FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS: SS 3

WEEKS TOPICS
1. Revision of Summer school’s work.
2. Balance in Nature: (a)Ecological succession, primary, secondary
and climax community, Factors affecting a population(i) Abiotic –
light, space, heat, water etc.(ii)Biotic –food, competition(inter
specific and intra specific),mortality, parasites, predators etc.
3. Dynamic equilibrium in nature and factors that maintain it (i)
Density independent factors like availability of food (ii)Density
dependent factor e.g. natural disasters(d)Family planning: natural
and artificial method used by man to control his population.
4. Development of New Seeds :(a)Progress of development of zygote
in the flowering plant (i)pistil (ii)stem (iii)germplasm
(iv)Fertilization (b)Germination of seeds(i)Types of germination
(ii)Conditions necessary forgermination.
5. Fruits :(a)Structure of fruits (b)Types of fruits (c)Dispersal of fruits
and seeds (c)Agents of dispersal.
6. Reproductive Behaviors: (a) Courtship behaviors in animals (i)
Pairing (ii) Territoriality (iii) Display of colours andbody parts (iv)
Seasonal migration.
7. Biology of Heredity (Genetics): (a) Transmission and expression of
characters in organisms(i)Hereditary variations (ii)Characters
that can be transmitted and how they are transmitted (iii)How
characters manifest from generation togeneration (b)Chromosomes,
the basis of hereditary (i) Location (ii)Structure (iii) Role in and
processes of transmission of hereditary characters from parents to
offspring (c)Probability in genetics (d)Application of the principles
of heredity (i)In agriculture (ii)In medicine (e) Explanations on cross
and self-fertilization –out and in – breeding using Mendelian
crosses.
8. Variation and Evolution :(a)Morphological Variation
(b)Physiological Variations (c)Application of variation.
9. Evolution :(a)The progressive change in structures and anatomy of
organism using examples of features of organisms from water to
land (b)Structural adaptation: Adaptive coloration and their function
 e.g. camouflage in chameleons, Green snakes in green grasses,
bright colours of flowers to attract pollination(c)Structural
adaptation (i)for obtaining food e.g. proboscis for sucking sap in
insects (ii)Protection and defense e.g. tortoise in shell (iii)Mimicry
colours for securing mates for regulating body temperature etc. (d)
Different castes of termites and their roles (e)Different castes of bees
and the roles they play in their social life.
10. Evolution:(f)Theories of Evolution(i)The theories of evolution
according to Charles Darwin, Jean Baptist de Lamark (g)Evidence of
evolution (h) Forces responsible for evolution : mutation,gene flow,
genetic drift.
11. Revision.
12. Examination.
BALANCE IN NATURE
Balance in nature, also known as ecological balance or ecosystem
equilibrium, refers to the harmonious coexistence and interactions of
various living organisms and their environment. In these intricate
ecosystems, each organism plays a crucial role in maintaining stability,
and any disruption can have far-reaching consequences. This delicate
dance of interdependence is fundamental to the survival and well-being
of all life on Earth.
Ecosystems are intricate webs of life, where every living organism, from
the tiniest microbe to the largest predator, has a role to play. These roles
can be classified into trophic levels, which represent the feeding
positions of organisms in a food chain. Producers, such as plants and
algae, harness energy from the sun and convert it into food through
photosynthesis. Herbivores consume plants, and carnivores feed on other
animals. Decomposers break down dead organic matter, recycling
nutrients back into the ecosystem. The interactions between these
trophic levels ensure the efficient flow of energy and nutrients
throughout the ecosystem, creating a balanced system.
Predator-prey relationships are a critical aspect of balance in nature. The
population dynamics of predator and prey species are interlinked. When
prey populations increase, predator populations also tend to increase due
to the abundance of food. This, in turn, leads to a decline in prey
numbers as they are hunted more frequently. As prey numbers decrease,
predators may struggle to find enough food, causing their populations to
decline as well. These fluctuations eventually stabilize, maintaining a
relatively constant balance.
Human activities have a significant impact on the balance in nature.
Deforestation, pollution, overfishing, and climate change can disrupt
ecosystems and lead to a loss of biodiversity. For instance, the decline of
a single species can cause a domino effect throughout the food web,
affecting multiple other species. Such imbalances can have severe
consequences for human societies as well, including reduced food
supplies, increased incidence of diseases, and loss of ecosystem services
like pollination and water purification.
ECOLOGY OF POPULATION

SUB-TOPIC I: MEANING AND DEFINATION OF SUCCESSION

Succession can be defined as the series of progressive changes at

different times in plants and animals communities in a given habitat
until a stable community is established. This succession is a result of
changes in form, structure, composition, variety and numbers of plants
and animals communities in a particular habitat over a period of time.

It occurs in newly formed natural habitats such as bare rocks, seashore

or pond. It can also take place in artificial habitats such as abandoned
farmlands, cultivated forests or grassland. A stable or climax
community takes a long time to form as it is usually gradual. The
organism of a stable community has structural appearance that is now
definite and may not change. The species would have gone through
several changes, would have displaced several species that are less
advanced in number. A climax habitat is also an equilibrium
environment. This is an orderly and gradual change of different species
of plants and animal communities in a given area over a period of time.
The condition of the area becomes gradually modified by their activities
so that a climax balanced community is established. Understanding
 Nature's Ever-Changing Story Ecological succession is a fundamental
concept in ecology that describes the dynamic and continuous process of
change in the structure and composition of ecosystems over time. It is
nature's way of renewing and adapting to environmental changes,
providing a fascinating glimpse into the ever-changing story of our
planet's ecosystems.
Process of ecological succession on a bare piece of land- Terrestrial
habitat
i. The first living organism on a bare plot of land are the pioneers
which are algae and mosses
ii. As the pioneers live and die, they add nutrients to the soil.
iii. This creates conditions that are more favourable to other plants like
ferns, herbs, lower animals like insects, worms which could not
live there before.
iv. As they live and die, their remains further improve the soil
conditions.
v. Thus perennial herbs, grasses and other animals such as lizards,
snakes, toads, and rats are able to live there.
vi. Subsequently, a point is reached at which the soil can support the
growth of taller species such as shrubs, trees and higher animals.
vii. Higher animals, birds, various mammals may be found in the
habitat at this stage.
viii. Thus a climax community is established which is in equilibrium
with the environment.
Community; A community is a group of different living population of
living organisms living together in a habitat and interacting with each
other.

II. STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN SPECIES COMPOSITION, VARIETY AND

INCREASE IN NUMBER

In any given habitat, available communities of plants through their

activities modify the environment. This leads to an unstable state to the
existing community of plants and animals. Structural modifications in
new group of plants and animals make the habitat suitable for their
newcomers. After sometimes, the activities of these more suitable
organisms again modify the environment. With this modification,
groups are again incapable of surviving as new colonizers appear that
are more suited to the environment. This results in competition among
the organisms such that the stronger ones survive and the weak ones
die off with their decay forming food as well as adding nutrients to the
habitat.

The changes occur in species structure, composition, different varieties

of plants and animals with increase in numbers. Ecological succession
can be studied in abandoned farmland, pond, lawn, and building sites.

The initial organisms are usually less hardy species of plants and
animals and the starting point of succession is the formation of soil or
land.

In aquatic habitat, the environment is often a newly formed pond that

has shallow water with microscopic plants and animals like bacteria,
algae and protozoa. These are sample in structure, exhibit simple live
processes and easy to make complex populations

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION.

For ecological succession to take place, the following must be present:

i. Colonizing materials
ii. Colonizers
iii. Soil formation-terrestrial habitat
iv. Pond or seashore-Aquatic habitat
● Followed by rooted and flowing aquatic plants

● Followed by marsh with partially submerged plants like

sedges and reeds.
● Followed by dry soil with shrubby growth
 ● Shrubby growth is finally succeeded by forest which is the
stable or climax community.
Initial succession once started occurs at a fast rate which gradually
slows down. The colonizers have short life cycle and low nutrient
requirements. Their remains decay and add mineral salts and other
organic materials that improve the quality of the soil.

At the beginning of succession, the rate of changes occurs at a very fast

rate and gradually slows down to a climax community when no more
natural changes are taking place.

Initial biotic colonizers such as Lichens, Mosses, Algae and Liverworts

have short life cycles and low nutrient requirements. Their remains
decay and add mineral salts and other organic materials to enrich the
soil quality.

TYPES OF SUCCESSION

Two main types of succession are recognized by ecologists.

i. Primary Succession
ii. Secondary Succession
i. Primary Succession: This takes place in an area where biotic
communities are absent, i.e. bare rocks or ground and involves the
formation of soil in a terrestrial habitat. This process unfolds in areas
where no soil or living organisms exist, such as barren rock surfaces,
newly formed volcanic islands, or retreating glaciers. It begins with the
colonization of pioneer species, often simple plants like lichens and
mosses, which gradually break down the rocks and create small amounts
of organic matter. Over time, this organic matter accumulates, and soil
starts to form, enabling more complex plant species to take root. As the
vegetation becomes more diverse, it attracts a wider array of animal
species, establishing a more stable and resilient ecosystem. In aquatic
habitat, it occurs in lakes and ponds filled with sediments and
vegetation that will become swamps and at last, forests. Primary
succession takes a long time to reach climax. Certain natural
phenomenon like land slide, extreme drought, sand dunes,
earthquake, thunder storm and hurricanes also give rise to primary
succession.

ii. Secondary Succession

Secondary Succession occurs in an area that was previously existing on

a terrestrial habitat that had disturbances leaving soil and certain
organisms behind. Disturbances like fire disasters, droughts or floods.
Secondary Succession is much faster than primary Succession. This is as
a result of the existing soil and suppressed plants that can easily start
the process. This type of succession occurs in areas that have
experienced a disturbance, such as forest fires, logging, or abandoned
farmland. Unlike primary succession, secondary succession starts in
areas that already have soil and remnants of the previous ecosystem.
Pioneer species, which are often fast-growing and highly adaptable,
quickly colonize the area and pave the way for other plant and animal
species to reestablish the ecosystem. Over time, the community evolves
and transitions towards its pre-disturbance state or a new, more stable
climax community.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A STABLE COMMUNITY

A climax or stable community has peculiar characteristics such as:

i. A stable community is not totally homogenous. It changes with age
ii. It depends on the climate of the region and it is a state of dynamic
equilibrium with the climate and it is self-sustaining.
iii. Its numerous micro-habitats are inhabited by the different
organisms.
iv. A climax community has the biggest, tallest and most highly
developed vegetation the habitat can support.
A CLIMAX COMMUNITY
A climax community is the stable and self-sustaining ecological
endpoint in the process of ecological succession. It represents the final
stage of succession, where the community has reached its maximum
complexity and species composition remains relatively stable over time.
This stage is characterized by a balance between the various plant and
animal species, forming intricate interrelationships within the ecosystem.

