MATHEMATICS II COMPLEX NUMBERS & VARIABLES

Complex Numbers and Variables

8.1. The Complex Number System

Equations such as 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 have no solution within the real number

system. Because these equations were found to have a meaningful place in the
mathematical structures being built, various mathematicians of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries developed an extended system of numbers in which
there were solutions. The new system became known as the complex number
system.

Complex numbers have an expression of the form (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏), where a and b

are real numbers called the real and imaginary parts, and 𝑖 = √−1 is called the
imaginary unit. Complex numbers are important in electricity analytic functions
and their mapping…etc.

8.1.1. Definitions:

1. 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where z = complex number

x = real part
y = imaginary part
𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦, the complex conjugate of the complex number z.
2. Two complex numbers 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐
and 𝑏 = 𝑑.
3. The absolute value or modulus of 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is defined as
|𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .

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 MATHEMATICS II COMPLEX NUMBERS & VARIABLES

8.1.2. Complex Numbers Representation

There are two geometric representations of the complex number:

1. As the point P(x, y) in the xy-plane which is called the complex plane or
Argand diagram. Where, the x-axis represents the real axis and the y-axis
represents the imaginary axis.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ from the origin to P which is called the polar form of
2. As the vector 𝑂𝑃
the complex number, where r and θ are called polar coordinates.
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑦
|𝑧| = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟, 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
θ is called the amplitude or argument which represents the angle made with the
positive x-axis.
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 is the unit vector makes an angle θ with x-axis.
8.1.3. Properties of Complex Numbers
If z1 and z2 are complex numbers which are defined as
𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1

and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 , then;

1. (𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 ), (𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 ) and (𝑧1 /𝑧2 ) are all complex numbers.

2. 𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 ± 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 ± 𝑦2 )
3. 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 ) = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖(𝜃1+𝜃2) .
4. 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧̅1 = |𝑧1 |2 ∶ 𝑧2 ∙ 𝑧̅2 = |𝑧2 |2
𝑧1 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧̅2 (𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2 ) (𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑖(𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 )
5. = = =
𝑧2 𝑧2 ∙ 𝑧̅2 (𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 )(𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2 ) 𝑥22 + 𝑦22
𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 𝑟1 𝑖(𝜃 −𝜃 )
= 2 2 +𝑖 = 𝑒 1 2.
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥22 + 𝑦22 𝑟2
𝑧1 𝑟1 |𝑧1 | 𝑧1
6. | | = = , 𝑟 ≠ 0, 𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧2 = 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑧2 𝑟2 |𝑧2 | 2 𝑧2

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7. If n is a positive integer, then;

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
𝑧 1/𝑛 = 𝑟 1/𝑛 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)1/𝑛
𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
= 𝑟1/𝑛 (cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ),
𝑛 𝑛
𝑘 = 0,1,2,3, … . 𝑛 −
8. log 𝑧1 = log(𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 ) = log 𝑟1 + log 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 = log 𝑟1 + 𝑖𝜃1 log 𝑒 =
𝑦1
log (√𝑥12 + 𝑦12 ) + 𝑖 tan−1
𝑥1

Ex 8.1: Let 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 and 𝑧2 = √3 − 𝑖, then

1 𝜋
|𝑧1 | = √12 + 12 = √2, 𝜃1 = tan−1 =
1 4
2 −1 𝜋
|𝑧2 | = √(√3) + (−1)2 = 2, 𝜃2 = tan−1 =−
√3 6
Thus,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧1 = √2𝑒 𝑖 4 , 𝑧2 = 2𝑒 −𝑖 6
𝜋 𝜋
𝑖( − )
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = 2√2𝑒 4 6 = 2√2𝑒 𝑖12 = 2√2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 2.73 + 0.73𝑖
12 12
𝑧1 √2 𝑖(𝜋4−(−𝜋6)) 1 𝑖5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
= 𝑒 = 𝑒 12 = 0.707 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 0.183 + 0.683𝑖
𝑧2 2 √2 12 12
Ex 8.2: Put the complex number (1 − 𝑖 √3) in the polar form.
2
Sol. 𝑟 = |𝑧| = √(1)2 + (−√3) = 2
−√3 𝜋
𝜃 = tan−1 =−
1 3
Thus,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 −𝑖
𝜋
1 − 𝑖√3 = 2 (cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− )) = 2 (cos − 𝑖 sin ) = 2𝑒 3
3 3 3 3
Ex 8.3: Find ln(−2).
0
Sol. ln(−2) = ln(−2 + 𝑖0) = ln (√(−2)2 + (0)2 + 𝑖 tan−1 ) = ln(2) + 𝑖𝜋
−2

