedback loop. • When the circuit is closed, the current flows through the
 A cross polarizer will make one or both of the double-refracted lines
circuit and charges the capacitor. • Then the capacitor starts
discharging through the inductor, thus the electric energy is
disappear when placed over the crystal. They are polarised orthogonally.
stored in the form of electric and magnetic field.
 According to the Huygens' principle, all locations along a wavefront of • Thus electric oscillations are produced in the tank circuit.
light in a vacuum or transparent medium can be thought of as fresh • The frequency of this oscillating electricity is given by
sources of wavelets that spread out in all directions at a pace dependent
f=12πL2C√f=12πL2C
• With the help of the other electronic components including a
on their velocities.
transistor, electrical oscillations are produced continuously.
• This is fed to the secondary circuit connected to Quartz
crystal (Q).
• The oscillating electric field is converted to mechanical
Chap_2 vibration of crystal owing to the piezoelectric effect.
• This vibration produces sound wave of the frequency equal
Q1) What are ultrasonic waves? Explain the magnetostriction to the frequency of vibration, which is the frequency of electric
method for production of ultrasonic waves? oscillations.
ANS- Ultrasonic waves are sound waves whose frequencies are Q2) What are ultrasonic waves? Explain the piezoelectric • In this way ultrasonic sound waves can be produced.
higher than those of waves normally audible to the human ear. method for production of ultrasonic waves?
The angular frequencies of the ultrasonic waves produced in ANS- Ultrasonic waves are sound waves whose frequencies
laboratories lie from about 105 sec−1 to about 3 × 109 sec−1 , are higher than those of waves normally audible to the human
the former value representing the limit of audibility of the ear. The angular frequencies of the ultrasonic waves produced
human ear. When magnetic field is applied across the length of in laboratories lie from about 105 sec−1 to about 3 × 109
a ferromagnetic rod such as Nickel, then change in the length of sec−1 , the former value representing the limit of audibility of
 removing grease, dust etc. from metals. They are also used in alignment leads to atomic polarization.
ultrasonic washing machines. 4th Orientation Polarization (also called Dipole-Dipole
6)Ultrasonic are used to detect flaws in metals. They are used Polarization): In materials containing permanent dipoles,
in metallurgy to prepare alloys of uniform composition. such as polar molecules like H2O or CO2, the dipoles tend to
align themselves with the external electric field. This
alignment results in orientation polarization.
5.what is dielectric Polarization? discuss its types? 5th Space Charge Polarization: In materials with impurities or
Dielectric polarization is the phenomenon where the electric defects, charge carriers (free electrons or holes) can
dipoles within a dielectric material (insulating material) accumulate near the interfaces or boundaries under the
respond to an applied electric field by aligning themselves in a influence of an electric field, creating an internal electric
particular manner, leading to the creation of an internal field that opposes the external field. This phenomenon is
electric field. This internal electric field opposes the external referred to as space charge polarization.
electric field, reducing the overall electric field within the 6th Interfacial Polarization: In composite materials or
dielectric material. Dielectric polarization plays a crucial role heterogeneous systems containing different phases,
Q4) Discuss the important applications of ultrasonic waves? in various electronic devices and capacitors. interfaces between the phases can exhibit polarization
ANS-1) Ultrasonic's are used in the detection of aircraft, There are several types of dielectric polarization, including: behavior. This interfacial polarization arises due to the
submarines. Ultrasonic's generated by a piezoelectric crystal 1st Electronic Polarization: In materials with covalent bonds, differences in the dielectric properties of the phases and
generator are transmitted towards a target. These waves are such as non-metals and semiconductors, the electrons are their interaction with the external electric field.
reflected by an aircraft or submarine coming across their tightly bound to the atoms. When an external electric field is
path. The reflected beam is detected by means of a quartz applied, these electrons shift slightly towards the direction of These different types of polarization contribute to the overall
detector. The device used for the purpose is called SONAR – the field, creating a temporary dipole moment. This dielectric behavior of materials and play a significant role in
sound navigation and ranging. polarization is called electronic polarization. various applications, including capacitors, insulators, and
2) The reflection of ultrasonic is used to estimate the depth of dielectric spectroscopy. Understanding and controlling
the sea. By measuring the elapsed time between the dielectric polarization are essential for the design and
transmission and reception, after reflection from the bottom, 2nd Ionic Polarization: Ionic materials, such as salts and optimization of electronic devices and materials.
of ultrasonic waves, the depth of the sea can be computed. The ceramics, consist of positive and negative ions. When an
instrument used for the purpose is called a fathometer. external electric field is applied, positive ions are displaced
3) Heat is produced when an intense beam of ultrasonic's in one direction, while negative ions are displaced in the
passes through a substance. Joints of thermoplastic materials opposite direction, resulting in a net polarization of the
can be welded homogeneously and water can be boiled with material. This type of polarization is known as ionic
the heat thus generated. polarization.
4) Ultrasonic cleaning machines have been developed to clean 3rd Atomic Polarization: In materials with atoms possessing
very small objects such as hypodermic needles, minute parts permanent dipole moments, such as water (H2O) or
of watches etc. hydrogen fluoride (HF), the atoms can align themselves with
5) Ultrasonic's waves of frequency 60 kHz are used for the external electric field, causing polarization. This