OVERCROWDING

Overcrowding occurs when the number of organisms in a habitat are

more than the resources such food, nutrients in case of plants, light,
space available to the organisms. The phenomenon implies that the
population has increased beyond the carrying capacity of the habitat.

POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY.

Population is the total number of organisms of the same species living

in a particular area at a particular time e.g, population of students in a
school, population of snakes in a farm land. Population density is the
average number of organisms of a species per unit area of a habitat.

For example,

● The population of a state is the total number of individuals in the

state.
● Population density of the state is Total number of people
Area of the state

Population density can be determined mathematically using the

following formulae

Population density = Population size

Area of Habitat

For example;
(a) If the area of a classroom is 40m 2and the number of students in the
class is 80. What is the population density?

Population density = Population size =80

40m2 40

= 2 students per square meter

(b) If 80 students are in a class room whose area is 40m 2. What is the
space available to each student?

Space per organism can be determined by using the formula:

Space = Area of the classroom =40 = ½m2

No of students 80

Population size is determined by multiplying density with total area of

the habitat.

Population size = Population density X Area of the habitat

Increase in population density reduces available resources per

organism. This automatically results in competition and struggle
between the organism for the available space and resources. In this
struggle, organisms that compete better will survive while the weak
ones will die off.

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

The following are the factors that could make the population of a given
place to increase or decrease:
i. Natality: This factor brings about increase in population as a result
of production of young ones.
ii. Mortality: This brings about decrease in population as a result of
death.
iii. Immigration: Increase in population as a result of individual
moving into an area from another area.
iv. Migration: decrease in population as a result of individuals
moving away from an area.
v. Abiotic factors such as temperature, water, light, oxygen, food,
soil and availability of space affects population either positively or
negatively.
vi. Biotic factors such as predation, competition, parasitism, diseases,
natality, mortality, terrestrial behavior and dispersal of seeds also
affects population.
IMPORTANCE OF FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION.

A number of factors affect the population of a habitat. These factors

are known as environmental resistance. They include biotic and abiotic
factors. Examples of biotic factors are: water, light, heat, space, soil and
its content, temperature, rainfall, food (animals) and essential nutrients
for plants and plant growth. Excess or scarcity of the above factors
usually affects the population. In animal population, abundance of food
will result in the animal feeding well, increased rapid and healthy
growth and increased reproduction which will in turn increase the
population

Likewise scarcity shortage in food supply will result in animals

struggling and competing for the available food thus poor feeding and
starvation will set in. these in turn will result in poor growth, poor and
delay in reproduction which will end up in reduction in population.

Birth Rate: This is the rate at which mammals produce young ones.
Increase in birth rate will increase the population while decrease in
birth rate will decrease the population.

Death Rate: This is the rate at which animals die. Increase in the
numbers of individuals that die reduces the population while decrease
in the number of individuals that die increases the population.
Abiotic factors like water and light when insufficient for plants will
affect plant growth and yield. Shortage of water could result in wilting
or even the plant drying up, poor yield and food shortage. Food
shortage will trigger off several ecological behaviours among
communities

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUCCESSION AND COMPETITION

Succession refers to the series of changes that takes place in animals

and plants that inhabit an environment at different times until a stable
community emerge.

Competition is the interaction that occurs between members of the

same population, two or more population in a community in the
process of obtaining needed resources such as food, light, water, space
and mates that are in short supply in a given habitat at a given time.
The pioneer colonizers are usually species with simple life processes
and simple structures and are not species adapted to withstand harsh
environmental conditions. Yet, their activities improve the conditions of
the environment making it possible for new species to grow. Activities
of the new species further usher in improved conditions. As a result of
the improved conditions, the pioneer colonizers and some of the new
ones, no longer fit into the changed environment.Both old and new
inhabitants now compete for limited resources. New species eventually
succeed in becoming dominant. The pioneers are subsequently pushed
out from the habitat in the sense that they gradually die out as the
environmental changes become too complex for them to survive.

The dominant species again further improves the environment making

it to be less suitable for them to survive in while new species are again
enabled to survive and compete more successfully with them.

FACTORS THAT CAUSE OVER-CROWDING.

Factors that can result in overcrowding are:

 i. Increased natality- increase in birth rate
ii. Reduced mortality- reduction in death due to favourable factors.
iii. Reduced death rate- abundant food, favourable conditions.
iv. Absence of predators- few or no predators to prey on organisms.
v. Inadequate space- available space is small thus there will be
congestion
vi. Social habits in social insects such as bee’s wasps and ants.
vii. Absence of dispersal- when seeds and fruits fall directly under
parent plant and germinate.
viii. Immigration- more individuals coming into a place
ix. Favourable food supply- increase in food supply to a particular
habitat will attract more individuals to increase the population
which eventually will lead to overcrowding.
SUB-TOPIC 3: MEASURES USED BY NATURE TO AVOID
OVERCROWDING

Naturally, different organisms have developed different means of

overcoming overcrowding. Some of these methods are as follows:
i. Dispersal of seeds and fruits: animals such as birds, insects, and
man help in spreading seeds and fruits from parent plants to distant
places where they germinate and grow thereby avoiding
overcrowding. Explosive mechanism is also used by plants to
dispose seeds and fruits far away from the parent plant. Otherwise,
matured seed and fruits would fall directly under the parent plant
and germinate and cause serious overcrowding.
ii. Migration of organisms: with adverse conditions, organisms tend
to move from the congested area to another. Usually, the
movement is to areas where the conditions are more favourable.
The organisms move from the overcrowded area to areas where
there are fewer organisms. This is called emigration as the
organisms move outside the habitat to reduce overcrowding.
iii. Territorial behaviours: to overcome overcrowding, some
organisms claim some areas to themselves guard it and ensure no
other organisms of the same specie do not come in. Lizards, some
 birds Tilapia fish are examples of organisms that exhibit territorial
behaviour.
iv. Irruption: This refers to the large scale emigration of animals at
irregular intervals to reduce overcrowding e.g Locust.
EVALUATION:

List and explain four ways organisms naturally reduce overcrowding

with examples.

Overcrowding on the London Underground

London, England, is Europe’s biggest city, and this puts tremendous

pressure on its public transportation system. As this picture shows, the
London Underground can be very uncomfortable to use, particularly
during rush hours. The aging infrastructure of some lines also creates
problems.

SUB-TOPIC 4: FOOD SHORTAGE AND ITS EFFECT

One of the very essential resources in a habitat for which organisms

compete is food. Food is essential for growth, repairs and reproduction.
As earlier said, abundance of food in a habitat can lead to increased
population which may result in overcrowding.

However, scarcity of food in any habitat or among any population of

organisms has adverse effect such as reducing growth and
reproduction.

Causes of food shortage

Some causes of food shortage are:

1. Overpopulation: Overpopulation occurs when increase in
population is not matched with corresponding increase in food
production.
2. Drought: Severe drought which is absence of rainfall for a
prolonged period of time will adversely affect agricultural
activities that will lead to poor harvest eventually food shortage.
3. Natural disasters such as war, floods and earthquakes can
destroy farmlands, result in poor or no harvest and automatically
food shortage.
4. Poor storage facilities: In developing countries like ours, a lot of
harvests of agricultural products are wasted due to inadequate
processing and storage of farm products which results in food
shortage.
5. Diseases of plants and animals: Certain diseases such as mealy
bug diseases of cassava, mosaic virus of tomato, pepper, and
avian flu in birds cause sicknesses in these organisms giving rise
to poor production.
EFFECT OF FOOD SHORTAGE

Food shortages have adverse effects on organisms in any population.

Some effects of food shortage are as follows:
i. Competition for available food occurs. This result in aggression,
cannibalism, predation and survival of the ‘‘fittest’’ results. There
are two types of competition:
a. Intraspecific competition
 b. Interspecific competition
ii. Food shortage results in poor feeding which can result in poor
growth, delayed maturity and reduction in the rate of reproduction.
Increase mortality and increase maternity rates are possible
consequences.
iii. It can result in under functioning of body organs and systems,
lower resistance to diseases with resultant death from sicknesses
and diseases.
iv. Food shortage results in emigration that is movement of
individuals i.e., organisms out of the habitat to other habitat or
community in search of food thereby reducing the population.