Note: ln 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖𝜃

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8.2. Roots of Equations

If (𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) is a complex number different from zero and (n) is a positive

integer, then there are precisely (n) different complex numbers
𝑤0 , 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , … , 𝑤𝑛−1 , that are nth roots of z. To see why, let (𝑤 = 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝛼 ) be an nth
root of (𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ), so that 𝑤 𝑛 = 𝑧 or 𝜌𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . Then, (𝒓 = 𝒏√𝝆) is the
real, positive nth root of (r).

For the argument, although we cannot say that (𝑛𝛼) and (𝜃) must be equal,
we can say that they may differ only by an integer multiple of (2𝜋). That is,
𝑛𝛼 = 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … …
Therefore,
𝜃 2𝜋
𝛼 = +𝑘
𝑛 𝑛
Hence, all the nth roots of (𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) are given by
𝒏 𝜽 𝟐𝝅
√𝒓𝒆𝒊𝜽 = 𝒏√𝒓 𝒆𝒊(𝒏+𝒌 𝒏 ) , 𝒌 = 𝟎, ±𝟏, ±𝟐, … …
There might appear to be infinitely many different answers corresponding
to the infinitely many possible values of k. But, one readily sees that (𝑘 = 𝑛 + 𝑚)
2𝜋 𝑚
gives the same answer as 𝑘 = 𝑚 (since (𝑛 + 𝑚) = (1 + ) 2𝜋). Thus, we
𝑛 𝑛

need only take (n) consecutive values for (k) to obtain all the different nth roots
of z. Thus, (𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … … , 𝑛 − 1) only.
All the nth roots of (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) lie on a circle centered at the origin O and having
𝜃
radius equal to the real, positive nth root of r. One of the (m) has argument (𝛼= ).
𝑛

The others are uniformly spaced around the circle, each being separated from its
2𝜋
neighbors by an angle equal to ( ).
𝑛
Note:
1. 𝑧 2 − 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = −1
−2±√22 −4∗1∗5
2. 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = = −1 ± 2𝑖
2
⟹ 𝑧1 = −1 + 2𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −1 − 2𝑖
𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1

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8.3. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial equation of the form:
𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎0 = 0

in which the coefficients 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛−2 , … , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are any complex

numbers, whose degree (n) is greater than or equal to one, and whose leading
coefficient 𝑎𝑛 is not zero, has exactly (n) roots in the complex number system,
provided each multiple root of multiplicity (m) is counted as (m) roots.

Ex 8.4: Find the four fourth roots of (‒16).

Sol. As our first step, we plot the number (‒16) in an Argand diagram and
determine its polar representation (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ), then
𝑧 = −16
𝑟 = |𝑧| = √(−16)2 + (0)2 = 16
0
𝜃 = tan−1 =𝜋
−16
Thus, −16 = 16𝑒 𝑖𝜋
4 𝜋 𝜋
One of the fourth roots of 16eiπ is √16𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = √16𝑒 𝑖 4 = 2𝑒 𝑖 4 , the others roots
4

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
are obtained by successive additions of 2 = 2 = to the argument of this
𝑛 4 2
4 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
𝑖( , , , )
first one. Hence, √16𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = 2𝑒 4 4 4 4 and the four roots are:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑤0 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = √2(1 + 𝑖)
4 4
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑤1 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = √2(−1 + 𝑖)
4 4
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑤2 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = √2(−1 − 𝑖)
4 4
7𝜋 7𝜋
𝑤3 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = √2(1 − 𝑖)
4 4

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Ex 8.5: Find the roots of the equation 𝑤 3 = −1 + 𝑖.