becomes easier.
3. From B-H graph, residual magnetism can be determined
and thus choosing of material for electromagnets is easy.

Chap_3

5.With neat diagram explain construction and working of

Bainbridge Mass Spectrograph. (5 Marks

ANS

7.What is magnetic domain ? draw a neat diagram of b-h From hysteresis loops, we can determine a number of
curve and discuss its features? magnetic properties about a material. Such as the retentivity,
ANS- A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic residual magnetism (or residual flux), coercive force,
material in which the magnetization is in a uniform direction. permeability, and the reluctance. Coercive force is defined as
This means that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms A Bainbridge mass spectrometer basically consists of a
the negative value of magnetizing force (-H) that reduces
are aligned with one another and they point in the same discharge tube which produces ions. The discharge tube
residual flux density of a material to zero. Residual Flux
direction. discharges a beam of positive ions into a tube. These positive
Density Residual flux density is the certain value of magnetic
ions are produced when one or more electrons are removed
flux per unit area that remains in the magnetic material
from any atom. The tube has two slits named S1S1 and S2S2
without presence of magnetizing force (i.e. H = 0). Definition
which makes them collimated. After that the beam of positive
of Retentivity
charge passes through a velocity selector. This velocity selector
It is defined as the capacity for retaining magnetism after the
allows only the particles of a given velocity. This velocity
action of the magnetizing force has ceased.
selection is done by the combined action of magnetic field and
1. Smaller hysteresis loop area symbolizes less hysteresis loss.
electric field. This field consists of two plates P1P1 and P2P2 .
2. Hysteresis loop provides the value of retentivity and The magnetic field and electric field are at perpendicular to
coercivity of a material. Thus the way to choose perfect each other which nullifies their effect and hence they don’t
material to make permanent magnet, core of machines
create any deflection in the particle. Let BB be the magnetic
field and EE be the electric field. Force exerted on a particle
on a particle due to the magnetic field is,
Force
m=qBv
Force
m=qBv
Here BB is the magnetic field, qq is the charge on the particle
and vv is the velocity of the particle. Force exerted on a
particle on a particle due to the electric field is,
Force The GM counter consists of a hollow metallic chamber as
e=qE shown in the figure that acts as a cathode. A thin wire anode is
Force also placed along its axis. The chamber has a sealed window,
e=qE through which the radiation enters the chamber. The chamber
Here EE is the electric field and qq is the charge on the is filled with an inert gas at low pressure. There is a counter
particle. As the force exerted on a particle on a particle due to connected to this system to measure the radiation. Working
the magnetic field is nullifying force exerted on a particle on a The chamber is filled with an inert gas (helium, neon, or
particle due to the electric field, argon) at low pressure. A high voltage is applied to this The band theory of solids is different from the others because
⇒qBv=qE chamber. The metallic chamber will conduct electricity. When the atoms are arranged very close to each other such that the
⇒qBv=qE radiation enters the chamber through the window, the photons energy levels of the outermost orbital electrons are affected.
⇒v=EB in the radiation will ionize the inert gas inside the chamber. But the energy level of the innermost electrons is not affected
⇒v=EB This will make the gas conductive. The electrons produced due by the neighbouring atoms.
So only the particles with the above velocity will pass the to ionization are accelerated due to the potential that we The three energy bands in solids are
velocity selector. After the velocity selector, the particles pass applied and these electrons cause even more ionization. The • Valence band
through another slit S3S3 and enters the vacuum chamber. ionized electrons travel towards the anode. The anode is • Conduction band
This chamber has a strong magnetic field of B′B′ which acts at connected to a counter. The counter counts the electrons • Forbidden band Bond theory solids
right angle to the plane of paper. This directs the particles in a reaching the anode. This is how we measure radiation. • In atoms, electrons are filled in respective energy orbits
centripetal way and causes the particles to strike the following Pauli’s exclusion principle.
photographic plane. • In molecules, Two atomic orbitals combine together to form a
Chap_4 molecular orbit with two distinct energy levels.
• In solids, 1023 stacked up lines confined in a tiny space
1.Explain formation of energy bands in solids. would look like a band. Thereby forming energy continuum
Q6) Explain in detail the working of G-M counter?
As. called energy bands.
• This theory helps to visualise the difference between
conductor, semiconductors and insulator by plotting available