SUB-TOPIC 2: DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

The biotic community in each ecosystem is composed of population of
many species. An ecosystem with a stable climax community, the
population sizes of the various species are constant. For each species the
population size fluctuates around the carrying capacity of the habitat for
that particular species. The various populations in a climax community
are said to be in balance or in dynamic equilibrium. The equilibrium is
said to be dynamic because though the population remain constant, new
individuals are being added while the existing ones are removed all the
time. Rate of addition is equal to the rate of removal.
Dynamic equilibrium is maintained by two major factors that relate
to density
I.Density –independent factors: some factors affecting growth of a
population irrespective of its population density.
Examples of such factors are:
(a) Sudden changes in weather conditions
(b) Natural disaster like flood, fire, drought, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis, storm, presence of pollutants, etc.
These events may wipe out large number of individuals in a population
and are independent of the number of individuals in a population
II. Density dependent factors: these are factors that affect the growth
of a population and are dependent on the number of individual in a
population.
Examples Of density dependent factors are
(a) Diseases
(b) Predation
(c) Competition
(d) Parasitism
These factors have a greater effect on densely populated areas than
sparsely populated area
For instance, as population increases food availability decreases and
disease outbreak occur more frequently. These may lead to low birth rate
and high mortality rate thereby reducing the population.
Therefore as population size increases, density dependent factors cause
population growth to slow down and help check definite population
growth
Response of population to factors affecting themThere can be
fluctuations in population size. This can be due to seasonal changes in
the environment such as rainfall and temperature.
Seasonal population fluctuations
During favourable condition like dry seasons or extreme temperatures,
the population size of a particular species usually decreases while
favourable conditions like plenty of food supply during raining season
lead to increase in population size,
During wet seasons in grassland, shrubs and grasses start to grow. The
population of herbivores in the community also increases rapidly due to
mating and return f migrated individuals. With the arrival if the dry
season many plant wither and die off. This leads to the decrease in the
population size of the herbivores that feed on the plants. Some of the
herbivores migrate to other greener pastures. Low birth rate, high death
rate and migration tend to reduce the population of the herbivores.
Fluctuation of predator – prey populations:
In nature the interactions between predators and preys may lead to
regular cyclical fluctuation in population size. When predators feed on
prey, the prey population decreases. This result in greater competition
among the predators. Death rate of the weaker predators increases
leading to the decline in the predators’ population with less predator, the
birth rate of the prey population increases leading to increases in the size
of the prey population. The cycle is then repeated.
SUB-TOPIC 3: FAMILY PLANNING.
In nature, population of living things grows exponentially until they
meet with environmental resistance. Each population stabilizes at a
certain size which can be supported by its habitats. The human
population is however an exception to this usual situation. Through the
effort of humans, the human population can be controlled through birth
control and family planning.A couple can plan when to have children
and when not to have children even if they have sexual intercourse.
Family planning is therefore the use of birth control methods to
determine the number and timing of children born in the family.
Birth control methods are in four main groups.
i. Natural method
ii. Mechanical Method
iii. Chemical Method
iv. Surgical Method
i. Natural method:
(a) Rhythm methods: This is also known as safe-period method. It
based on the fact that in every menstrual cycle, there is a fertile
period when ovulation is most likely to occur. For pregnancy to be
prevented, sexual intercourse is to be avoided during the period. The
fertile period may be from the 12th to the 16th day from the
beginning of menstruation. This method however is most unreliable
as many other factors such as emotional stress and illness may alter
the length of the menstrual cycle.
(b) Withdrawal method: this is also known as coitus interruptus. It
involves the withdrawal of the penis from the vaginal just before
ejaculation. This method is unreliable as some viable semen may
enter the vagina before ejaculation.
ii. Mechanical methods:
(a) Condom: this is also known as a sheath. It is a thin rubber tube that
is used to cover the erect penis before intercourse. A small teat at the
end of the sheath collects the semen. If used properly, this method is
quite reliable. It also helps to protect the user against diseases. The
condom is impermeable and prevents germs from semen to set in
contact with the vaginal wall and likewise germs from the vaginal
wall of an infected female from entering the urethra of the male.
(b) Diaphragm: this is dome –shaped rubber cap with an elastic rim. It
is inserted into the top of the vaginal and placed over the cervix, thus
preventing sperms from getting into the uterus. A spermicidal cream
may be used together with the cap to kill the sperms.
(c) Intra-uterine device (IUD): this is a coil or loop of plastic inserted
into the uterus to prevent the implantation of the fertilised egg into
the uterine wall.
 Tubal Sterilization
Tubal sterilization, or female sterilization, is an operation to prevent
pregnancy in which the fallopian tubes in the female reproductive
system are closed off so that the eggs produced by the ovaries cannot
be fertilized by sperm after sexual intercourse. Surgeons typically use
a laparascope, a thin, hollow tube inserted via a tiny incision in the
abdominal wall, in this procedure. The tubes may be closed off by a
variety of methods including cauterization, searing the tubes closed
with burning heat; clamping using plastic clips that remain in the
body; constriction using a plastic band; or cutting away a section of
the tube and tying off the severed ends.
iii. Chemical methods:
(a) Spermicides: these are chemical agents which are used to kill
sperms. They may be in the form of a cream, jelly, foam or tablet.
The spermicides are placed high into the vagina before intercourse.
When used in conjunction with the diaphragm or condom, it offer
greater protection
(b) Contraceptive pills: these pills contain female sex hormones
(oestrogen and progesterone like hormone) that prevent ovulation.
One pill must be taken every 24 hours from the 5 th to the 25th day
from onset of menstruation. She then stops taking the pill for
 menstruation to occur. She repeats the cycle again from the 5 th day.
This methods is very reliable if instruction are duly followed
(c) Depo-provera: this contraceptive is injected into the body of the
female to prevent ovulation. The injection is effective in preventing
pregnancy for three month.
iv. Surgical methods:
(a) Vasectomy: this sterilization procedure is carried out on males
through a minor surgical operation. The sperm duct is tied and cut
thus preventing sperms from reaching the penis so that no sperms are
discharged during sexual intercourse. His sexual characteristics are
not affected by this procedure.
(b) Tubal ligation: in the female, both oviducts (fallopian tubes are cut
and tied back. This prevents the sperms in the uterus from reaching
the egg. The above sterilization procedure is most the most reliable
contraceptive methods but it is irreversible.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SEEDS
SUB-TOPIC I: PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE
IN THE FLOWERING PLANT

Meaning of seed
Seeds are plant parts containing embryo and this embryo give rise to
new individual.
Pollination is the first step in the process of sexual reproduction in
flowering plants. It is followed by fertilization and development of
zygote. These steps change the flower into a fruit enclosing seeds, the
potential next plant

Pollination: this is the process whereby mature pollen grains are

transferred from the anthers to the mature stigmas or pollination is the
transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the mature stigma of a
flower.

There are two types of pollination, They are:

i. Cross pollination
ii. Self pollination
Bumblebee Pollinating
When a bee such as this bumblebee visits a flower, tiny grains called
pollen stick to the bee. The bee then carries the pollen to another flower.
This process, known as pollination, is necessary for many plants to make
seeds and fruit.

i. Cross Pollination
Cross pollination occurs when the pollen grains from one flower are
transferred to the mature stigma of another plant of the same species.

Features Of Cross Pollination

i. Male and female reproductive parts occur in different flowers i.e.
the flowers are unisexual
ii. If the plant is dioecious, then the male and the female flower occur
on different plants of the same species.
iii. In monoecious plants, where male and female flowers occur on the
same plants, self pollination is prevented by:
(a) The stamens ripening before the stigmas (flower is described as
being protandrous e.g. sunflower, sativa)
(b) The stigmas ripening before the stamen (protogynous e.g.
grasses)
iv. Self sterility which may occur in some flowers. This means that the
pollen will not fertilize the ovary of the same flower or another
flower of the same plant because the pollen cannot grow or grows
slowly on the stigma. The flower eventually dies before
fertilization occurs. Examples of this are the flowers of many
leguminous plants and Ixora
v. Some upright cross pollinated flowers have their stamen arranged
below the stigmas. This will prevent pollination and may ensure
that the visiting insect touches the stigmas before the stamens.

ii. Self Pollination

Self pollination occurs when the pollen grains from a flower are
transferred to the mature stigma of the same plant of the same species.

Features of Self Pollinated Flowers

1. In composite plants e.g. sunflower, the flowers first have a chance of
cross pollination hence they are protandrous. If cross pollination fails,
the self pollination occurs by the stigmas growing and curling backward
to pick up pollen grains remaining in their styles.

Sunflower Cosmos

2. Some flowers do not open, so that self pollination occurs in them.

Such cleistogamous flowers are often small and inconspicuous in some
normal flowers e.g. cowpea, self pollination occurs before the flower
opens.
3. The structure of some flowers e.g. caladium (ornamental cocoyam)
enables them to trap insects which brings about self pollination.

Agents of Pollination
These include:
i. Insects, birds, bats, and other animals
ii. Wind
 iii. Water

Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers

i. they have brightly coloured parts e.g. corolla, bracts
ii. The pollen grains are often rough and stick to the insect’s body
easily.
iii. They are often scented
iv. They often have broad or rounded sticky stigmas for the visit of
particular kinds of insects
v. The flowers have structural modifications suited for the visit of
particular kinds of insects.
vi. They contain nectar, sugary liquid which serves as food for many
insect pollinators.
vii. Some flowers have nectar guides (lines or patches) leading the
insects to the position of the nectary gland.

Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers

i. They are often unisexual e.g. grasses.
ii. Pollen grains are produced abundantly to make up for the loss of
many in transit
iii. Pollen grains are light and smooth to float easily in the wind.
iv. Anthers are often large and hinged on flexible filament. This
arrangement makes it easy for pollen grain to be easily shaken off.
v. Styles and stamen are long extending beyond the flower.
vi. Stigmas are often feathery for easy trapping of pollen in the air.
vii. Flowers are dull, without scent and nectar.
viii. Perianth is often absent but becomes reduced if present.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SELF POLLINATION AND CROSS
POLLINATION
SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION
1. Transfer of pollen grains from 1. Transfer of pollen grain from
the anther to a stigma of the the anther to the stigma of
same flower or another flower another plant but of the same
of the same plant. species.
2. Only one parent is involved 2. two parents are involved
3. it does not result in new 3. It results in new varieties.
varieties
 FERTILIZATION AND ZYGOTE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
IN FLOWERING PLANT
Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes.After pollination,
a pollen grain sends out a pollen tube through the stigma and style into
the ovary, finally reaching the ovule. Within the pollen tube are two
nuclei and a pollen tube nucleus which is responsible for the
development of the pollen tube. The moment the pollen tube reaches the
ovule through the micropyle, the pollen tube nucleus disappears. Each
ovule consists of a large oval shaped cell called embryo sac which is
surrounded by two protective coats called integuments. Integuments
later give rise to seed coat.
The mature embryo sac contains eight nuclei, two called secondary
nuclei.

Flower Pollination and Fertilization

Flowers contain the structures necessary for sexual reproduction. The
male component, or stamen, consists of a thin stalk called the filament,
capped by the anther. The female component, the pistil, includes the
stigma, a sticky surface that catches pollen; the ovary, which contains
the ovule and embryo sac with its egg; and the style, a tube that connects
the stigma and ovary (A). Pollen is produced in the anther (B), and is
released when mature (C). Each mature pollen grain contains two sperm
cells. In self-pollinating plants, the pollen lands on the stigma of the
same flower, but in cross-pollinating plants—the majority of plants—the
pollen is carried by wind, water, insects, or small animals to another
flower. If the pollen attaches to the stigma of a flower from the same
species, the pollen produces a pollen tube, which grows down the neck
of the style, transporting the sperm to the ovule (D). Within the embryo
sac of the ovule, one sperm cell fertilizes the egg, which develops into a
seed. The second sperm cell unites with two cells in the embryo sac
called polar nuclei, and this results in the development of the endosperm,
the starchy food that feeds the developing seed. The ovary enlarges (E)
and becomes a fruit.
Embryo sac and its fertilization
One of the two male nuclei fuses with the female nucleus (ovum) to
form the zygote and the second male nucleus fuses with the secondary
nucleus to form endosperm.The zygote later forms the embryo, the ovule
form the seed and the ovary forms the fruit.A fruit which develops
without fertilization is described as Pathenocarpic.
A seed is a dormant embryo sporophyte with stored food and protective
coats.
A seed consists of;
i. A plumule, made up of two embryonic leaves which will
become the first true leaves of the seedling and a terminal (apical)
bud.
ii. The hypocotyle and radicle which will grow into the stem and
primary root.