Sol. −1 + 𝑖 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
1 3𝜋
𝑟 = |𝑧| = √(−1)2 + (1)2 = √2 , 𝜃 = tan−1 =
−1 4
3 3𝜋 𝜋
1/3
First root = √√2𝑒 𝑖 4 = (√2) 𝑒 𝑖 4
Or 𝑤 3 = −1 + 𝑖
1/3
1/3
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = (−1 + 𝑖) = [√2 (cos ( + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin ( + 2𝑘𝜋))]
4 4
1/3
1/3 3𝜋 3𝜋
= (√2) (cos ( + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin ( + 2𝑘𝜋))
4 4
3𝜋 3𝜋
1/3 + 2𝑘𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋
= (√2) (cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 ))
3 3

𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
1 𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑘 = 0 ⟹ 𝑤0 = 26 (cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )) = 1⁄3 (1 + 𝑖)
4 4 2
1 11𝜋 11𝜋
𝑘 = 1 ⟹ 𝑤1 = 26 (cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ))
12 12
1 19𝜋 19𝜋
𝑘 = 2 ⟹ 𝑤2 = 26 (cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ))
12 12
Ex 8.6: Solve 𝑤 4 = 1.
Sol. 1 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) ⟹ 𝑟 = 1, 𝜃 = 0
1 = (cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0)
𝑤 4 = 1 ⟹ 𝑤 = 11/4 = (cos(0 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(0 + 2𝑘𝜋))1/4
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = (cos(2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(2𝑘𝜋))1/4 = (cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ))
4 4
𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑘 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧0 = (cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0) = 1
𝜋 𝜋
𝑘 = 1 ⟹ 𝑧1 = (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 𝑖
2 2
𝑘 = 2 ⟹ 𝑧2 = (cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋) = −1
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑘 = 3 ⟹ 𝑧3 = (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = −𝑖
2 2

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 MATHEMATICS II COMPLEX NUMBERS & VARIABLES

8.4. Functions of a Complex Variable

If to each of a set of complex numbers which a variable 𝑧 may assume there
corresponds one or more values of a variable 𝑤, then 𝑤 is called a function of the
complex variable 𝑧, written 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧). The fundamental operations with
complex numbers have already been considered in the previous section.

A function is single-valued if for each value of 𝑧 there corresponds only

one value of 𝑤; otherwise it is multiple-valued or many-valued. In general, we
can write 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), where u and v are real functions of x
and y.

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
If x and y are real numbers ⟹ 𝑧 = complex number.
If x and y are real variables ⟹ 𝑧 = complex variable.
Ex 8.7: Express the value of 𝑧 in the form 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) for the function
𝑤 = 𝑧 2.
Sol. 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦
Thus; 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦
Ex 8.8: Since 𝑒 2𝜋𝑘𝑖 = 1, the general polar form of 𝑧 is 𝑧 = 𝜌𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝜋𝑘) . This form
and the fact that the logarithm and exponential functions are inverse leads to the
following definition of ln z.
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝜌 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘)

Each value of 𝑘 determines a single-valued function from this collection of

multiple-valued functions. These are the branches from which (in the realm of
complex variables) a single-valued function can be constructed.

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8.4.1. Derivative
The derivative of a function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is obtained in the same wayas in
the case of real variable or real function.
𝑑𝑤 𝑓(𝑧 + ∆𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = lim
𝑑𝑧 ∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
All the formula of differentiation used for real valued functions are applied
here.
8.4.2. Continuity
A function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if 𝑓(𝑧0 ) exists,
lim 𝑓(𝑧) exists and lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ). Further 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous in
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at every point of the region R.

8.4.3. Integrals
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be defined, single-valued and continuous in a region R. The
integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along some path C in R from point 𝑧1 to point 𝑧2 can be defined
as:
𝑧2 (𝑥2 ,𝑦2 )

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

𝐶 𝑧1 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
(𝑥2 ,𝑦2 ) (𝑥2 ,𝑦2 )

= ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∫ (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )

Ex 8.9: Determine the region in the 𝑧 plane represented by each of the following.
(a) |𝑧| < 1.
Interior of a circle of radius 1. See Figure below.
(b) 1 ≤ |𝑧 + 𝑖2| ≤ 2.
|𝑧 + 𝑖2| is the distance from 𝑧 to −𝑖2, so that |𝑧 + 𝑖2| = 1 is a circle of radius 1
with center at −𝑖2, and|𝑧 + 𝑖2| = 2 is a circle of radius 2 with center at −𝑖2. Then
1 ≤ |𝑧 + 𝑖2| ≤ 2 represents the region exterior to |𝑧 + 𝑖2| = 1 but interior to or
on |𝑧 + 𝑖2| = 2. See Figure below.