energies for an electron in a material voltage and the effect is called the Hall effect. A superconductor is a material that can conduct
electricity with zero electrical resistance and expel
magnetic fields completely when cooled below a critical
2.Define Fermi Energy level. Explain Fermi energy position in
N & P type semiconductor? temperature. the sudden disappearance of electrical
ANS- The reason for the existence of this energy level is due to resistance in mercury at temperatures near absolute zero.
Pauli’s exclusion principle, which states two fermions cannot
occupy that same quantum state. So, if a system has more than
one fermion, each fermion has a different set of magnetic
quantum numbers associated with it. The Fermi Temperature
can be defined as the energy of the Fermi level divided by the
Boltzmann’s constant.
It is also the temperature at which the energy of the electron is
equal to the Fermi energy. It is the measure of the electrons in
the lower states of energy in metal.
1) In pure germanium semi-conductor, the Fermi level lies in
the forbidden gap, very close to conduction band
2) In an N-type semiconductor, the Fermi levels lies in the
Forbidden gap, very close to conduction band
3) In an P-type semiconductor, the Fermi levels lies in the
Forbidden gap, very close to valence band Meissner effect, the expulsion of a magnetic field from the
4) With rising in the temperature the Fermi level moves interior of a material that is in the process of becoming a
towards the center of the Forbidden gap, both types of semi- superconductor, that is, losing its resistance to the flow of
conductors electrical currents when cooled below a certain temperature,
5) N-type semiconductor is better than P-type semiconductor called the transition temperature, usually close to absolute
as electrons have more mobility than holes. zero.
The effect of an external magnetic field on a superconducting
Q6) What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for Hall state of a material is called superconductivity.
Coefficient and mobility of charge carriers? • When a superconducted material is introduced into an
external magnetic field, it produces an equal and opposite
The Hall effect is a phenomenon observed in conductive magnetic field of its own.
materials when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to Q7) What is superconductor? Explain Meissner Effect and • Electric current in a superconducting loop has been
the direction of the current flow. It results in the generation of effect of external magnetic field on superconducting state of observed to last for years and theoretically, can last forever.
a voltage perpendicular to both the current direction and the material?
magnetic field direction. This voltage is known as the Hall Ans.
5.Distinguish between Type –I and II superconductor? 1.Ina laser when an electronic transition occurs from a at low pressure.
higher energy state to a lower energy state, there is a The partial pressure of helium is 1 mbar whereas that of neon
ANS- Soft Superconductors (Type I) : stimulated emission of photons, which is known as the laser is 0.1 mbar.
1. Soft superconductors are those which can tolerate impurities gain medium. The gas mixture is mostly comprised of helium gas.
without affecting the superconducting properties. 2.A ruby laser uses a crystal made up of synthetic ruby as Therefore, in order to achieve population inversion, we need to
2. They have low critical field. its gain medium. excite primarily the lower energy state electrons of the helium
3. Show complete Meissner effect. 3.Since a ruby laser used a solid ruby crystal, it falls under atoms. In He-Ne laser, neon atoms are the active centers and
have energy levels suitable for laser transitions while helium
4. The current flows through the surface only. a solid-state laser.
atoms help in exciting neon atoms.
5. Eg. Tin, Aluminium. 4.Light is completely reflected through the fully reflecting
Electrodes (anode and cathode) are provided in the glass tube
mirror. to send the electric current through the gas mixture. These
Hard Superconductors (Type II) : 5.Most part of the light is reflected from the partially electrodes are connected to a DC power supply.
1. Hard superconductors are those which cannot tolerate reflecting mirror, but some of it is allowed to pass through
impurities, i.e., the impurity affects the superconducting it in order to produce an output.
property. 2. They have high critical field. 6.The electromagnetic ray produced from a ruby laser is
3. Hard super conductors trap magnetic flux and hence Meissner coherent visible light.
effect is not complete. 7.It uses a rod made up of ruby that has to be pumped to
4. It is found that current flows throughout the material. high energy.
5. Eg. Tantalum, Neobium. 8.This is done to achieve population inversion