Angiosperms that produce seeds with two cotyledons are called

dicotyledons e.g. bean and those that have a single cotyledon are called
monocotyledons e.g. maize grain and other grass seeds.
Seeds

Differences between Pollination And Fertilization

POLLINATION FERTILIZATION
1. No fusion of male and female 1. Involves fusion of male and
gamete female gametes
2. Pollination takes place 2. Fertilization takes place
externally internally
3. Germination tube not formed 3. Germination tube formed
4. Agent is required 4. Agent is not required
5. Involve the transfer of pollen 5. Pollen grains not involved.
grains
6. Zygote not formed 6. Zygote formed
7. One gamete is involved 7. Two gametes are involved.
GERMINATION OF SEEDS
Germination is the stage when embryo develops into a seedling and it
also refers to all the changes that occur when the embryo in a seed
resumes its growth and development to become an independent seedling.
When seed is about to germinate, it absorbs several times its own weight
of water and swells up.
TYPES OF GERMINATION
There are two types of germination:
i. Epigeal germination: This is when the hypocotyl grows rapidly and
elongates carrying the cotyledon above the soil where they carry out
photosynthesis before the first foliage leaves develop.
 Epigeal germination is also referred to as a type of germination in which
the cotyledon is carried above the soil.
Examples of plants with epigeal germination are castor and cowpea
plant

Description of Epigeal Germination

i. Seed absorbs/imbibes water and swells.
ii. Testa splits and the radicle emerges
iii. The hypocotyls of the germinating seed elongates
iv. It pushes the seed out of the soil.
v. The cotyledon(s) become exposed to the sunlight
vi. Cotyledons turn green to photosynthesize
vii. The plumule develops into a green shoot
viii. The cotyledon(s) dry up/shrink and fall off.

ii. Hypogeal Germination

The epicotyls grow rapidly and elongates, leaving the cotyledons in the
soil. Hypogeal germination is the type of germination in which the
cotyledons remain in the soil.
Examples of plants with hypogeal germination are maize, gram seed and
yam bean.

Hypogeal and Epigeal germination

Differences between EpigealAnd Hypogeal Germination
Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination
1. Hypocotyl elongates 2. Epicotyl elongates
2. Cotyledon emerges out of the 2. Cotyledon remains in the soil
soil
3. Cotyledon(s) turns 3. Cotyledons do not
green/photosynthesis photosynthesis
4. Plumule does not emerge Plumule emerges
simultaneously with the radical simultaneously with theradical
5. Food/energy derived from 5. Food/energy derived from
cotyledon endosperm

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR GERMINATION

External conditions are:
i. Availability of water,
ii. Temperature/warmth and
iii. Availability of oxygen.
Internal conditions are:
i. Enzymes
ii. Energy/food and
iii. Viability of seed

EXPERIMENT 1: to show the conditions necessary for germination.

Put some cotton wool at the bottom of four test tubes marked 1-4 and
place five cowpea seeds in each test tube.
Test tube 1: Put in a warm place so that there is warmth and oxygen but
no water.
Test tube 2: Add boiled but cooled water and cover the water surface
with oil. Put in a warm place so that there is water and warmth but no
air.
Test tube 3: Add some water just to moisten the cotton wool. Put in a
warm place so that air, water and warmth are provided.
Test tube 4: set as in test tube 3 but keep in a refrigerator so that air and
water are present but there is no warmth.
Germination will occur in tube 3, showing that air, water and warmth are
necessary conditions for germination.
EXPERIMENT 2: To show that oxygen is necessary for germination
Prepare two gas jars as in test tube 3 of Experiment 1. Label the first jar
A and the second jar B. Add some progallic acid dissolved in sodium
hydroxide to jar A and leave the set up for a few days.
Note:
The pyrogallic acid dissolved in sodium hydroxide absorbs oxygen from
the air in gas jar A
Both gas jars are placed in a warm place and made air tight by applying
grease.
Gas jar B is the control, having normal air, water, warmth but no
pyrogallic acid.
Germination will be observed only in gas jar B

SEED DORMANCY
This is an inactive period of a seed during which growth
slows/completely ceases due to certain internal or external factors
TOPIC: FRUITS
CONTENT: 1. Structure of fruits
2. Types of fruits
3. Dispersal of fruits
4. Agents of dispersal

MEANING OF FRUIT
Fruit is the structure that developed from the matured ovary after
fertilization which contains the seed. Some fruits do not develop from
fertilized ovary and are called parthenocarpic fruit. Fruit contains the
pericarp (epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp).
Structure of a fruit

Fruits

Simple Aggregate Multiple

Dry Dehiscent Dry Indehiscent Fleshy

Legume or pod Achene Drupe

Follicle Cypsela Berry
Capsule Caryopsis Pome
Schizocarp Nut Hesperidium
Siliqua Samara

TYPES OF FRUITS
Fruits can be classified based on their origin or structure. These include:
i. True and false fruit
ii. Simple, aggregate and composite (multiple) fruit
iii. Fleshy and dry fruit
iv. Dehiscent and indehiscent fruits
Simple fruits: Formed from one flower having either a monocarpous or
syncarpous pistil.
Aggregate fruits: Formed from one flower having an apocarpous pistil
Multiple fruits: these are fruits formed from many flowers whose
ovaries unite together with other parts of the flower after fertilization or
one that develops from several flowers inflorescence e.g. pineapple,
bread fruit etc.

SIMPLE FRUITS
The simple fruits can be divided into dry and fleshy fruits. A dry fruit is
the type of fruit in which the pericarp becomes dry, hard and woody or
fibrous when the fruit ripens. Dry fruit may be dehiscent or indehiscent.

DRY DEHISCENT FRUIT: These are fruit with hard and dry pericarp
which can split to release their seeds. The dry dehiscent fruit can be
divided into five namely: the follicle, legumes, schizocarps, capsule and
Siliqua
Follicle: The follicle are fruits that are formed from one carpel and
which can split along one side only e.g. kola
Legume: These are fruits that are formed from one carpel that splits
along two sides e.g. cowpea, crotolaria and all bean species
Capsule: These are fruits formed from fused carpels and split
longitudinally along two or more lines e.g. okra, castor oil and cotton
Schizocarps: These are many seeded fruits which break up into one
seeded parts called mericarp e.g. Mimosapudica (sensitive plant) and
Desmodium
Siliqua: A long narrow capsule formed from bicapellary ovary. It has
two chambers separated by a false septum or reptum. It dehisces by the
sutures e.g.Teconia

DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITS: These are the fruits that do not split to
release their seeds. Dry indehiscent fruits are divided into five.
Achene: The fruit has dry pericarp and contain one seed e.g. cashew,
nut, sunflower fruit, four O’clock plant, rose and clematis
Caryopsis: the caryopsis is a one-seeded dry indehiscent fruit in which
the pericarp becomes fused with testa. Examples are rice, maize and
millet
Cypsela: the cypsela is one-seeded dry fruit with hairy pappus and hairy
pericarp. Examples are Tridax, Emilia and goat weed.
Nut: A nut is a dry fruit with a very hard or woody or tough pericarp e.g.
the hard part of cashew fruit, ground nut, palm nut and cola nut, walnut,
and almond.
Samara: A samara has the pericarp extended to form one or more wings
e.g. Combretum, Obeche tree and pterocarpous (African rose wood)

FLESHY FRUITS: Fleshy fruits are juicy, succulent and indehiscent.

They store large quantities of water and carbohydrate in their tissue.
There are six main types of fleshy fruits namely:
Drupe: This is a true simple fruit with a well-developed pericarp. The
epicarp is thin, the mesocarp is fleshy or fibrous and the endocarp is
hard and stony. The latter encloses one or more seeds. The hard
endocarp with its seed is known as the stone of the fruit e.g. mango,
coconut and oil palm fruit.
Berry: A berry is a true simple fruit with a well-developed pericarp. The
endocarp is not stony as in drupe. The endocarp is usually a thin
membrane covering which is closely attached to fleshy mass made up of
the mesocarp and endocarp. Sometimes the whole fruit is eaten.
Examples are guava, tomatoes, banana, lemon grape, cucumber date.
Pome: A Pome is a simple false fruit. Examples are apples and pears. In
a Pome, the outer covering and the fleshy edible part are formed by the
swelling of the receptacle. Only the core is formed from the ovary.
Hesperidium: A Hesperidium is a true simple fruit made up of
chambers separated by a sheet of endocarp. The epicarp and mesocarp
are fused together in form of a skin (or rind) e.g. orange, lemon, etc.
Differences between fruit and seed
Fruit Seed
1. Formed from ovary Formed from ovule
2. has two scars or points: Has one scar or point
-the remains of style or -where it was attached to the
stigma placenta
-where it was attached to
the floral receptacle
3. Consist of a seed or seeds Consist of an embryo
4. Has pericarp Has testa

Differences between drupe and berry

Drupe Berry
1. Pericarp consists of epicarp, fleshy Pericarp also consist of three
mesocarp and hard endocarp layers but the endocarp is
fleshy
2. Entire fruit is not eaten Entire fruit is eaten
3. Developed from flower with Developed from flowers with
superior ovaries either superior or inferior
ovaries
4. One-seeded Several seeds
5. examples are mango, coconut, oil Examples are tomato, guava,
palm fruit banana, cucumber

SUB-TOPIC 2: DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

After the formation and maturation of fruits and seeds, they sometimes
fall from the parents to the ground. The number of seeds produced by a
single plant is often very large. Most of them perish while some are
eaten by animals.
Others may fall on the ground already occupied or unfavourable to the
particular plant. When seedlings develop close to the parent plant, they
soon become overcrowded. They compete among themselves and the
parent plant for light, water, mineral salts and other essential soil
constituent so that the strongest seedlings finally survive.
To prevent this, fruits and seeds of most plants are adapted so that they
can be scattered far away from the parents, hence fruits and seeds are
dispersed.
milkweed; wind dispersal of seeds

ADVANTAGES OF DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

i. Prevent overcrowding.
ii. Reduce degree of unhealthy competition between plants.
iii. Introduction of plant species into new environment where they
may be better adapted.
iv. The dispersal of fruits and seeds also helps to cover barren pieces
of land with vegetation.
AGENTS OF DISPERSAL
The common agents that bring about dispersal are;
i. Wind
ii. Animal
iii. Water
iv. Man
v. Explosive mechanisms or explosion

i. By Wind: Fruits/seeds carried by the wind or air current must be light,

small and have light membranous wings and also having long hairy or
thread-like structures which act as parachutes in the air.
Wind dispersal is a wasteful process because a great number of seeds
may be dropped on sterile or unstable groundor may be carried out into
the sea e.g. cotton, poppy, clematics, shorea and augsana, tridax fruit and
also Bouganvillea.
ii. By Animal: Animals like birds, fruit bats and monkeys may be agents
of dispersal of fruits and seeds. Many animals feed on the soft succulent
fruits but they either discard the strong protected seed of berries, the
stony endocarp of drupes and achene or they may swallow them. In the
latter case, many of the hardened parts are resistant to enzymes that they
pass through the gut without harm and when later dropped can germinate
successfully e.g. guava, tomato.
Fruits and seeds may be carried externally on an animal’s body by
reason of the fact that special hooks or spines which catch in the fur or
wool (hairy coats of animals e.g. Desmodium)

iii. Dispersal by Water: The seed of certain water lilies have air spaces
in the pericarp which give the buoyancy required in water. Coconut fruit
achieves dispersal of its single seed by floating to new location.