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 MATHEMATICS II COMPLEX NUMBERS & VARIABLES

𝜋 𝜋
(c) ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 ≤ .
3 2
𝜋
The required region is the infinite region bounded by the lines 𝜃 = and
3
𝜋
𝜃 = , including these lines. See Figure below.
2

Ex 8.10: Find the derivative of (2𝑧 2 + 𝑖)5 .

Sol. Write 𝑤 = 2𝑧 2 + 𝑖
𝑑 𝑑 5 𝑑𝑤
(2𝑧 2 + 𝑖)5 = 𝑤 = 5𝑤 4 = 5𝑤 4 ∙ 4𝑧 = 20𝑧(2𝑧 2 + 𝑖)4
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1

Ex 8.11: Evaluate ∫(1 + 𝑖𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡

0
1 1 1
2
Sol. ∫(1 + 𝑖𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫(1 − 𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 ∫ 2𝑡𝑑𝑡 = +𝑖
3
0 0 0
𝜋/4
𝜋/4
𝑖𝑡
𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝜋/4 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = ] = −𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ]0 = −𝑖𝑒 4 + 𝑖 = 𝑖 (1 − 𝑒 4 )
𝑖 0
0

8.5. Elementary Functions

We consider here various elementary functions studied in calculus and
define corresponding functions of a complex variable. To be specific, we define
analytic functions of a complex variable z that reduce to the elementary, functions
in calculus when 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖0.

In this section, we start to define polynomial and rational functions and

exponential function. Then define the other functions such as Trigonometric,
Hyperbolic, Logarithm and powers functions by using the exponential functions.

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8.5.1. Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function of degree 𝑛 has the form

𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑛

where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 are complex constants and n is positive integer.
This type of functions exists for all values of z and have the derivative
𝑑𝑤
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑛𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎1 (𝑛 − 1)𝑧 𝑛−2 + 𝑎2 (𝑛 − 2)𝑧 𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1
𝑑𝑧
which also exists for all values of z. The fact that every polynomial of
degree n has n roots is sometimes referred to as the fundamental theorem of
algebra, for example:
𝑤 = 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5𝑖 + 3
𝑤 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧

8.5.2. Rational Algebraic Functions

Rational algebraic functions can be expressed as the quotient of
polynomials. That is, one can write
𝑃(𝑧)
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑄(𝑧)
where both P(z) and Q(z) are polynomial functions. These functions have
the derivative
𝑑𝑤 𝑄(𝑧)𝑃′(𝑧) − 𝑃(𝑧)𝑄′(𝑧)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) =
𝑑𝑧 𝑄2 (𝑧)
and consequently, rational algebraic functions are analytic at all points in
the z-plane except at those points where the denominator 𝑄(𝑧) is zero. For
example:
5𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 𝑖
𝑤= , 𝑧≠1
𝑧−1

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8.5.3. The Exponential Function

The exponential function is defined by:
∞
𝑧
𝑧𝑛 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑒 = exp 𝑧 = 1 + ∑ = 1 +𝑧 + + +⋯+
𝑛! 2! 3!
𝑛=1
𝑧 (𝑥+𝑖𝑦)
𝑒 =𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
𝑥 𝑖𝑦
….(Prove)
Where Euler’s formula 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦
𝑑 𝑧
(𝑒 ) = 𝑒 𝑧
𝑑𝑧

8.5.4. Trigonometric Functions

From Euler's formula:
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥
for every real number x, and it follows from these equations that
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑥 and 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥
That is,
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
sin 𝑥 = and cos 𝑥 =
2𝑖 2
It is, therefore, natural to define the sine and cosine functions of a complex
variable z as follows:
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
sin 𝑧 = , cos 𝑧 =
2𝑖 2
sin 𝑧 (𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 ) 1 𝑖(𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 )
tan 𝑧 = = , cot 𝑧 = = 𝑖𝑧
cos 𝑧 𝑖(𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 ) tan 𝑧 (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 )
1 2 1 2𝑖
sec 𝑧 = = 𝑖𝑧 , csc 𝑧 = =
cos 𝑧 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 sin 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
sin2 𝑧 + cos 2 𝑧 = 1
sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
𝑑 𝑑
(sin 𝑧) = cos 𝑧 , (cos 𝑧) = − sin 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

