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Changing trends in gender equality in Ethiopia

Technical Report · April 2020

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 Ministry of Women,
Children and Youth

Changing Trends in Gender

Equality in Ethiopia
Research Brief
2
 CHANGING TRENDS IN GENDER EQUALITY IN ETHIOPIA - RESEARCH BRIEF

Introduction disparities and gaps in the measurement that

should be addressed to accelerate equitable
outcomes for girls, boys, women and men.
Women and children are often overrepresented
among the vulnerable segments of the Ethiopian Key findings
population. With the approval of the Sustainable
Development Agenda in 2015, the Government of Trend analyses of nutritional outcomes for
Ethiopia has stepped up efforts to fulfil Sustainable children and adults show progress over
Development Goal 5, aiming at achieving greater the years in several aspects of wellbeing.
gender equality and empowerment for all women Since 2000, the incidence of early initiation of
and girls in the country. There is a need to define, breastfeeding has increased by more than 25 per
measure and understand gender-related outcomes cent for all children, reaching 73 and 71 per cent
in Ethiopia for better targeting of policy action. for girls and boys, respectively, in 2016. Exclusive
breastfeeding rates have also increased for girls
This research brief presents findings on trends and boys, from 53 per cent and 48 per cent,
in gender equality over the period from 2000 respectively, in 2000 to 58 per cent and 57 per
to 2016 through sex-disaggregated indicators, cent in 2016.
clustered into seven dimensions, as the basis for
assessment of gender equality: (1) Nutrition, (2) There is also a decline in stunting and underweight
Health and health-related knowledge, (3) Family among girls and boys in Ethiopia. In 2016, 35 per
planning, (4) Education, (5) Child protection, (6) cent of girls were stunted compared to 49 per
Economic activity, use of time, and access to cent in 2000. The stunting rates for boys were 41
resources, and (7) Agency and autonomy. per cent in 2016 and 50 per cent in 2000.

The report uses children’s and women’s rights The incidence of underweight has nearly halved
as the criteria for selecting the indicators and over the years for girls and boys, from 45 per cent
dimensions for measuring gender equality in and 46 per cent, respectively, in 2000, to 22 per
Ethiopia. The process involved a review of gender cent and 25 per cent in 2016.
equality studies in Ethiopia, and also existing
legislation, national strategies, and policies available The rates of undernutrition for adults have
from the Ministry of Women, Children and Youth also declined over the years. The rates of
(MOWCY ), UNICEF, UN Women, UNFPA, and undernourished women were 19 per cent in 2016,
the World Bank amongst others. The indicators compared to 25 per cent in 2000. For men the
were then defined consistent with existing SDG rates of undernourishment were 29 per cent and
targets and rights stipulated in international 26 per cent in 2011 and 2016, respectively.
conventions and declarations and through extensive
consultations with national stakeholders and These improvements notwithstanding, there
development partners in the country. are inconsistencies in the progress achieved
across the wealth spectrum. Over the years,
The main dataset for the analyses was the the incidence of exclusive breastfeeding was
Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) more prominent in the richest quintile while the
2000, 2005, 2011 and 2016 editions, but some incidence of early initiation of breastfeeding was
indicators were extracted from the Welfare more equally distributed across all wealth quintiles.
Monitoring Survey (WMS) and World Bank Furthermore, the proportion of the poorest children
ASPIRE database to fill the EDHS data gaps. who were stunted or underweight in 2016 was
almost double compared to the proportion of the
This brief sheds light on trends in gender equality richest children in the country.
over time and seeks to identify the geographic

1 National Policy on Ethiopian Women (1993); Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1995); Family Law (2000); Criminal Law (2005); National
Gender Equality Strategy and Action Plan for Gender Equality (2006-2010); EU+ Joint Strategy on Nutrition for Ethiopia (2016-2020); National Identity Card Registra-
tion Proclamation No. 760/2012; Ethiopian Women Development and Change Package, National Strategy and Action Plan on Harmful Traditional Practices (2013),
Sexual and Reproductive Health Strategy (2016-2015), the National Adolescent and Youth Health Strategy (2016-2020), the Health Sector Transformation Plan
(2015/16-2019/20), the Education Sector Development Plan 2016-2020, and the National Human Rights Action Plan (2013).
2 Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (1979), Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1953), and Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (1993).
3 The WMS was used to measure the incidence of FGM among girls aged 0-14 years, while the World Bank ASPIRE database was used to obtain data on labour 3
market outcomes.
 Figure 1 Trends in prevalence of iron deficiency/anaemia, by age and gender (%)
100
90