iv. Dispersal by Man: Dispersal of many fruits and seeds have been
aided by the agricultural practices of man e.g. guava, sweet potato and
cassava which are native to tropical America now found in all tropical
areas in the world.
Seeds of weeds are accidentally transported from one part of the world
to another by man’s activities.

v. Dispersal by Explosive Mechanism (Self Dispersal): when the fruit

wall dries as in the African oil bean, it splits and twists throwing the
seed out. The legumes of many bean plants e.g. (Acacia and
Ceasalpinia) burst open when ripe. This is by the drying up of the
pericarp which causes contraction and splitting e.g. fruit of legumes,
pride of Barbados and capsules (fruit of okra-Hibiscus esculentus)
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL
1. Arrange the following fruits into either simple or aggregate fruit
group: beans, orange, tomato, kola and strawberry
2. Classify orange, mango, pride of Barbados, cashew, apple, pineapple,
okra, cotton seed as follows
i. Fleshy fruits
ii. Dehiscent fruits
iii. False fruits
iv. Indehiscent fruits
v. Multiple fruits
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN ANIMALS
CONTENT:1. Paring
2. Territoriality
3. Display of body colours
4. Seasonal migration

SUB-TOPIC 1: COURTSHIP BEHAVIOURS IN ANIMALS

Courtship is a collection of ritualized behaviours unique to each species
that lead up to and enable animals to have successful mating. Courtship
may be simple,involving a small number of chemical, visual or auditory
stimuli. It may also be a highly complex series of acts by two or more
individuals using several modes of communication. It helps strengthen
pair bonds that may last through rising of the young. It particularly helps
birds to select compatible or best mates and ensure viable offspring.

Types of Courtship Behavior

Different species of animals show different methods and signs unique to
them. Some courtship behavior of animals is as follows:
i. Paring
Many animal species exhibit pairing. These include toads, termites,
fishes, human and some mammals. Pairing refers to a behavior that
involves a mature male and female choosing each other and leaving their
fold. They usually go together in twos (pairs) for a fresh or different
place leaving the others behind. For instance, winged termites pair up
and eventually start a fresh colony elsewhere. In the new place, the
female becomes the king. Initially, the female attracts the male by
releasing a scanty hormone (pheromone).They shed off one wing and
later the second, first by the male and then followed by the female.
These paired termites are usually seen at the start of the rainy season,
swarming at night, especially near electric bulbs or lanterns.

ii. Territoriality
Territoriality is the behavior by which animal lay claim and defends an
area against others of its species and sometimes members of other
species. The territory defended could be hundreds of square miles in size
or only slightly larger than the animal itself. A single animal, a pair, a
family or entire herd may occupy the territory. Some animals use the
territory as a source food and shelter and thus hold and defend it year
round. Other animals establish a territory only at a certain time of the
year, when it is needed for attracting a mate, breeding or raising a
family.
The male Agama lizard exhibit territoriality. Usually there is only one
adult male Agama lizard in a territory which could be an exclusive
portion of a lawn, part of a roof or garden. Several female lizards and
young males are usually the other members of this territory. The adult
male lizard leads others back to its territory where they would stay
overnight for protection against danger or predators. To gain dominance,
the male becomes aggressive as soon as an intruding or rival adult male
lizard enters its territory. It may make loud noise, launch forward to an
opponent and even attempt to bite the rival male. It can threaten a rival
by bobbing its head and expanding its gular fold. If the rival does not
leave, a fight may ensue.
Establishment of territories ensures that there are enough compatible
mating partners, no overcrowding or even under-crowding.
Humans also exhibit territoriality as they too defend their home out of
jealousy.

iii. Display of Body Colours

Some animals carry out courtship exhibitions called displays. They are
designed to show their interest in mating. Such animals include birds
(fowls, hens, turkey and peacock) cricket, winged termite, lizard andhe-
goats. Display takes various forms in humans. They include the use of
perfume, voice (intonation), beauty, seductive walking, facial
expression, dressing and decoration. They use them to attract members
of the opposite sex.
Display may be in the form of spreading beautiful feathers, making
noise, wagging of tail, giving a hot chase, singing, dancing, feeding and
building nest.

Display is exhibited in the following ways in some animals;

i. Goat: - The he goat chases the she goats hotly and makes a
peculiar noise.
ii. Lizards:-In their natural habitat, the female curves its back and
rises up tail. The male in turn wags its tail, nods its head and
shows off its brightly coloured(red) head and body to the female.
The female could be attracted by this display.
iii. Cricket: - The male cricket attracts the female by making shrill
noise with its outer wings.
iv. Birds:-Different birds exhibit diverse types of display. These
include singing, dancing, feeding, building nests, preening and
showing off their beautiful feathers and body.
v. Fireflies: - The male fireflies use flashes of light when flying
around to seek mate. Female fireflies will use the same flashes to
communicate their readiness for the male if interested. Some
species even use different colours and intensities of light to signify
their intentions.

iv. Seasonal Migration

These are seasonal movement of animals in response to unfavorable
climatic conditions, food availability or to ensure reproduction. Animals
migrate in order to bear their young in places relatively safe from
predators and rich in resources. The female green turtles swim from their
feeding grounds off the coast of Brazil when the time for laying their
eggs draws near. They swim to tiny Ascension Island over 2000km
away, haul themselves unto the sandy beach, scrape out shallow nest,
and deposit their eggs. Once the eggs are deposited, they swim back to
Brazil.
The fresh water eels spend most of their adult lives in the river of North
America and Great Britain. However, during the spawning season, the
adult migrate more than 5000km to the weedy Sargasso Sea between
Bermuda and Puerto Rico to bread and spawn. The young eel take a year
or two to reach America shores and they are often three year old before
they reach European rivers where they feed and grow.

Types of migration include complete, partial, altitudinal, removal,

and latitudinal, reproductive, nomadic and irruptive migration.

TOPIC: BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY

CONTENT:
1. Transmission and expression of characters in organisms
2. Chromosomes the basis of heredity.
3. Probability in genetics.
4. Applications of principles of heredity
5. Explanation on cross and self-fertilization

BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY: GENETICS

Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation in living
organism. Scientists who study genetics are known as geneticists.
The laws of genetics were laid down by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian
monk, in 1866 although the work was not credited to him until 1900.
Johannsen, a Danish botanist called the ‘factors’ that transmitted
Mendel’s characters, genes in 1909.
Thomas Morgan, an American geneticist showed that genes were on
chromosomes, in 1912.

SUB-TOPIC 1: TRANSMISSION AND EXPRESSION OF

CHARACTERS IN ORGANISMS
Character is a distinct structural or functional feature of an organism.
Heredity is the transmission of inherited characters from parent to
offspring through genes.
Common experience has shown that plants and animals produce
offspring which look like them but are still not exactly like the parents.
Every member of a species shares in common a set of traits. These traits
or characters distinguish one species from the other.

Hereditary Variations
Hereditary variations refer to differences among individuals which can
be passed from parents to their offspring (progeny). Variations are due
to a new combination of genes. If variation makes an offspring more
suited to the environment more suited to the environment, it stands a
better chance of surviving and reproducing to pass on its genes to the
next generation.

Characters that can be transmitted

Only characters controlled by genes can be transmitted. A gene (or
genes) controlling a character direct the development of one or more
proteins. These proteins lead to the visible expression of the
character/trait.

These characters include:

i. Colour of the skin,
ii. Colour Eye
iii.Shape and colour of teeth
iv. Hair texture,
v. Length of neck,
 vi. Voice,
vii. Intelligence,
viii. Composure and
ix. Sickle cell anaemia in animals.
While in plants variations is characterized by
i. Height of plants,
ii. Colourof leaves and flowers,
iii. Size of seed and fruits and
iv. Pigmentation may be observed.
The sum total of genes that an offspring inherits from its parents is
referred to as its genotype or genetic make-up. The actual physical
expression of the character is the organism’s phenotype. The phenotype
is due to the interaction between an organism’s genotype and its
environment. For instance, a person may inherit genes for growing tall,
but malnutrition may result in the individual becoming stunted. This is a
modification of the inherited character brought about by the environment
and cannot be transmitted by the individual to its offspring. Such traits
are called acquired traits and they do not change the structure of genes.
A change in the structure of genes is called a mutation and can only be
inherited if it occurs in the gamete, gamete- producing cells or in the
zygote (germline mutations).

These variations may be described as;

i. Discontinuous hereditary variations
ii. Continuous hereditary variations

1. Discontinuous Hereditary Variations: In this type of variation there

is no in-between feature of the trait or character e.g.
(a) Sex is either male or female.
(b) A person is either a tongue roller or not.
(c) A person has sickle cell anaemia, is a carrier or has no sickle cell
trait.
(d) An individual may only have one blood group i.e. A, B, AB or O

2. Continuous Hereditary Variations: In this form of variation there is

a range of ever changing intermediate values of a given trait e.g.
(a) The height of a plant or person at a given period of time
(b) Size of leaves, fruits and roots of plants.
How Characters Get Transmitted
All the body (somatic) cells of plants and animals have a characteristic
number of chromosomes fixed for a particular species. These are
referred to as the diploid (2n) number. Humans have a diploid number of
forty six (46) chromosomes, there are twenty three kinds of
chromosomes meaning there are two of each kind present in the diploid
set. These paired chromosomes are alike and are said to be homologous.

Each chromosome is made up of genes and so controls the major

features of heredity. A gene for a particular character e.g. colour of the
eye exist at the same location or locus on two homologous
chromosomes. Genes that occupy the same relative position or loci on
homologous chromosomes but separate during meiosis are referred to as
alleles; the pair is known as allelic pair.

Alleles produce contrasting characters e.g. a tall or short pea plant, have
alleles T and t respectively. A gene may affect more than one character
and some characters may be affected by more than one gene e.g.
intelligence, hair texture and hair color. When gametes are formed
during meiosis, the homologous chromosomes separate so that each
gamete will contain one allele or allelomorphic gene. During sexual
reproduction, gametes of the male and female parent fuse (fertilization)
to form the zygote. The zygote is diploid (2n) because one haploid set of
chromosomes is contributed by each parent. Thus the offspring that
develops from the zygote combine characters inherited from parents.
The male and female individual contributing gametes are referred to as
the parent generation. The offspring are the first filial (f1) genetration.