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8.5.5. Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine of a complex variable are
defined as:
𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧
sinh 𝑧 = , cosh 𝑧 =
2 2
cosh2 𝑧 − sinh2 𝑧 = 1
sinh 𝑧 = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
cosh 𝑧 = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦, where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑑 𝑑
(sinh 𝑧) = cosh 𝑧 , (cosh 𝑧) = sinh 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
Ex 8.12: Show that 2 sin 𝑧1 cos 𝑧2 = sin(𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) + sin(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
Sol.
𝑒 𝑖𝑧1 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧2 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧2
2 sin 𝑧1 cos 𝑧2 = 2 ( )( )
2𝑖 2
𝑒 𝑖(𝑧1 +𝑧2) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑧1+𝑧2) 𝑒 𝑖(𝑧1 −𝑧2) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑧1−𝑧2)
= +
2𝑖 2𝑖
= sin(𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) + sin(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
Ex 8.13: Show that cosh2 𝑧 − sinh2 𝑧 = 1
Sol.
2 2
𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧 2 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧 2
cosh 𝑧 − sinh 𝑧 = ( ) −( )
2 2
𝑒 2𝑧 + 2𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧 − 2𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑧 2 + 2
= − = =1
4 4 4
Ex 8.14: Show that cosh 𝑧 = cos 𝑦 cosh 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 sinh 𝑥
Sol.
𝑒 (𝑥+𝑖𝑦) + 𝑒 −(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 −𝑖𝑦
cosh 𝑧 = cosh(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = =
2 2
𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦) + 𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
= =
2
cos 𝑦 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
=
2
𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
= cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sinh 𝑥
2 2
= cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦

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8.5.6. Inverses Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Inverses of the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions can be described in
terms of logarithms.
In order to define the inverse sine function, we write
𝑤 = sin−1 𝑧 when 𝑧 = sin 𝑤.
𝑒 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑤
𝑧= ⟹ 𝑖2𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑤
2𝑖
[𝑒 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖2𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑤 = 0] ∗ 𝑒 𝑖𝑤
𝑒 𝑖2𝑤 − 𝑖2𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑤 − 1 = 0

Solve for 𝑒 𝑖𝑤 , we find that:

𝑒 𝑖𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧 ± (1 − 𝑧 2 )1/2

Taking logarithms of each side of equation above:

𝑖𝑤 = log(𝑖𝑧 ± (1 − 𝑧 2 )1/2 )
sin−1 𝑧 = −𝑖 log(𝑖𝑧 ± (1 − 𝑧 2 )1/2 )
Also
cos −1 𝑧 = −𝑖 log(𝑧 ± 𝑖(1 − 𝑧 2 )1/2 )
𝑖 𝑖+𝑧
tan−1 𝑧 = log ( )
2 𝑖−𝑧
𝑑 1
sin−1 𝑧 =
𝑑𝑧 √1 − 𝑧 2
𝑑 −1
cos −1 𝑧 =
𝑑𝑧 √1 − 𝑧 2
𝑑 1
tan−1 𝑧 =
𝑑𝑧 1 + 𝑧2
Ex 8.15: Find sin−1 (−𝑖).
Sol. sin−1 (−𝑖) = −𝑖 log(1 ± √2)

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8.5.7. The Logarithmic Function

Our motivation for the definition of the logarithmic function is based on
solving the equation
𝑒𝑤 = 𝑧 , 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑒 𝑢 𝑒 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑢 = ln 𝑟 , 𝑣 = 𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋
∴ 𝑤 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … ..
= ln|𝑧| + 𝑖 arg 𝑧

Ex 8.15: Find ln 𝑖.

