Physics-PHY101-Lecture#05

APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS–I

In today's lecture, we will be focusing on Newton's laws of motion and how they can be
applied to different situations and circumstances. We will be solving various examples to
gain a better understanding of how important Newton Laws are in understanding the world
around us. Living in the 21st century, we can sometimes forget the significant difference
between the latest and old concepts/laws. Before Newton's laws, it was generally believed
that every physical body or particle naturally wanted to remain at rest. However, Newton's
first two laws of motion state that every physical body or particle tends to maintain its state of
motion, whether it's at rest or in motion. If the state of motion of a body changes, such as a
change in speed, it's because some force has acted upon it.

Equilibrium

If a body or a particle is in a state of rest, then we refer to it as an equilibrium state.

Equilibrium means that in the state of a system, there is no force acting upon it, i.e., also
called the state of rest (no motion). Newton’s law means that if the sum of all the forces is
equal to zero on that body or combination of bodies, then we get a state of rest. As per the
definition, “State of a system when the sum of all forces acting upon it vanishes” is called
‘Equilibrium’.

What is meant by the system here? The system here refers to many bodies which are
connected to each other or isolated from each other. When you consider all these together
then it is called a system.

Examples of equilibrium:

1) The gravity acting on the apple continuously pulls it downwards but when placed on the
table as shown in Figure 5.1, the apple remains at rest. It doesn’t move further down.
Which forces are acting on this apple? Gravity is one as mentioned earlier but there must
be at least one more force.
 Figure 5.1: Apple placed on the horizontal top surface of the table. Normal force Fnormal and
weight of apple (Wapple = mappleg).

Newton’s law governs that whenever a force is applied to a body, the body starts
accelerating. The table applies a force opposite to the gravitational force which stops this
apple from falling. This force is called the Normal Force (Fnormal). The word “normal” has
two meanings in English, one is “as per usual” and the other is “perpendicular” as in
geometry. In Figure 5.1, both these forces are indicated, the normal force (Fnormal) and the
mappleg which is the force due to gravity (also called weight). Mathematically Newton’s
second law (for y-axis or vertical direction) can be written as,

 F = m ay = FNormal − m apple g

Normal force (FNormal) is written as positive and gravitational force (mappleg) is written with
the negative sign as it is opposite to the direction of FNormal. All forces along the x-axis
(horizontal direction) are zero as gravity does not act along this direction and also table is not
applying any force sideways. As the apple is at rest, acceleration (ay) is also zero. The above
equation can be simplified to

FNormal − mapple g = 0 (as a y = 0)

FNormal = mapple g
So normal force applied to the apple by the table is equal to its weight under the equilibrium
(at rest/no motion). It is normally supposed that equilibrium means there is no force acting on
the body which is a wrong presumption. Equilibrium or a state of rest arises when the total
net force is zero (sum of all forces).

2) Equilibrium Example: Rubber band as slingshot

A rubber band can be considered a system and when pulled tension is created in it. This
tension increases as it is pulled more and more. If a piece of paper in the form of a pellet is
attached to a rubber band and stretched only and kept in place (at rest, equilibrium) like a
slingshot, the tension in the rubber pulls the paper pellet forward. If released, the paper pellet
will go forward like a projectile. So, it remains in equilibrium only under the force applied by
us which is equal and opposite to tension in the rubber band. Now the question is whether this
paper pellet was in the state of equilibrium when released or when it reached its maximum
height considering that it is projectile motion. The answer is no, it was not in the equilibrium
state. Although its velocity along the y-direction was zero momentarily at the highest point,
its acceleration at this point was not zero as acceleration due to gravity was continuously
acting on it. There was no force acting other than force due to gravity so it was not in the
state of equilibrium. The total net force acting on it was force due to gravity (weight) which is
nonzero.