Chap 5 2.Explain basic principles and construction of He-Ne gas laser.

1.Explain principle and working of Ruby laser.

ANS- The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of

the mixture of helium and neon gas contained in a glass tube

The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:

• Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the
cladding, which has a single uniform index of refraction.
• Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical
fibre decreases as the radial distance from the fibre axis
increases.

The classification based on the materials used is as follows:

• Plastic Optical Fibres: The polymethylmethacrylate is used
as a core material for the transmission of light.
• Glass Fibres: It consists of extremely fine glass fibres.

The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is

as follows:
• Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance
transmission of signals.
• Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance
transmission of signals.

4.An optical fibre has a core refractive index 1.6 and refractive
index of the cladding 1.58 finds its numerical aperture and
acceptance angle.
Chap 6
1.Define the term unit cell, Coordination number, atomic
radius and packing density.
Ans: The smallest repeating unit of the crystal lattice is the
unit cell, the building block of a crystal.The unit cells which
are all identical are defined in such a way that they fill space
without overlapping. It is made up of numerous unit cells. One
of the three constituent particles takes up every lattice point.A
unit cell can either be primitive cubic, body-centered cubic
Q6) Discuss the different types of optical fibre with suitable (BCC) or face?centered cubic (FCC).
diagram? The Coordination number of an atom in a given molecule or a
ANS- The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive crystal refers to the total number of atoms, ions, or molecules
index, materials used, and mode of propagation of light.
bonded to the atom in question. ‘Ligancy’ is another term used
to refer to the coordination number of an atom.
An atomic radius is half the distance between adjacent atoms
of the same element in a molecule.
Packing density is defined as the ratio of the solid volume to
the total volume.

2.Find the packing density (APF) of SC, BCC, FCC lattices.

4.Explain optical and magnetic properties of nano materials

3.

54. State Moseley's law. What is its importance?

Ans:The statement of moseley’s law is: “The square root of the
frequency of the x-ray emitted by an atom is proportional to
its atomic number”. New elements were also found because of
this law. The formula for Moseley’s law is ν=a(Z–b) Moseley's
law states that the square root of the frequency of the emitted
x-ray is proportional to the atomic number. Importance of
Moseley's law: Moseley’s law is very important because it
proved that atomic numbers are more necessary than atomic
mass and it is because of this reason that the entire periodic
table was changed based on the element's atomic number. This
law also helped with discovering new elements and explained
Q.Calculate longest wavelength that can be analyzed by a rock the property of elements way better. Using this law Moseley
salt crystal of spacing d=2.82A in the first order. arranged K and Ar, Ni and CO in a proper way in
Mendeleev's periodic table. This law was held to the discovery
of many new elements like Tc (43), Pr (61), Rh (45). The
atomic number of rare earths has been determined by this law.