80

70

60 57 58
55
53
50
45 44
40
30 25 27
25
20
20 18
14
10 7 8 7
5
0
% 2005 2011 2016

Girls (6-59 months) Boys (6-59 months) Adolescent girls (15-19 years)
Adolescent boys (15-19 years) Adult women (20-49 years) Adult men (20-59 years)

Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data.

Progress in other nutritional outcomes has and boys under five reached 39 per cent and 38
been slow and has even stalled. The percentage per cent, respectively, in 2016, up from 16 per
of girls who received a Minimum Acceptable Diet cent and 17 per cent in 2000. However, rural-urban
(MAD) increased by only 2 percentage points, discrepancies in immunization persist. In 2016,
from 5 per cent in 2005 to 7 per cent in 2016. The 36 per cent of rural children were immunized
MAD rates for boys were 6 per cent in 2005 and compared to 66 per cent of urban children.
8 per cent in 2016. The percentage of girls and Immunization is also prone to wealth effects. In
boys who received MAD intakes was nearly four 2016, children from the richest wealth quintile
times higher in urban areas than in rural areas. were nearly three times more likely to be fully
These disparities are also reflected in the wealth immunized (coverage at 58 per cent) compared
spectrum, in that six times more children in the to their peers from the poorest wealth quintile
richest wealth quintiles were fed a MAD in 2016 (coverage at 19 per cent).
than children in the poorest quintile.
Healthcare-seeking behaviour also improved
Gender inequality in anaemia prevalence among between 2000 and 2011 but then stagnated.
children and adults persists over the years (Figure In 2016, an equal proportion, 27 per cent, of
1). More than half of girls and boys under five in girls and boys suffering from diarrhoea, fever or
Ethiopia were anaemic in 2016, with little progress cough, received professional healthcare attention.
observed over the years considered. Adolescent Progress has been slightly greater among girls
girls were more than twice as likely as adolescent (from 14% in 2000 to 27% in 2016), compared to
boys to be anaemic, while for adult women the 17% to 27% amongst boys. Healthcare-seeking
likelihood was nearly three times higher compared behaviour rates are lower in rural areas compared
to men. Anaemia prevalence is particularly high to urban areas. Poorer households were found
among children residing in rural areas and in to seek professional healthcare less often than
Somali. The largest gender disparities were wealthier households. Similarly, lower rates of
observed among adolescents in Afar and adults healthcare-seeking behaviour were found in
in Somali. Incidence of anaemia is also unequal Amhara, Oromia and Tigray.
across the wealth quintiles. In 2016, 68 per cent of
children aged 6-59 months in the poorest wealth Gender inequality in comprehensive knowledge
quintile suffered from iron deficiency, compared to about HIV/AIDS prevention and transmission has
48 per cent of children in the richest quintile. widened over the decade 2005- 2016 among both
adolescents and adults (Figure 2). The share of
Progress can be observed in a number of adolescent girls (24 per cent) and adult women
health-related outcomes, but challenges (19 per cent) who had comprehensive knowledge
4
remain. The percentage of fully immunized girls about HIV/AIDS in 2016 was smaller compared
 CHANGING TRENDS IN GENDER EQUALITY IN ETHIOPIA - RESEARCH BRIEF

Figure 2 Trends in knowledge about HIV/ over the decade with no major improvements.
AIDS prevention and transmission, Knowledge of HIV/AIDS remains low in Somali
adolescents and adults, by gender (%) across all the groups analysed. Knowledge of
HIV/AIDS also varies across the wealth quintiles.
100
In 2016, 10 per cent of girls and 29 per cent of
90 boys in the poorest quintile had comprehensive
80 HIV/AIDS knowledge compared to 38 per cent of
70 girls and 49 per cent of boys in the richest wealth
quintile.
60