How Characters manifest from Generation to Generation

To understand how characters behave when transmitted from generation
to generation, the inheritance pattern of a character controlled by a
single pair of genes can be investigated. This is referred to as a single
factor or monohybrid inheritance. An example is the flower colour of
pea plants which is determined by two alleles; one for red colour (R) and
the other for white colour (r).
If a red flowered pea plant (RR) and the cross produces only red-
flowered offspring (RR), the red flowered pa rent is said to breed true.
The plant is said to produce a pure stock or pure line.
The red flowered parent plant has two genes, RR for red colour.
Similarly, the white flowered pea plant that breeds true has two genes
for white colour (rr).

Parent Generation

(a) RR x RR (b) rr
x rr
↓ ↓ ↓
↓
R Rrr
Sperm (n) egg cell (n) sperm (n)
egg cell (n)
↘↙↘↙
↓
↓
F1 generation RR
rr
(Offspring 2n)

All these pea plants that breed true are said to be homologous for flower
colour because the genes controlling the flower colour in either case are
identical i.e. RR or rr.
When a pure stock of red flowered pea plants is crossed with a pure
stock of white flowered plants (monohybrid cross), the offspring are all
red flowered pea plants (Rr) and they form the F1 generation. The
character for red colour is said to be dominant. The white colour which
does not appear in the F1 generation is said to be recessive.

(a) Parental gametes

RR x rr
↓ ↓
R r
Sperm (n) egg cell (n)
↘↙
↓
F1 generation Rr
(Offspring 2n, all red flowered)
The result of this type of cross shows that the dominant form of a
character masks the recessive form in the F1 generation. The white
flowered colour can only appear when the plant has identical alleles (rr)
for that colour i.e. the dominant allele R, for red colour is absent.

(b) F1 Parents Rr x Rr

↓ ↓

Gametes R rRr

F2 generation RR RrRrrr

In the F2 generation the phenotype shows three red flowered and one
white flowered pea plant. The genotype however reveals one
homozygous and two heterozygous red flowered pea plants and one
homozygous white flowered pea plant.

In the F2 generation, there are two types of red flowered pea plants;
(i) one in which the two alleles for red flower colour are identical
(RR) i.e. it is homozygous for red colour.
(ii) one in which the two alleles for red flower colour are different
(Rr), i.e. it is heterozygous for red flower colour.

An individual is said to be heterozygous for a character that has more

than one form of expression, if the two copies of the gene controlling
that character are different.

The homozygous and heterozygous red-flowered pea plants are said to

show the same phenotype but different genotypes. These heterozygous
plants are referred to as hybrids.

Crossing the hybrids will produce a mixture of red and white flowered
pea plants with roughly three quarters bearing red flowers and one
quarter bearing white flowers. These results show that;

(i) Heterozygotes do not breed through.

(ii) The recessive form of the flower colour masked in the F1 generation
can appear in the F2 generation (a recessive gene can skip some
generations and appear in a latter one).
(iii) The majority of members of the F1 and F2 generations exhibit the
dominant form of flower colour (more members of a population
exhibit the dominant form of a character).

ASSIGNMENT
Making use of a punnet square, show how seed colour and seed shape
are transmitted in two generations assuming you cross a pure stock of
pea plants bearing round (RR), yellow (YY) seeds with a pure stock of
pea plants bearing wrinkled (rr), green (yy) seeds.

MENDELIAN LAWS
Gregor Mendel (1882 – 1884) was an Austrian monk who carried out
simple experiments on heredity for nine years (1856 – 1865) using the
common garden pea. He published his research findings “Experiments
on Hybridization” in the journal of Natural History in Austria in
1866/67.

He formulated two principles of inheritance;

(i) First Mendelian law
The law of segregation; states that “ the two factors segregate or separate
from one another unaltered and unblended as they pass from one
generation to the next”. The pair of factors (genes) segregate during the
formation of gametes (meiosis). Only one passes into a single gamete.
During fertilization genes pair up in new ways.

(ii) Second Mendelian law

The law of Independent assortment; states that “two pairs of factors in
the same cross assort or separate independently of each other”. In other
words, a member of a pair of genes can combine separately with any
other member of another pair. It acts randomly and it is thus inherited.

Mendel arrived at this law from his findings on the experiment he

carried out with two pairs of contrasting characters (dihybridization).
For example, in the crossing of round yellow seeds with wrinkled green
seeds, the F1 generation showed the dominant character of round and
yellow (RRYY), but the F2 generation showed a proportion that was the
square of 3: 1.

The result was 16 combinations with four phenotypes in the ratio 9:3:3:1
i. Nine round yellow
ii. Three round yellow
iii. Three wrinkled green
iv. One wrinkled green.
There were nine genotypes which include four homozygous and five
heterozygous conditions.

SUB-TOPIC 2: CHROMOSOMES; THE BASIS OF HEREDITY

Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of living cells of plants and
animals.
All plants and animals possess two types of cells;
(a)Somatic or vegetative cells and
(ii) Gametes or sex cells

i. Somatic cells are the body cells which are not concerned with
reproduction. They carry the diploid (2n) set of chromosomes. They are
obtained as a result of fertilization, i.e. the contribution of a set of
chromosomes from a male and a female individual. Nuclear division in
somatic cells is referred to as mitosis.

ii. Sex cells (gametes) are cells which are found in the reproductive
organs of male and female organisms. The gametes (e.g. sperm, Ovum,
pollen grain) are haploid i.e. they carry half the number of chromosomes
of somatic cells. Nuclear division which results in their formation is
referred to as meiosis (reduction division).

Each organism has a specific number of chromosomes in its somatic

cells i.e. the number of chromosomes in a species is constant. Every
human has 23 pairs (46) of chromosomes in each somatic cell, while
each gamete has half i.e. 23 chromosomes. Drosophila (fruit fly) has 4
pairs and tomato plant has 10 pairs of chromosomes each.

Structure of Chromosomes
Each chromosome is thread like in appearance and made up of two
nuclear threads called chromatids held in the middle by a centromere.
Homologous or identical chromosomes occur in pairs. Each
chromosome has several transverse bands along its length. Numerous
hereditary materials (genes) are located on these bands. Genes are DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. It is estimated that there are 2-
3million genes in every human cell.
The DNA consists of a double chain formed by repeating small chemical
units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a deoxyribose
sugar (S), a phosphate group (P) and a nitrogenous compound base
which may be Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) or Thymine
(T).These nucleotides are arranged in a structure depicting a ladder.
Each pair of the ladder consists of a pair of nitrogenous bases linked
together by a hydrogen bond. Adenine pairs only with Thymine (A-T),
and Guanine with Cytosine (G-C). The two chains are coiled like a
spring to give a double helix structure.

The structure of the chromosome

DNA double helix structure

During cell division, the chromosomes reproduce themselves. This is

achieved by the replication of DNA molecules. As the two strands
unwind, free nucleotides in the cell are joined to each strand
appropriately to form two new double helices of DNA. When T is
exposed, only A is added from the nuclear fluids (cytoplasm).Similarly
when C is exposed, only G is added.
Heredity information exists in coded form in the DNA. The DNA
determines the makeup of proteins, enzymes and other substances in a
cell. It controls the physical and chemical activities of each cell as well
as the entire organism. The DNA molecule is structurally the same in all
organisms but instruction or genetic codes are arranged in different
sequences for every species. It is these codes that determine the pattern
of growth and behaviour of every member of a species.

Role of Chromosomes in Transmission of Hereditary Characters

There is a segregation of genes at meiosis to produce haploid gametes.
These genes (from the parents) recombine during sexual reproduction
(fertilization) to produce a zygote that develops into an offspring.

The role of chromosomes in making this possible is as follows;

(a) Formation of gametes
As a result of the meiotic division of cells, gametes are formed.
During meiosis, members of a homologous pair of chromosomes
separate first, then the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate.
The result is one diploid cell giving rise to four haploid cells (gametes),
thus meiosis is a reduction division. Each gamete has one set of
chromosomes and hence one copy of genes.

(b) Crossing Over

During the process of meiosis, exchange of genetic materials takes place
between chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomes; this is
referred to as crossing over. This process gives rise to a new
combination of alleles on a chromosome and hence more types of allele
combinations in gametes.

(c) Fertilization
The process of fertilization also shows the role of chromosomes in
transmitting hereditary characters. When a sperm fertilizes an egg to
form a zygote, only the nuclei of the two cells fuse. This shows that
chromosomes are the actual structural materials that transmit genes from
the parents to the offspring.
Fertilization restores the homologous pair of chromosomes. Fertilization
occurs randomly and brings about new chromosome combinations,
hence new allele combinations.

VARIATION AND EVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION
Evolution is the cumulative changes in the characteristics of population
or organisms occurring in the course of successive generations related
by descent. Variations are differences in traits or characteristics between
individuals of the same species.
Variation can be:
I. Discontinuous or
II. Continuous.
I. Discontinuous variation, individuals fall into distinct categories
e.g.Pea plant with either red flowers or white flowers. There are no
intermediate forms between these traits. They are easily distinguishable
and are not affected by environmental conditions.
Examples of such traits are
i. The ability to roll the tongue
ii. Taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTB),
 iii. ABO blood groups in man and
iv. Normal and vestigial wings in Drosophila.
Such discontinuous variation is brought about by one or a few genes.

II. Continuous variation, there is a complete range of measurements

from one extreme to another. In other words individuals do not fall into
discrete categories,

Examples includes:
i. The colour of skin
ii. Height etc
Man is not just dark or fair, nor is he either tall or short. There are many
intermediate skin colours and heights. Such characteristics show a
continuous variation from one extreme to the other. A continuous
variation is brought about by the combined (or additive) effects of many
genes.

There may be genes for dark skin and gene for fair skin. The more dark-
skin genes a person has, the darker will his skin colour be. Continuous
variations are also affected by the environmental conditions for example;
a greater exposure to sunlight may cause a person to have a darker skin
colour. This is also known as acquired variation. Other examples of
continuous variation in man are intelligence and weight.
Variation found in or among organizations could be physical
(morphological) or behavioural (physiological).