3) Equilibrium Example: Aircraft flying

Consider an aircraft craft flying at a constant speed and same elevation. This is an example of
equilibrium motion as there is no acceleration (constant speed) indicating net force (sum of
all forces) acting on the aircraft is zero.

Now we will solve another problem considering another aircraft of mass m has a position
 
vector given by r = (at + bt 3 ) i + (ct 2 + d t 4 ) j . What force is acting upon it? Is it in equilibrium?

As velocity 𝑣⃗ is the time derivative of position 𝑟⃗ by

dr d   

v= =  (at + bt 3 ) i + (ct 2 + d t 4 ) j 
dt dt  
 
v = (a + 3bt 2 ) i + (2ct + 4d t 3 ) j

Now as acceleration 𝑎⃗ itself is time derivative of 𝑣⃗ , so

dv d   

a= =  (a + 3bt 2 ) i + (2ct + 4d t 3 ) j 
dt dt  
 
a = (6 bt) i + (2c + 12d t 2 ) j

Now force 𝐹⃗ is a product of mass m and acceleration 𝑎⃗, so

   
F = ma = m((6 bt) i + (2c + 12d t 2 ) j ) = 6m bt i + m(2c + 12d t 2 ) j

The above equation shows the force acting on the aircraft. Force along with acceleration is
nonzero so the aircraft is not in equilibrium.

Tension

Now consider a string tied to a body as shown in Figure 5.2(a). The body has a certain weight
(downward force) due to gravity which causes tension in the string. This tension force in the
string is in an upward direction as it balances the weight. If we cut the string which is
horizontally stretched, we will perceive tension towards the right as well as towards the left
as shown in Figure 5.2 (b).

Figure 5.2: (a) A body having mass m tied to a string. The other end of the string is tied to a
fixed support. Mass hanging vertically. (b) Tension T is considered in horizontal string. Blue
dashed line indicating cut-line.

Now the big advantage of ropes is that we can pull a body from a distance and the direction
of the force can be changed. Consider a horizontal string under tension as shown in figure
5.3. the yellow part represents a small part of the string. T2 acts to the right-side direction and
T1 to the left-side direction of that small part of the string. According to Newton's law, total
net force action on that small part of the rope is given by

F = T 2 −T1 = ma ………….5.1

Where m is the mass and a is the acceleration of that small part of the string. Considering that
string is very light in terms of mass, the mass of the small part of the string can be neglected
and assumed to be zero.

m = 0 (small part of string whose mass is very less)

Eq 5.1 becomes

T2 − T1 = 0* a

T2 − T1 = 0

T2 = T1
As T2 and T1 are the same, we can equate both quantities to be T. This means that tension in a
string has very little mass and is constant throughout the string.

An ideal (massless) string has constant tension

Figure 5.3: A string having horizontal tension. The central yellow part shows a small part of the
string having mass m and accelerating by a being pulled to the left and right by tensions T1 and
T2, respectively.

Newton’s third law applies as forces act on all segments of a string, but these action and
reaction forces are equal to each other. As shown in Figure 5.2(a), the body having mass is
under equilibrium and is at rest. Newton’s second law can be as applied as

 F = T −mg = ma y

Where ay is acceleration along the y-axis and is zero (ay = 0).

T − mg = 0

T = mg

So, for this mass system, the tension is equal to the weight and the value of this tension will
be equal everywhere inside the string. Now for string having as considerable mass such as
rope, will the tension be equal in all parts of this rope if it is allowed to hang vertically
without any additional body? The answer is NO, because the lower end of the rope has to
support less mass as compared to the higher part of the rope. So, tension at the higher end is
greater as compared to tension at the lower end.

A massive string (rope) does not have constant tension

Changing the direction of Tension

We can change the direction of tension as per requirement. As mentioned earlier, if the string
is considered massless tension will be constant throughout the string even for the physical
configurations shown in Figure 5.4. Figure 5.4(a) shows mass-II mII hanging vertically from
an ideal string and the direction of tension is changed using a pulley. Now tension is acting
horizontally on mass-I mI.

Figure 5.4 (b) shows another example of the change of tension direction. The weight (W =
mg) is being lifted. A worker is pulling a rope and with it, the weight is rising upwards. So,
FT is shown on two sides and both of them are adding up. Under equilibrium, the net force
upward is two times FT and it is equal to weight (W = mg).

F = F T + FT − mg = may …………… 5.2

Under equilibrium ay = 0

FT + FT − mg = 0

2 FT = mg

If 2FT is greater than weight (W=mg) such as 2 FT  mg then eq. 5.2 can be written as

2 FT − mg = ma y

ma y  0

a y  0 (Upward direction or lifting up)

Figure 5.4: Examples of change of tension direction by pulley.

Figure 5.3(c) shows another example elevator car. The tension direction has been changed
through the pulley. The mass of the elevator car is 1150 kg and on the other side, there is a
counterweight which is equal to 1000 kg. Now the acceleration a1 is downward as the
elevator is more massive as compared to counterweight. The acceleration of the
counterweight a2 is downward.

Problem:

Question: Consider the two blocks shown below on a frictionless surface. Determine the
tension and acceleration.

Solution:

Friction

This is another important type of force that we encounter most frequently in our daily lives
and it is called force of friction. The force of friction opposes every kind of motion. For
example, if you place a body having a certain weight on the table and pull that body, then the
force which is produced due to applied force and contact between the body and table is called
frictional force as shown in Figure 5.5. There are countless examples of this in our everyday
life. Suppose there is a plate lying on a book on this table, and it will not move on its own
unless some force is applied to it. Now when we pull it (as per demonstration in video
lecture), we will observe that it moves forward, because we have offset the frictional force.
We pulled it with more force and it started moving. The normal force N is upwards and equal
to its weight mg. Simultaneously, the greater the weight, the greater will force that opposes its
motion. If we double the weight of this plate, then the force required to move the plate is also
doubled. As depicted in Figure 5.5, friction results in a force parallel to the surface in the
direction opposite to the direction of motion. So whichever direction we pull the body
(FApplied), the force of friction will be in the opposite direction. Additionally, the frictional
force is perpendicular to the normal force N which is always upward.

Figure 5.5: Mass m placed on a horizontal surface. Normal force N and weigh mg balanced
along the y-axis. Frictional force fFriction produced along the negative x-axis as response to
external force FApplied which is along the positive x-axis.

Now the pertinent question that why does the friction occur? We observe friction in various
situations, for example, when we rub our hands, then we can feel opposing force due to
contact of hands. To understand the underlying reason for friction, we need to observe the
two surfaces in contact under a microscope. Any surface if seen under the microscope has
very fine ups and downs in it and due to this unevenness, friction is created. The more the ups
and downs, the more the roughness, then the friction will be higher accordingly. If we look at
contact between surfaces of bodies at a microscopic level as shown in Figure 5.6, we will be
able to observe the roughness caused by ups and downs which fundamentally causes the
frictional force. If we can reduce this roughness then the frictional force or simply friction
will reduce, and the fun will reduce.

Figure 5.6: Microscopic view of two surfaces in contact which causes friction.

Characteristics of Frictional force fF:

There are some special characteristics of frictional force. When the body is in motion, the
friction that is produced is called kinetic friction. Friction force is proportional to the normal
force N.

fF  N

This sign of proportionality can be removed by the introduction of constant “  k ” of

proportionality and is called the “coefficient of kinetic friction”.

f F = k N

f F = k mg (as N = W = mg )