50 Adolescent girls and adult women are at twice the

40 37 38 risk of HIV infection as adolescent boys and adult
32 33 33
30 28
26
men. However, the trend in HIV infection is on a
24
21 19 downward path. In 2016, 0.4 per cent and 0.1 per
20 18
14 cent of girls and boys, respectively, had HIV/AIDS,
10
compared to 0.7 per cent and 0.1 per cent of girls
0 and boys in 2005. Similarly, 1.2 per cent and 0.6
% 2005 2011 2016
per cent of adult women and men, respectively
Adolescent girls (15-19 years)
had HIV/AIDS in 2016. In 2005, however, these
Adolescent boys (15-19 years)
Adult women (20-49 years)
rates were 1.9 per cent and 0.9 per cent for
Adult men (15-59 years) women and men. However, HIV/AIDS prevalence
in urban areas is consistently higher than in rural
Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data.
areas, reaching seven times higher in 2016, 2.9
per cent compared to 0.4 per cent, respectively.
to their male counterparts. Trend analysis shows Over the decade 2005-2016, prevalence was
that improvements in this area over the decade higher in Addis Ababa, Gambela, and Harari than in
occurred for all groups, especially adult men. A the rest of the country.
significantly higher percentage of adolescent boys
in Harari and Dire Dawa and adult men in Dire Major progress has been achieved in the
Dawa, Gambela, and Amhara had comprehensive area of family planning over the period 2000
knowledge about HIV/AIDS prevention and -2016. Prevalence of knowledge about modern
transmission compared to their female contraception increased among adolescent girls
counterparts. Harari and Amhara had persistent and boys, from 68 per cent and 70 per cent,
high inequality rates in health-related knowledge respectively, in 2000, to 97 per cent and 95 per

Figure 3 Trends in knowledge of modern contraception methods, per cent of adolescents and adults who
know at least one method, by gender (%)
100 99 99 99
96 96 97 97
95
92
89
90 85 86 87
81
80

70 68 70

60

50

40

30
20

10

0
% 2000 2005 2011 2016
Adolescent girls (15-19 years) Adolescent boys (15-19 years)
Adult women (20-49 years) Adult men (20-59 years)

5
Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data.
 cent in 2016 (Figure 3). It is encouraging to see The share of children who attended the right grade
that the gap in knowledge of contraception has for their age nearly doubled from 31 per cent in
narrowed across the wealth quintiles. In 2016, 2000 to 61 per cent in 2016.
88 per cent of adolescent girls and 89 per cent
of adolescent boys from the poorest quintile Despite these improvements, there are gaps
had knowledge about contraception compared across regions, gender, and wealth quintiles. In
to nearly 100 per cent of adolescent girls and 2016, 28 per cent of girls and 30 per cent of boys
boys from the richest quintile. Knowledge among aged 5-6 years attended pre-school education
adult women and men also steadily increased, compared to 4 per cent for each in 2000, denoting
reaching nearly all of the adult population in slightly greater progress among boys. While
2016. In the country, Afar, Somali, Gambela, progress in primary school attendance among
Benishangul-Gumuz and SNNPR showed the 7-9-year-olds was equal among both girls and
greatest improvement in knowledge of modern boys – rising from 4 per cent in 2000 to 62 per
contraception over the years cent in 2016, among 10-14-year-olds progress
was greater among girls (from 37 per cent in
Progress in the education sector has been 2000 to 80 per cent in 2016). School attendance
remarkable, especially in increasing school rates among secondary school-age children show
attendance rates across school cycles and greater progress among girls, too, although for
narrowing the gender gap. Between 2000 and both girls aged 10-14 years and 15-17 years,
2016, attendance rates for pre-primary, primary, school attendance rates are lower compared to
and secondary education increased radically. The those of boys of the same age. In addition, in
gender gap in primary school attendance has been 2016, pre-primary and primary school attendance
eliminated. What is more intriguing is that the rates were significantly lower in rural areas and
school attendance rate of adolescent girls (aged in Somali, Afar, and Oromia. In Afar, Harari, and
10-14 years) exceeded that of their male peers, Somali gender inequality in secondary school
80 per cent compared to 78 per cent, respectively attendance increased over the 16-year period.
(Figure 4). The gender gap in secondary school School attendance rates across all school cycles
attendance has narrowed to a five-percentage- varied in line with household wealth. In 2016,
point difference in favour of boys. Across regions, 18 per cent of children aged 5-6 years from the
Amhara, Tigray, SNNPR, and Benishangul-Gumuz poorest quintile attended pre-school compared
made the most significant progress in narrowing to 60 per cent of their peers belonging to the
the gender gap in secondary school attendance richest wealth quintile. The school attendance
rates over the 16-year period. - wealth discrepancy persists across primary
and secondary education. lliteracy rates among