Black or White?
SUB-TOPIC 1: MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION
Variations in physical traits or outward appearances in organizations are
known as morphological variations.
Examples include:
i. Height,
ii. weight,
iii. colour of the eye, hair or coat of animals,
iv. facial features
v. Finger print patterns.
i. Variation in Height:if you measure the heights of all the students
in your class that are of the same age, there is likely to be a steady
graduation from the students who are very short to those who are
very tall.
ii. Variations in weight can be due to genetic heredity or certain
environmental factor such as i. lifestyle, diet or whether one is
affected by an illness.
Weight of individual organisms in a population can vary greatly
from newborn babies to teenagers and mature adults there is a
continuous variation form one extreme to another (underweight to
overweight).
iii. Colour of the eye varies from person to person. It could be brown,
amber, grey, green or blue. This continuous variation depends on
the amount of melanin present in the iris of the eye. Brown eyes
contain high levels of melanin while blue eyes contain low level of
melanin.
iv. Hair colour in humans varies from blonde, brown to black. There
are many intermediate shades between light coloured hair and
dark-coloured hair. Variations in fur colour can also be seen in
animals such as cows and rabbits.
v. Facial features: Although humans general look similar in physical
form, our facial features vary. Some of our facial features like our
nose or mouth resembles our parents but none looks exactly like
theirs. The shapes of our face can range from oblong, round to
squarish.
vi. Fingerprints are patterns formed by the ridges in the dermis of the
skin on our fingertips.

Variations in finger-prints can be broadly classified into;

i. arch,
ii. loop,
 iii. whorl and
iv. compound.
Due to small variations in the fingerprints of different individuals, each
person has a morphological variation.

Morphological variations in plants that are continuous are

i. Height
ii. shape of the body parts
iii. leaf size
iv. root size
v. size of petals and sepals
vi. length of internodes.

Types of Fingerprints
Human fingerprint patterns fall into three main groups: whorls, loops,
and arches. Loops are the most common type, accounting for about 65
percent of all fingerprints. Whorls account for 30 percent of fingerprints,
and arches for 5 percent. Despite these broad patterns, each individual
has a unique set of fingerprints, which can be used as a means of
personal identification.
Sub-Topic 2: Physiological Variation
Physiological variation refers to differences in the bodily functions of
organisms.

Examples of physiological variation are;

i. Disparities in ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC)
ii. Ability to roll ones tongue and
iii. Having different types of blood groups.
Members of the same species behave or react to certain things and
conditions in their environment in different ways.

Examples of discontinuous variations in human population include:

i. Some people can perceive smell while others cannot.
ii. Some people (taster) may be able to detect taste of certain
materials like bitter leaf, while others (non-taster) cannot.
Similarly, some can detect high, moderate and low salt
concentration in cooked meal while others cannot.
iii. Few people can roll their tongues. There are no in-between or
intermediates.
iv. Some people can detect the taste of certain substances even at very
low concentrations while others can only do so at very high
concentrations e.g. phenylthiocarbamide (PTC).
v. Every human possesses one of the four blood groups called A, B,
AB and O. This is based on the cell factor called antigen.

The features of discontinuous variation are genetically determined.

You cannot alter your blood group by changing your diet. They are
under the control of a number of genes.
The absence of one gene for pigmentation causes albinism.

Examples of discontinuous variation in plants of the same species

are;
i. Colour of flower petals
ii. Colour of fruits
iii. Colour of seeds
iv. Shape of seeds and fruits

SUB-TOPIC 3: APPLICATION OF VARIATION

The knowledge of variations in human population is applied in many
ways include the following:
i. Crime Detection: Detectives use finger prints in identifying people
suspected to have committed certain crimes. This is based on the
assumption that no two persons possess exactly the same fingerprints
and that human fingerprint remains the same throughout one’s life span.
Hence, if the fingerprints of a suspect are exactly like those at the scene
of a crime, the suspect might be held as being responsible for the crime.
Fingerprints on dangerous weapons can also be investigated to detect
criminals such as assassins using riffles or pistol.

Fingerprint Analysis
Storing fingerprint records in computers has made it much easier for the
FBI to identify latent fingerprints—fingerprints left at the scene of a
crime.
Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.

ii. Classification of the Human Race: variations in physical

characteristics (e.g. skin colour) among human population have been
used to classify the human race into four major grouping of Caucasoid,
Negroid, Mongoloid and Australoid.

iii. Blood Groups: Every human being belongs to any of the four blood
groups A,B,AB or O. The knowledge of human blood group is used as
follows:
a. Blood transfusion: If the transferred blood does not match that of
the recipient, the recipient’s blood will clump or agglutinate. Death,
within minutes can result from the agglutination. The table below
shows the blood groups that will clump and those that will not
during blood transfusion.

COMPATIBLE AND INCOMPATIBLE HUMAN BLOOD

GROUPS
BLOOD GROUP COMPATIBLE INCOMPATIBLE
DONOR DONOR
A A or O B or AB
B B or O A or AB
AB A, B, AB, O NONE
O O A, B, AB, O

People in blood group O can donate blood to people in all other groups.
Hence, they are called universal donors. People in blood group AB can
receive blood from people in other groups. Thus they are called
universal recipients.

b. Crime detection: When blood stains got from the scene of a crime
is analysed, the result can be used by detectives to identify arrested
suspects and hence detect the actual criminals.
c. Determination of paternity: when there is a dispute as to the actual
father of a baby, the knowledge of blood groups can be used to
prove the paternity of the child. For example, if the baby’s blood
falls under blood group AB and its mother is in blood group A, the
baby's genotype will be IA IB and the mother IA; or IA IA,
certainly, the IB gene of the baby must have been inherited from the
father. Supposing the alleged father is in blood group O, it is not
likely that the baby belongs to him. If he is real father, the baby’s
genotype ought to be be IA.
TOPIC: EVOLUTION

CONTENT: Progressive change in structure and anatomy of

organisms.
2. Structural adaptation: Adaptive colouration
3. Structural adaptation: For obtaining food.
4. Different castes of termites.
5. Different castes of bees.

SUB-TOPIC 1: PROGRESSIVE CHANGE IN STRUCTURE AND

ANATOMY OF ORGANISMS.

Definition of Evolution
Organic evolution is the sum total of adaptive changes that have taken
place over a long period of time in the life history of an organism. This
process usually leads to the development of new species from pre-
existing ones.
Organic evolution suggests that all living things have arisen from pre-
existing ones by a gradual process of change over a long period of time.

Evolution proposes that life started in water; from marine water to fresh
water to land and then to air. Progressive changes in the structure and
anatomy of organisms have been going on as they inhabited these
habitats at one time or the other. These changes enabled the organisms to
be well adapted to the various habitats.
Organisms that live in water environment have streamlined body shape,
soft and moist skin, water dependent reproductive system, efficient
osmoregulator and other structural and anatomical adaptations.

The fore limbs of aquatic animals are also modified for swimming and
orientation in water. These fore limbs in the course of progressive
evolution changes are modified into crawling and hopping as in
amphibians; running in reptiles; flight for birds and bat; climbing and
swinging as in monkeys and walking and grasping as in humans and
chimpanzees respectively.
All these animals have the same anatomical pattern of forelimbs but
diversified structures for various adaptations in their respective habitats.
Similar structures that perform similar functions are called homologous
structures. Dissimilar structures that perform similar functions are said
to be analogous.

In the process of their evolution from water to land, Organisms

progressively changed by possessing;
i. complex body posture to withstand gravity,
ii. dry skin to prevent desiccation (drying up),
iii. internal fertilization mechanism to ensure reproduction on land
and
iv. a modified osmo-regulator to conserve water on land.
Galapagos Finches

SUB-TOPIC 2: STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS

To survive in their environments, organisms show different adaptations
in their form and function. The following are some of the special
adaptations shown by organisms for survival:

i. Adaptive Colouration: Many organisms possess bright, attractive

colour with special markings on their bodies to help them obtain
food, escape or hide from enemies and to secure mates. Some
flowering plants have brightly coloured flowers which attract
animal pollinators.

ii. Warning Colouration: Many vulnerable preys develop bright

colours and are bitter and unpalatable to their vertebrate predators.
Distasteful insects are brightly coloured and conspicuous with
contrasting pattern of different colour bands. Examples are lady
bird beetles, wasps and butterflies. Even insects with nice taste but
with colours like that of the unpalatable ones also survive.

iii. Mimicry: This is the close resemblance of an animal called a

mimic to another different object referred to as a model in order to
increase its chances of survival. A harmless organism is usually
protected from its predator by mimicking a dangerous species. A
mimic and a model are naturally unrelated. For good success a
mimic must also behave like the model in some ways.
iv. Camouflage: Many animals are protected from their predators by
the close matching of their body appearance with their surrounding
background. Many grasshoppers and praying mantis have green
pigments in their cuticles making them look like green vegetation.
The rattlesnakes easily fit into the colour of the green environment.
Another example is the chameleon.

vi. Colouration: Some animals possess bright body colouration

which helps during mating. The bright colouration usually attracts
the opposite sex for mating. Birds like peacock, turkey and cock
exhibit colouration.

vii. Counter Shading: In some animals, the upper part of the body has
a different colour from the lower part of the body. Such animals
are said to be counter shaded. Most fishes have dark dorsal colour
which tend to blend with the dark coloured water while their
ventral sides are light in colour which blend with the sky above.

SUB-TOPIC 3: STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION FOR OBTAINING

FOOD
Some animals have special structural adaptations that enable them obtain
food. For instance the beaks of birds are adapted to their individual diets.

Bird Structure of beak Food Eaten

Eagle, Falcon, Hawk, Hooked, sharp beak Flesh
Kite used to kill and tear
off flesh.
Heron Long, strong pointed Fish
beak
Humming bird Long beak and Nectar
tubular-tipped tongue.
Swallow Short beak held wide Insects in flight
open
Weaver bird Short, cone-shaped Seeds
beak
Wood pecker Long, narrow, pointed Insect in tree bark
beak
The mouth parts of some insects are also adapted to their feeding habits.
Flies and mosquitoes have proboscis as feeding organs with these they
can freely feed on fluids by sucking (e.g. housefly) or piercing and
sucking (e.g. Tse-tse fly and mosquitoes).
Grasshoppers, termites and caterpillars of butterflies and moths have
sharp mouth parts (mandible and Maxillae) for biting and chewing.

Structural Adaptations for Protection and Defence

Many organisms have exoskeletons by which they protect themselves
from predators and other unfavourable environmental conditions.
Crabs, centipedes, snails, tortoise and turtle all have hard coverings or
bony plates for protection.
Others include the sharp thorns on some plants like acacia or spines on
plants like Asparagus. Mammals like cows, deer and buffalo use horns
to defend and protect themselves. Other animals defend and protect
themselves with poisonous and toxic secretions when attacked. Some
snakes spray poisonous venom on their predators.
For attack and defence, many animals bite their prey, predators or
intruders with their teeth or mouthparts. Examples are insects (ants and
termites), mammals (cat, dog, lion) and reptiles (snakes).
The swimming of fish and the flying of insects and birds aid them in
moving away from predators.