This equation shows that the “heavier” the object or a body, the greater the friction will be.
This is an example of empirical law where f F = k N = k mg . Can it be compared to

fundamental laws such as Newton’s second law? This is an example of an empirical law, it
means that it is based on the observation that if the weight of the body/object is doubled then
you have to apply double the force, if it is three times then, three times more force is required
and so on. These statements are correct to some extent but it is obvious that if we keep
increasing the weight of this body/object, then eventually a situation will arise when this law
will not be applicable. If the body/object becomes too heavy then the surface (table) under the
body/object might break and friction will not arise. So, this is an example of an Empirical
Law which means that that law is based on observations and their scope is limited. Unlike
empirical laws, the scope of Newton’s law is very wide as we can apply it everywhere under
every situation such as on the earth, on the moon, on small bodies and heavy bodies etc.
Frictional law is not a such fundamental law. The frictional force is independent of the
contact area. It does not matter whether this contact area is more or less. The force is just
proportional to the Normal force, not to the area. We can say that it is correct to a great extent
but we cannot claim that that is completely true. If the contact area is too large or too small, it
can make a difference. Imagine that the entire weight of the plate is concentrated to
something finer than a needle then it is quite possible that it will pierce the surface below and
frictional force law would not be applicable. These things are very important to keep in mind
that there is a difference between empirical laws and fundamental laws.

Frictional Dynamics

Now we will discuss the frictional dynamics, that is, how a body moves in the presence of
friction. Now consider the forces along the x-axis (as shown in Figure 5.5).

F x = FApplied − f Friction = max

F x = FApplied − k N = max ……..5.3

Where ax is the acceleration body having mass m along the x direction. Similarly, for forces
along the y-axis

F y = N − mg = may = 0 (as ay = 0)

N = mg

So eq. 5.3 can be written as

FApplied − k mg = max

By this equation we can determine the acceleration for any given force and any given mass
provided we are given the coefficient of Friction µk. Friction acts whenever the body is in
motion but if a body is at rest then friction is also present. There is a difference between
friction at rest and kinetic friction. Kinetic friction means the friction that exists when the
body is in motion. Its value ( k N = k mg ) is a constant. But when the body is at rest, the
value of friction force is not fixed. As we start pulling this plate it does not move (as per
demonstration in the video lecture). We pulled it by applying a small force and its reaction is
also a small frictional force accordingly. Only when we pull it with more than a certain limit
force then it will move by balancing and overcoming frictional force. This means that static
friction adjusts its value depending upon applied force, so static friction is different from
kinetic friction in this regard. Now as the body is at rest, ax will also be zero. Forces along the
x-axis will be

F x = FApplied − f Friction = 0 (as ax = 0)

FApplied = f Friction

and for the y-axis, it will be similar to the previous (as in both kinetic and static cases, there is
no motion along the y-axis)

F y = N − mg = may = 0 (as ay = 0)

N = mg

The maximum possible force that can be produced by static frictions is fMAX and is given by

f MAX = s N

Here s is the coefficient of static friction. The higher its value, the greater will be the static

frictional force accordingly. There is a difference between kinetic friction and static friction.
Kinetic friction is a constant force that means whether you go fast or slow, you have to
counter that friction but static friction is different as it is not constant. For example, in the
case of pulling a plate on the surface (as demonstrated in the video lecture), static friction
adjusts depending on how hard we pull (apply the force) in that direction. The values s may

vary. If it is a frictionless surface, s will be zero. But if there is a lot of friction, the value of

s would probably be one.

However, it is dependent on materials as different materials have different friction with each
other. We can increase or decrease the friction between two materials, for example, if there
are two materials and we smoothen them then friction gets reduced. If we lubricate any
surface by using oil, then a layer of oil is formed which reduces the friction. When a body
starts moving, the coefficient of friction is relatively less. If a body is at rest, the force
required to initiate the motion is higher as compared to the force required to counter the
friction when the body is in motion.

In simple words, the kinetic frictional force is less than the static frictional force. This is also
depicted in Figure 5.7. We have to apply more force to make the body move and less force to
keep it in motion. We talked about static and kinetic/sliding friction but there is a third one.
There is also a type of friction which is called sliding friction. For example, when a wheel
passes over a railway track, there is friction there too, but it is the rolling friction. The value
of rolling friction is very low in comparison to static and kinetic friction.