Figure 4 Trends in school attendance, by age and gender (%)

100

90
80 78
80 77
72 70 70
70 68 66
65
62 62
58
60 55 55
53
50
50 47 47

40 37
32 31 33
30
30 28%

20
14 13
10 4 4 5
4 4 4
0
% Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys
Pre-primary Primary Primary adolescents Secondary adolescents
(age 5-6 years) (age 7-9 years) (age10-14 years) (age 15-17 years)

2000 2005 2011 2016

6 Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data.

 CHANGING TRENDS IN GENDER EQUALITY IN ETHIOPIA - RESEARCH BRIEF

Figure 5 Trends in illiteracy, adolescents and adults (%)

100

90 84 84
79 78
80
72
70
60 60 60
60 58
55 53
52
50 48
41 40
40 37

30

20

10

0
% Adolescent girls (15-19 years) adolescent boys (15-19 years) Adult women (20-49 years) Adult men (20-59 years)
2000 2005 2011 2016

Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data.

adolescents and adults have steadily declined More than a third of adolescent girls experienced
since 2000, but remained high in the country some form of violence – physical, psychological
overall, particularly for adult women (see Figure or sexual – during 2016. The incidence of violence
5). Illiteracy rates are higher in Somali, SNNPR, was significantly higher in urban areas, among
and Afar. Gender inequality in adult literacy has girls in poorer wealth quintiles, and among those
been the highest in Gambela since 2000, while residing in Addis Ababa, Amhara, and Harari.
Somali had the widest gender gap in adolescent
literacy in 2016. Adolescent illiteracy rates have The incidence of female genital mutilation (FGM)
declined most in Amhara among girls, and Oromia among girls aged 15-19 declined from 71 per
among boys. At the same time, Tigray has seen cent in 2000 to 52 per cent in 2016 (Figure 6),
the highest decline in illiteracy rates among adult but in Somali remained as high as 96 per cent
women and men. Moreover, illiteracy is associated and in Afar at 87 per cent. The incidence of FGM
with household wealth, and is more prevalent among 0-14-year-old girls remained at 24 per cent
among adolescents in the poorer wealth quintiles. between 2011 and 2016.
For instance, in 2016, 78 per cent of adolescent
girls in the poorest wealth quintile were illiterate Figure 6 Trends in FGM incidence among
compared to 27 per cent of their peers in the adolescent girls and women (%)
richest wealth quintile. 100

90
Child protection indicators show that progress 83
80 78
in eliminating child marriage and teenage 75
71
pregnancy was slow between 2000 and 2016. 70
63
Even though child marriage rates halved between 60
2000 and 2016, from 20 per cent to 11 per cent, 52
50
respectively, in Afar nearly a third of 15-17-year-
olds were already married in 2016. Overall, the 40
incidence of teenage pregnancy also declined, 30
from 16 per cent in 2000 to 13 per cent in 2016. 24 24

However, these rates are not equally distributed 20

across the country. For instance, in 2016, teenage 10

pregnancy rates in Somali and Afar were 19 per
0
cent and 23 per cent, respectively, while in Addis % Girls Adolescent girls Adult women
Ababa and Dire Dawa the rates were just 3 per (0-14 years) (15-19 years) (20-49 years)

cent. The child marriage rate of girls in the poorest

2000 2005 2011 2016
quintile was 27 per cent in 2016 compared to 4
Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data; figures for girls 7
per cent among girls in the richest wealth quintile. 0-14 years extracted from WMS statistical reports 2011 and 2016.
 Figure 7 Trends in attitudes towards GBV, adolescents and adults (%)
100
90
80
66 66
70 65 66 63
60 62
60 58 56 57
53 52
50 44 48 46 48 48 48 48
44 43 45
41 41
40 37 38 36
33
30 28 26
30 26 26
23 22
18 20
20 17
14 13
10
0
Goes out Neglects Argues with Refuses to Burns Goes out Neglects Argues with Refuses to Burns
%
without telling the children husband have sex the food without telling the children husband have sex the food
her husband with husband her husband with husband

Girls and Women (15-49 years) Boys and Men (15-49 years)

2000 2005 2011 2016

Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data.