Sol. 𝑧 = 𝑖 = 0 + 𝑖 ⟹ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 = |𝑧|
1 𝜋
tan 𝜃 = = ∞ ⟹ 𝜃 =
0 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑤 = ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑖 = ln|𝑧| + 𝑖 arg 𝑧 = ln|1| + 𝑖 ( + 2𝑛𝜋) = 𝑖 ( + 2𝑛𝜋)
2 2

Ex 8.16: Find log(−1 − √3𝑖)

2 √3 2𝜋
Sol. 𝑧 = −1 − √3𝑖 , 𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (−√3) = 2, 𝜃 = tan−1 =−
1 3
2𝜋 1
log(−1 − √3𝑖) = ln 2 + 𝑖 (− + 2𝑛𝜋) = ln 2 + 𝑖2𝜋 (𝑛 − )
3 3

8.5.8. Power Functions:

A- 𝒘 = 𝒛𝒂

When 𝑧 ≠ 0, the function 𝑧 𝑎 is defined by means of the equation:

𝑎
𝑧 𝑎 = 𝑒 ln 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑎 ln 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑎(ln|𝑧|+𝑖(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋)) = 𝑒 (𝑎 ln|𝑧|+𝑖𝑎(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋))
= |𝑧|𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 𝑖𝑎(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋)
Ex 8.17: Evaluate (1 + 𝑖)2/3 .
2
Sol. 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖, 𝑎 =
3
1 𝜋
|𝑍| = √12 + 12 = √2 , 𝜃 = tan−1 =
1 4

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Thus,
2/3 2 𝜋 𝜋 4𝑛𝜋
𝑖( + )
𝑤 = (√2) exp (𝑖 ( + 2𝑛𝜋)) = 21/3 𝑒 6 3
3 4
Or
2/3 2
𝑤 = (1 + 𝑖)2/3 = 𝑒 𝑙𝑛(1+𝑖) = 𝑒 3 𝑙𝑛(1+𝑖)
𝜋
𝜋 2 𝑖( +2𝑛𝜋) 2 𝜋
𝑙𝑛(√2𝑒 4 ) 𝑖( +2𝑛𝜋)
But 1 + 𝑖 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = √2𝑒 𝑖
4 ⟹𝑤=𝑒 3 = 𝑒 3 𝑙𝑛 √2 𝑒 4

𝜋 4𝑛𝜋
𝑖( + )
𝑤 = 21/3 𝑒 6 3

B- 𝒘 = 𝒂𝒛

The exponential function with base a is written as:

𝑤 = 𝑎 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 log 𝑎 , 𝑎≠0

If 𝑧 = 0, 𝑤 = 1

If (a) any complex number, then;

𝑤 = 𝑎 𝑧 = exp[𝑧(ln|𝑎| + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋))] , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ….

𝑑 𝑧 𝑑 𝑧 log 𝑎
𝑎 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑧 log 𝑎 log 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑧 log 𝑎
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

Ex 8.18: Evaluate (1 + 𝑖)𝑖 .

1 𝜋
Sol. 𝑤 = 𝑎 𝑧 ⟹ 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑖 ⟹ |𝑎| = √12 + 12 = √2 , 𝜃 = tan−1 =
1 4

𝑧=𝑖
Thus;
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝑎 𝑧 = exp[𝑧(ln|𝑎| + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋))] = exp [𝑖 (ln √2 + 𝑖 ( + 2𝑛𝜋))]
4
𝜋 𝑖 −(𝜋 +2𝑛𝜋)
= exp [𝑖 (ln √2 − ( + 2𝑛𝜋))] = (√2) 𝑒 4
4

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8.6. Analytic Function

A single-valued complex function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) in a region R is said to be
analytic at a point 𝑧 = 𝑎 if ƒ(z) is differentiable not only a but at every point of
some neighborhood of a.

If a function ƒ(z) is analytic at every point of a certain region R then ƒ(z)

is said to be analytic in that region. An analytic function is also known as
holomorphic, regular function.

Remark: A function ƒ(z) may be differentiable in a region except possibly for

a finite number of points. These points are called singular points or singularities
of ƒ(z) in the region.
8.7. Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) Equations (Cartesian Coordinates)
The Cauchy-Riemann equations, named after Augustin Cauchy and
Bernhard Riemann, consist of a system of two partial differential equations that
provides a necessary and sufficient condition for a function ƒ(z) to be analytic.