Figure 5.7: Frictional force (fFriction = fF) against applied force (FApplied = FA) showing that initially
magnitude of frictional force is equal to the applied force but in the opposite direction thus body
remains at rest. Once fMAX is achieved the body starts moving and frictional force becomes
constant i.e. k N = k mg which is mostly less than fMAX.

Problem:

Question: A box of mass m = 2 kg slides on a frictionless floor. A force Fx = 10N pushes on

it in the x direction. What is the acceleration of the box? What forces acting on the box?

Solution:
We will solve it by applying Newton’s second law along the x-axis and y-axis as shown in
the figure below.

F x = F = max

F 10 N m
ax = = =5 2
m 2kg s

F y = N − mg = max

a y = 0 (as no motion in y-direction) and N = mg

Body on an inclined plane and Angle of Repose:

Now we will consider a physical configuration where the body (plate shown in the video
lecture) is on a surface/book which can be tilted. As we tilt the surface, the normal
component acting on the body, because of the surface below will decrease. If we continue
tilting the surface (raising one end of the surface while keeping the second end fixed), the
body will start moving/sliding at a certain angle. This angle is called the Angle of Repose as
shown by ‘α’ in Figure 5.8(a).

Now we will determine the value of the angle of repose for the physical configuration shown
in Figure 5.8(a), where the body having mass M is placed on an inclined plane having angle α
with horizontal which can be increased. The coefficient of static friction µs is also provided.
The angle of repose can be calculated by determining the point till where the equilibrium
condition persists. Figure 5.8(a) shows force Mg which is the weight of the body. Its
components are also shown.

An unconventional xy-plane coordinate system (shown in by red inset of Figure 5.8(a)) is

utilized for the sake of convenience, where weight Mg (which is in the vertical direction) is
now considered making an angle α with the x-axis. Mg is resolved into its x and y
components as per elaboration in Figure 5.8(b). Normal force N is perpendicular to the
inclined surface and static frictional force fs is parallel to the inclined surface. Under
equilibrium, forces parallel to the plane (fs and Mgsinα) are balanced. At an angle of repose
(the angle at which the body starts sliding), acceleration due to weight (Mgsinα) will barely
overcome static frictional force. Forces perpendicular to the plane (N and Mgcosα) will
always be balanced.
 f s = Mg sin  …….5.4

N = Mg cos  …….5.5

Dividing eq. 5.4 by eq. 5.5 will give

f s Mg sin 
= = tan 
N Mg cos 

As f s = s N , above equation can be written as

s N
tan  = = s
N

 = tan −1 (  s )

Conclusion: The result we have derived is very reasonable and is also very easy to
understand. If the friction is eliminated then the angle of repose will become zero.

 = tan −1 (s )  s = 0
 = tan −1 (0) = 0

Figure 5.8: (a) Body having mass M on an inclined plane having an angle of inclination α. Note:
xy-plane orientation differs from conventional representation where x and y correspond to
horizontal and vertical, respectively. (b) Components of weight Mg are shown as per normal xy-
plane orientation.

Question: Why are the brakes of a car not so effective on an inclined road as compared to a
levelled road?

The reason is that the normal force inclined road gets reduced. Remember that that
component is Mgcosα. If α is zero then it is Mg and if α is 90° then it becomes zero. The
brakes of a car do not work so well on an inclined road.

Question: Why a four-wheeler can use the brakes better and why does it grip better on the
road?

The normal force is the same for that given coefficient of friction but instead of multiplying
by two, if we multiply by four then obviously the frictional force increases. And still many
concepts related to friction are still to discussed, especially that if we move through a fluid or
liquid then why does friction occur? How does it occur? Can we include all effects in
equations? We will discuss all these scenarios in our next lecture.