In 2016, the incidence of FGM among adolescent Attitudes towards gender-based violence (GBV)
girls in the richest quintile was 43 per cent and 73 show a wide gender gap. Significantly fewer men
per cent for girls in the poorest quintile. (between 13 and 20 per cent) shared the opinion
that wife-beating is justified in certain situations
Changes in attitudes towards FGM have seen compared to between 37 and 44 per cent of
improvements over the years. Only 17 per cent adolescent girls and adult women, respectively
of adolescent girls in 2016 shared the opinion (Figure 7). In 2016, wife-beating was widely
that FGM should be continued or were undecided justified among men in Amhara, and women in
about it compared to 65 per cent in 2000. An Oromia, Afar, Tigray, and SNNPR.
even lower percentage of adolescent boys (13
per cent) supported the practice of FGM or were Trend analysis of labour market outcomes of
unsure about it in 2016. Across regions, Amhara, female and male youth (15-24 years) shows
SNNPR, and Benishangul-Gumuz achieved the that the gap in employment between male
greatest progress in changing attitudes towards and female had narrowed over the years. The
FGM, while in Somali and Afar more than half women’s employment rate increased from 62 per
of adolescents in 2016 thought that the practice cent in 2000 to 65 per cent in 2016 (Figure 8). At
should be continued. Attitudes have also changed the same time, employment rates among male
drastically among adolescents in rural areas. youth declined, from 78 per cent in 2000 to 74 per
Evidence of attitudes towards FGM across wealth cent in 2016.
quintiles shows that poorer individuals were
generally more in favour of the practice. Fewer women own a bank account or a mobile
phone compared to men, especially in rural areas.
Figure 8 Trends in employment, by age group Only 15 per cent of women owned and used a
and gender (%) bank account in 2016 compared to 26 per cent of
100 men (Figure 9). Similarly, 27 per cent of women
78 78 owned and used a mobile phone compared
80 68 74
65
62
to 54 per cent of men. With the exception of
60 Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Tigray, and Harari, the
40 incidence of bank account ownership was very
low among women.
20

0 In Ethiopia, fewer women have control over land

Employment rate youth Employment rate youth and/or own a house compared to men. In 2016,
(15-24), female, % (15-24), male, %
only 15 per cent of women own real estate and/
2000 2011 2016 or land alone. At the same time, 36 per cent and
8
35 per cent of men, respectively, owned a house
Source: World Bank, ASPIRE database.
 CHANGING TRENDS IN GENDER EQUALITY IN ETHIOPIA - RESEARCH BRIEF

Figure 9 Ownership and use of bank accounts participated in decisions as to how their partner’s/
and mobile phones, 2016 (%) husband’s earnings would be spent. This trend is
visible across all regions, except Somali, SNNPR,
100
and Afar, where there is a lower incidence of
90 87
women’s participation in decision-making.
80
71
70
63 Recommendations
60 54
50 47 Overall, gender equality has seen improvements
44
40
in Ethiopia between 2000 and 2016, but a myriad
of issues persist. Based on the study, three sets
30 26 27
of recommendations are proposed in order to
20 16
15 15 design policy and programme interventions to
10 7 enhance gender equality and to improve the
0 quality of measurement and monitoring for future
% Women Men Women Men
evaluations.
Ownership and use Ownership and use
of a bank account of a mobile phone
Policy and programme interventions. Findings
Ethiopia Rural Urban from a range of different indicators of wellbeing
consistently show that there are clusters of
Source: CSA EDHS 2016 report
population that lag behind in the fulfilment of their
basic needs and rights.
and/or land alone. Across the country, a notable
proportion of women residing in Amhara, Oromia, • Higher vulnerabilities are observed in
Addis Ababa and Tigray had title deeds on land rural as compared to urban areas across
and/or house they owned with their names on many indicators, age groups, and years.
them. The data shows that legal control over Tackling vulnerabilities in rural areas,
assets was low for both men and women in rural especially anaemia, immunization,
areas, Afar, Gambella, and especially Somali. health-seeking behaviour, child marriage,
ownership of assets, will significantly
Women’s participation in decision-making increased enhance the situation of girls and
over the period 2005-2016 (Figure 10). From 2005 to women.
2016, growing proportions of women participated • The gender equality gap varies widely
in decisions about their own health, making across regions. Progress in narrowing
large household purchases, and visiting family or it has been steady in Addis Ababa, but
relatives. An increasingly higher percentage also slower progress or even regress was

Figure 10 Trends in women’s decision-making power in the household, by area of residence (%)
100
91 92 92
90 87 88 87
84 84
81 80 80 82
80 78 79 77 78
72 74 76 76
70 66 75 67 64
64
60 57 55
50

40

30

20

10

0
% 2005 2011 2016 2005 2011 2016 2005 2011 2016
Woman's own healthcare Large household purchases Visit family or friends

Ethiopia Rural Urban

Source: Authors’ calculations using EDHS data. 9

 noted in Afar, Tigray, Somali, SNNPR, care and skilled birth attendance,
Amhara, Harari, Dire Dawa, Gambela, anaemia, experience of gender-based
Benishangul-Gumuz. Some key areas violence, female genital mutilation,
where high gender inequality was early marriage, and teenage pregnancy.
observed are: Addressing all of these issues is a
• Anaemia level for adolescent girls precondition to enhancing gender
and women in Afar and Somali equality across other indicators and
• Gender gap in school attendance in domains of wellbeing.
Afar, Harari and Somali
• High gender inequality in adult Improving the measurement of indicators
literacy in Gambela and in adolescent and data collection for future monitoring and
literacy for Somali evaluation.
• High incidence of child marriage,
teenage pregnancy and FGM in • Assessing the trends in gender equality
Somali and Afar revealed a myriad of challenges with
• Widespread justification of wife- data availability, quality and consistency.
beating among men in Amhara and Amendments and improvements to data
women in Oromia, Afar, Tigray and collection tools are therefore necessary
SNNPR for future evaluation and monitoring.
• Lower incidence of women’s • The EDHS data can only be
participation in household decision- disaggregated at regional level. It is
making in Somali, SNNPR and Afar. recommended that disaggregation
should include rural and urban areas
A regional focus in tackling gender inequality is within subregions, considering their size
recommended. in order to understand disparities within
regions.
• Incidence of violence – physical, • The EDHS focuses mainly on the
psychological or sexual – is higher in nutritional status of children under
urban areas and in Addis Ababa, Amhara 5 and individuals aged 15 years and
and Harari. Awareness-raising campaigns above, implying that no information is
are encouraged for these areas, in collected for children aged 5-14 years.
addition to the establishment of legal It is recommended that anthropometric
and other institutional mechanisms to data be collected for children aged
respond to gender-based violence cases 5-14 years and data on food frequency
in an integrated manner. and diversity for children older than 23
• Household wealth is associated with months. The indicator of food security –
gender equality across most indicators albeit measured at household level – is
of wellbeing. Specifically, gender an important nutritional indicator, also
inequality is wider in the poorest wealth shedding light on external shocks and
quintiles and progress among these availability of food.
population groups has been consistently • The EDHS captures a limited number of
slower. These findings suggest that health indicators for population groups
interventions designed to redistribute older than 5 years. For monitoring
wealth will have a positive impact on purposes, it is important to gain
enhancing gender equality. an insight into accessibility to both
• With the exception of stunting among preventive and curative care, availability,
children under 5, underweight among affordability, and quality of healthcare
adolescents and adults, and a few services at all levels, for all age groups.
other indicators including education • Information about child protection
among children, results show that girls (including teenage pregnancy, child
and women are less likely to realize marriage, age at first sexual intercourse,
their rights and fulfil their basic needs and child labour) is asked only for
compared to their male counterparts. In children aged 15-17 years. These
addition, girls and women are affected vulnerabilities also occur among children
by several gender-related vulnerabilities, of a younger age, but these are not
10
such as low coverage rates of antenatal captured by current data. This hinders
 CHANGING TRENDS IN GENDER EQUALITY IN ETHIOPIA - RESEARCH BRIEF

our understanding of the scale and • Higher prevalence of poor nutritional

occurrence of these vulnerabilities outcomes amongst boys and men
among the entire child population. compared to girls and women;
Therefore, it is recommended that • The low coverage of maternal services,
data on child protection4 should also including antenatal care and skilled birth
be collected for children of a younger attendance, and child healthcare services
age, with due attention to ethical such as immunization;
considerations. • Lower incidence of knowledge about
• The measurement of domestic violence HIV/AIDS prevention and transmission
relates to women but excludes men. and MTCT knowledge amongst
It is recommended that the EDHS adolescent girls and adult women
module on domestic violence include compared to adolescent boys and adult
measurement of violence against boys men;
and men to better capture variations in • The high incidence of unmet need for
this phenomenon across gender lines. family planning in rural areas;
• The quality of education is not • The high incidence of FGM in some
adequately measured in the EDHS. It is regions such as Somali and Afar and the
recommended that a module on school factors associated with high prevalence;
facilities should be added to the EDHS, • Higher incidence of violence – physical,
which would include questions about psychological or sexual – towards
the school infrastructure and facilities, adolescent girls in urban areas and Addis
WASH in schools, teacher absenteeism, Ababa, Amhara and Harari;
as well as facilities for management of • High prevalence of justification of
menstrual hygiene. wife-beating among men in Amhara,
• EDHS data are cross-sectional and and women in Oromia, Afar, Tigray, and
not ideal for capturing changes that SNNPR;
occur over time. In other words, EDHS • Low incidence of women’s participation
cross-sectional samples offer insights in decision-making in Somali, SNNPR,
into generic changes in the patterns of and Afar;
gender equality over time and not into • Association of household wealth with
the persistence of these dimensions gender equality
among individuals. This limits the design
and applicability of programmes that Acknowledgements
might target those most vulnerable to
gender inequality in the country. There is This brief draws on the full research report
a need for panel data in which individuals entitled: Gender Equality, Women Empowerment
are followed over time so that dynamic and Child Wellbeing in Ethiopia (2019). The
changes in gender equality indicators can research was commissioned by the Ministry
be observed and monitored. of Women, Children and Youth (MOWCY) and
UNICEF Ethiopia and undertaken by the Social
Areas for further research Policy Research Institute (SPRI).

The quantitative focus of this study was useful to The brief has been reviewed by Ellen Alem,
gain an insight into the scale of gender inequality Vincenzo Vinci and Ana Gabriela Guerrero Serdan
in Ethiopia. Further research is necessary to carry from UNICEF Ethiopia Social Policy Section
out in-depth analytical work to better understand and Seleshi Tadesse, Director of the Women’s
the underlying causes behind these findings. Mobilization and Participation Directorate at
Additional qualitative data would be valuable MOWCY. For further details, please contact
in delving further into the how and why of the ealem@unicef.org.
following findings.

4 Data on teenage pregnancy, child marriage and age at first sexual intercourse should be collected from the age of 12 years, while data on child labour should be 11
collected from the age of 5 years.
For every child

Whoever she is.

Wherever he lives.
Every child deserves a childhood.
A future.
A fair chance.
That’s why UNICEF is there.
For each and every child.
Working day in and day out.
In more than 190 countries and territories.
Reaching the hardest to reach.
The furthest from help.
The most excluded.
It’s why we stay to the end.
And never give up.

Ministry of Women,
Children and Youth

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia The United Nations Children’s Fund
Ministry of Women, Children and Youth (MoWCY) P.O.Box 1169, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Kirkos Sub-city, Worda 7 Stadium nearby Gion Hotel Email: ethcommunication@unicef.org
Tel: 0115528394/0115525455/0115528406 Telephone: +251 11 518 4000
Fax: 0115522270/0115525455 Fax: +251 11 551 1628
Email: mowca.affairs@gmail.com Website: www.unicef.org/ethiopia
P.O.Box 1293
Addis Ababa-Ethiopia

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