Structural Adaptation for Regulating Body Temperature

The skin of mammals is well adapted to regulate body temperature.
The feathers of birds, the scales of some fish and reptiles and the shells
of snails and crustaceans all help in regulating their body temperature.
Lizards are poikilothermic; their body temperature is determined by the
temperature of their surrounding environment. They bask in the sun to
raise their body temperature and rest in the shade when their temperature
rises above a critical level.
ASSIGNMENT
Write short notes on the following:
i. hibernation,
ii. aestivation and
iii. migration

SUB-TOPIC 4: DIFFERENT CASTES OF TERMITES AND

THEIR ROLES
Termites are social animals. They live in highly organized groups. They
usually live in underground tunnels. Termites feed on cellulose thereby
damaging wooden materials, crops and young trees. They help in
maintaining soil fertility by breaking down dead materials into humus.

Termites in a colony

A colony of termites is made up of the following castes:

i. Queen and King: These are the reproductive members of the castes
with the responsibility of mating and laying eggs. There is always only
one king and one queen at any point in time though there could be other
fertile potential kings and queens. A fully grown queen is about 9cm
long.

ii. Workers: There are sterile females with no eyes, soft and pale
exoskeleton and well developed mouthparts. Workers are responsible for
building the termitarium, searching for and bringing in food for other
members in colony. They also tend fungal gardens, collect eggs and care
for the nymphs structural adaptations for regulating body temperature.
After eating they regurgitate the partially digested food to feed the other
members of the colony.

iii. Soldiers: These are sterile, blind and wingless males with large
heads, thick exoskeletons and huge mandibles. They are responsible for
protecting the colony from invaders and also protect the workers as they
gather food for the colony.
SUB-TOPIC 5: DIFFERENT CASTES OF BEES AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
A honey bee colony lives in a hive.

It is composed of:
i. a single queen,
ii. a few hundred drones and
iii. Several thousand workers.

Bees undergo complete metamorphosis unlike termites which undergo

incomplete metamorphosis.
Drones hatch from unfertilized eggs. The drones are responsible for
fertilizing eggs.
The queen and workers hatch from fertilized eggs. Larvae feeding on
pollen grains and honey become workers. If fed on royal jelly which
contains vitamins, a larva develops into a queen.
The queen then secretes a queen substance that suppresses the
development of ovaries in the workers.
The queen does the service of reproduction to replenish the castes.
The workers labour for the colony.

Bees in a colony
: EVOLUTION
CONTENT: (i) Theories of Evolution.
(ii)The theories of evolution according to Charles Darwin, Jean Baptist
de Lamark
(iii) Evidence of evolution.
(iv) Forcesresponsible for evolution: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift.

INTRODUCTIION
Adaptation is the process by which organisms change their structure,
physiology and behaviour in order to survive. This has led to diversity in
form, in structure and function among organisms.

The theory of evolution is an attempt to explain how this diversity has

taken place. Many scholars made some discoveries on evolution, some
of them are;
i. George Louis Buffon (1707-1777)
ii. Carl Linnaeues (1707-1778)
iii. Jean Lamarck (1744-1829)
iv. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
v. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
vi. Alfred R. Wallace (19th century)

SUB-TOPIC 1: THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

I. LAMARCK’S THEORY (1744-1829)

In the early 19th century, French biologist Jean Baptist Lamarck
embraced the idea of progressive change in living world based in part on
his study of marine invertebrate fossils.
He was the first biologist to suggest that organisms undergo evolution.
He propounded his systematically organized theory of evolution in 1801.
This theory is based on the following ideas.
i. The use and disuse of organs
ii. The inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Lamarck believed that species do change over time (through use and
disuse of the body parts) and that animals evolve because of
unfavourable conditions that the animals try to adapt to.
In his explanation, Lamarck cited example of giraffe and said their
ancestors had short neck but kept stretching their necks to reach leaves
in high trees during the period of food scarcity. Lamarck posited that this
voluntary, constant stretch of their neck slightly changed the hereditary
characteristics controlling neck growth and that giraffe transmitted these
acquired characteristics to its offspring.

Lamarck was right when he posited that we could acquire traits through
voluntary use of body parts but was wrong when he concluded that these
acquired characteristics are inheritable.

The following are the main points of the theory;

i. The environment forces an organism to have some needs.
ii. To satisfy these needs, the organism may use an organ.
iii. The organ that is frequently used develops.
iv. Characteristics developed by an organism while satisfying the
environmental needs are transferred to the offspring.
v. The organ that is not used degenerates.

Although the inheritance of acquired characteristics seems to be logical,

no evidence has been found to support this view. Genetic materials are
contained in the chromosomes. Except for rare mutations, genetical
information is passed on unchanged from generation to generation. If
acquired characteristics could be inherited, then children of a great sport
person would be born with the knowledge of sports. Acquired skills are
usually developed anew in each generation. They are certainly not
inherited.

II. DAWIN’S THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

About 50 years after Lamarck proposed his theory of evolution, the
British naturalist Charles Darwin, revolutionalized the thinking of most
Biologists. In 1859, Darwin published a book called origin of species by
means of natural selection. Like Lamarck, Darwin stated that living
organisms gradually evolved adaptations to the environment. However,
Darwin recognized the variations among members of a species. It is
these variations rather than the acquired characteristics that aid natural
selection.

Darwin’s theory of natural selection can be summarized as follows:

i. Species have the ability to produce a large number of offspring.
 ii. The resources of the natural world are limited.Therefore, there
must be competition for survival among the offspring in each
generation.
iii. There is great variability within the population of organism.
iv. No two individuals are the same.
v. Much of these varieties are inherited.
vi. The organisms that survive and produce offspring are those that
have inherited the most beneficial traits for surviving in a
particular environment.
vii. As this process continues through many generations, the
population gradually becomes better adapted to the environment.

Modern genetic research supports Darwin’s theory.Both Lamarck and

Darwin recognized the importance of the environment in evolution.
Many biologists generally accept that it is by natural selection of the
better adapted organisms by chance and the elimination of the much less
adapted ones that evolution or chance occurs.
However, while Darwin recognized that organisms vary, he had no idea
of why they vary. This became better understood through the works of
Gregor Mendel, and modern discovery in genetics resulting in the
modern theories of evolution.

SUB-TOPIC 2: EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

Since evolution is an extremely slow process, occurring over a long
period of time, it is very difficult to observe evolution visibly or to
obtain direct evidence of evolution in action. However, scientists from
many fields have gathered at great deal of indirect evidence that supports
the theory of evolution.

The following are the sources of such evidences.

i. Evidence from Fossil Records.

ii. Evidence from Embryology;
iii. Evidence from comparative Anatomy
iv. Evidence from vestigial organs
v. Evidence from Biochemisty and Genetics.

i. Evidence from Fossil Records.

Fossils are remains of organisms preserved mainly in sedimentary rocks.
It is believed that the history of life on earth is recorded in fossils. The
age of rocks in which fossils are found are determined by using
radioisotope or carbon dating. The history of a particular evolutionary
change can be traced through a series of fossils when carefully arranged
according to their age from the oldest fossils the most recent ones. An
example is the evolution of the most modern horse (Equus) from the
dawn horse; Eohippus, 60 million years ago.

ii. Evidence from Embryology;

When comparing the development of closely related organisms, it is
often difficult to tell the early stages of one species from the early stages
of another. The similarity of organisms often used as evidence of
evolution. If two organisms descended from a common ancestor, they
may still have developmental stages that are very similar.

iii. Evidence from comparative Anatomy

All vertebrates show a basic plan which points to a common ancestry.
These are features showing progressive complexity in the structure of
vertebrates from fishes to mammals. For instance, there are progressive
evolutionary changes in the anatomy of the heart among the classes of
vertebrates.
Fishes have a simple heart with one auricle and one ventricle; reptiles
have two auricles and a partially divided ventricle. In the course of these
changes, the circulation of blood also changed from a single to a double
circulation.

iv. Evidence from vestigial organs

Vestigial organs are small or incomplete organs that have no apparent
function. They have become reduced and useless. The presence of
vestigial organs helps to explain evolution. According to the
evolutionary theory, vestigial organs are the remaining parts of previous
functioning organs. For examples, the muscles of the ear in man is a
vestigial organ while in horse it plays important role in twisting back the
ear to catch sound. The appendix in man is vestigial while it functions as
caecum in herbivores.

v. Evidence from Biochemisty and Genetics.

Modern genetics also provides evidence of evolution. All organisms use
the same genetic code to synthesis proteins. A universal genetic code is
consistence with the idea that all organisms evolved from a single
organism that used the code.
Biochemists have compared the amino acid sequence of proteins found
in different organisms. Organisms that are closely related often have
proteins with similar amino acid. In dissimilar organisms, the amino acid
sequences of protein show many more differences.
SUB-TOPIC 3: FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR EVOLUTION
The modern theories of evolution are referred to as Neo-Darwinism.
This makes use of present day knowledge of genes and chromosomes to
explain the sources of genetic variation upon which natural selection
works. It also postulates that other forces play a part in evolution
although natural selection is more regular. Scientists have identified
mutation theory, gene flow and genetic drift as other natural forces
responsible for evolutionary changes.

I. MUTATION
In 1901, Hugo de Vries, a Dutch botanist, presented his mutation theory
of evolution. He based his theory on many years of work with primrose
plants. Of the 50,000 plants, about 800 showed spectacular new trait not
present in the parent plant. Yet, these new trait were passed on to the
offspring of the plants in which mutation had occurred. De Vries
concluded that, mutation must occur often in other organisms too, and
that the change by mutation was the basis of evolution. It has also been
confirmed that chromosomal mutations though occurring less often than
gene mutation, result in larger and better adapted plants. Today, many
biologists believe that mutations contribute significantly to evolution.
Evolution is believed to occur when new species of organisms are
formed. Other ways besides mutations, in which evolution is believed to
occur in modern times include isolation and the migration of a
population to different environments.

II. GENE FLOW

A phenomenon whereby individuals more from one population to
another introducing a new gene to the populations is referred to as gene
flow. Gene flow moves alleles among populations through the process of
interbreeding and migration of breeding individuals.
Gene flows increases variation within a population by introducing new
alleles produced in another population. For example, chance dispersal
can occur between two populations of related wildflowers, one red and
the other white wildflower population. Due to the chance dispersal by
strong wind, the gene for the red flowers may be introduced to the white
population gene pool.
Persistent gene flow tend to decrease diversity among populations,
causing gene pools to become similar. Restriction of gene flow between
populations is important for the development of new species.

III. GENETIC DRIFT

Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies of a gene pool due to
chance or random events. It can cause the loss of an allele in a
population even if the allele results in greater evolutionary fitness. It can
also cause a situation where the allele can be found in every member of
the population i.e. fixed even if the allele decreases fitness. Genetic drift
is believed to be more widespread in small population where a chance or
random event can wipe out the carriers of the allele completely from the
population or drastically reduce their numbers.