Theorem 1: The necessary condition for ƒ(z) to be analytic at any point

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is that the four partial derivatives , , and should
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
In polar coordinates
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Theorem 2: Sufficient condition for ƒ(z) to be analytic in a region R if:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
(i) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
(ii) The partial derivatives , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑅.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

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Ex 8.19: Show that 𝑤 = 𝑧 3 satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

Sol. 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑧 3 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 ∗ 𝑖𝑦 + 3𝑥 ∗ (𝑖𝑦 2 ) + (𝑖𝑦)3 =
𝑥 3 + 𝑖(3𝑥 2 𝑦) − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑖𝑦 3
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑖(3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 )
Hence,
𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 )
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 , = 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= −6𝑥𝑦, = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= +𝑖 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 𝑖6𝑥𝑦 = 3(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦) = 3(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
= 3𝑧 2
Ex 8.20: Prove that 𝑤 = ln 𝑧 is analytic.
Sol. 𝑤 = ln 𝑧
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = ln(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = ln 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋)
𝑢 = ln 𝑟, 𝑣 = 𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣
= , =0 =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 } 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 ⟹ 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= 0, =1 =−
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 1 1 1 1
= 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ( + 𝑖 ) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ( + 𝑖0) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 𝑖𝜃 =
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑒 𝑧
Ex 8.21: If the function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) has proved to be analytic. Write 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
if ( = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦) and ( = 2𝑥 − 2𝑦).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Sol. Since the function is analytic, then the Cauchy-Riemann conditions are
applied.
𝜕𝑢
𝑢 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(2𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑔(𝑦)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 0 + 2𝑥 + 𝑔′ (𝑦) = 2𝑥 − 2𝑦
𝜕𝑦
Thus, 𝑔′ (𝑦) = −2𝑦 ⟹ 𝜙(𝑦) = − ∫ 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 = −𝑦 2 + 𝐶1

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 MATHEMATICS II COMPLEX NUMBERS & VARIABLES

∴ 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 𝐶1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= ⟹ = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦, =− ⟹ = −2𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
𝑣=∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(2𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦 ⟹ 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + ℎ(𝑥)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑦 + 0 + ℎ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥
ℎ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥 ⟹ ℎ(𝑥) = − ∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 𝐶2
𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶2
𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 𝐶1 + 𝑖(2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶2 )
Ex 8.22: What is the image in the w-plane of line (𝑥 = 𝑧) in the z-plane if
(𝑤 = 𝑧 2 ).
Sol. 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦2, 𝑣 = −2𝑥𝑦
𝑣
At 𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = 4 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑣 = 4𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦 =
4
2
𝑣
∴𝑢 =4−
16
Ex 8.23: In aerodynamics and fluid mechanics, the functions 𝜙 and 𝜓 in (𝑧) =
𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓 , where 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic, are called the velocity potential and stream
function, respectively. If 𝜙 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦, find 𝜓 and 𝑓(𝑧).
Sol. By the Cauchy-Riemann equations,
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Then,
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
= 2𝑥 + 4 , = 2𝑦 − 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜓 = ∫(2𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝜕𝜓
= 2𝑦 + 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 2𝑦 − 2 ⟹ 𝑔′ (𝑥) = −2 ⟹ 𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝜕𝑥

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 MATHEMATICS II COMPLEX NUMBERS & VARIABLES

∴ 𝜓 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 𝑖(2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 𝐶1 )
= (𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ) + 4(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) − 2𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 𝑖𝐶1
= 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 − 2𝑖𝑧 + 𝐶1

8.8. Harmonic Function

Any complex function, 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, having continuous partial
derivatives of first and second order and also satisfying Laplace’s equation is
called a Harmonic function. The Laplace equation is

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Or
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Note:
1. u is called conjugate harmonic function of v, and v is called conjugate-
harmonic function of u.
2. The real and imaginary parts u and v of an analytic function of ƒ(z) are
harmonic.
Ex 8.24: Show that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 is harmonic.
Sol. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝑥
𝜕2𝑢 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 𝑒 cos 𝑦 , 2 = 𝑒 cos 𝑦 , = −𝑒 sin 𝑦 , 2 = −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
2 2
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
∴ 2 + 2 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝑥
𝜕2𝑣 𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝑥
𝜕2𝑣
= 𝑒 sin 𝑦 , = 𝑒 sin 𝑦 , = 𝑒 cos 𝑦 , = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
∴ 2 + 2 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Thus, 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 is harmonic.

190 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood