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A Direct Single-Phase to Three-Phase AC/AC Power Converter

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DOI: 10.3390/electronics11244213

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Article

A Direct Single-Phase to Three-Phase AC/AC Power Converter

Shuvra Prokash Biswas 1, Md. Shihab Uddin 1, Md. Rabiul Islam 2,*, Sudipto Mondal 1 and Joysree Nath 1

1 Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering &

Technology, Rajshahi 6204, Bangladesh
2 School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong,

Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

* Correspondence: mrislam@uow.edu.au; Tel.: +61-2-4221-3624

Abstract: The traditional DC-link indirect AC/AC power converters (AC/DC/AC converters) em-
ploy two-stage power conversion, which increases the circuit complexity gate driving challenges,
placing an excessive burden on the processor while implementing complex switching modulation
techniques and leads to power conversion losses due to the use of a large amount of controlled
power semiconductor switches. On the contrary, the traditional direct AC/AC voltage controllers,
as well as frequency changers, suffer from high total harmonic distortion (THD) problems. In this
paper, a new single-phase to three-phase AC/AC step-down power converter is proposed, which
utilizes a multi-linking transformer and bilateral triode thyristors (TRIACs) as power semiconduc-
tor switches. The proposed direct AC/AC power converter employs single-stage power conversion,
which mitigates the complexity of two-stage DC-link indirect AC/AC converters and traditional
single-stage AC/AC frequency changers. Instead of using high-frequency pulse width modulated
gate driving signals, line frequency gate pulses are used to trigger the TRIACs of the proposed
AC/AC converter, which not only aids in reducing the power loss of the converter but also mitigates
the cost and complexity of gate driver circuits. The proposed AC/AC converter reduces the THD of
the output voltage significantly as compared to traditional direct AC/AC frequency changers. The
Citation: Biswas, S.P.; Uddin, M.S.;
performance of the proposed AC/AC converter is validated against RL and induction motor load in
Islam, M.R.; Mondal, S.; Nath, J. A
terms of overall THD and individual harmonic components through MATLAB/Simulink environ-
Direct Single-Phase to Three-Phase
AC/AC Power Converter.
ment. A reduced-scale laboratory prototype is built and tested to evaluate the performance of the
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213. proposed AC/AC power converter. The experimental and simulation outcomes reveal the feasibility
https://doi.org/10.3390/ and excellent features of the proposed single-phase to three-phase AC/AC converter topology.
electronics11244213
Keywords: AC/AC power converter; frequency changer; total harmonic distortion; multi-winding
Academic Editors: Sze Sing Lee,
transformer; TRIAC
Chee Shen Lim, Max M. Chen and
Yam P. Siwakoti

Received: 22 November 2022

Accepted: 12 December 2022
1. Introduction
Published: 16 December 2022
The advancement of power electronic converters has made them useful in a variety
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- of applications, including those in industry, domestic usage, flexible AC transmission sys-
tral with regard to jurisdictional tems, electrical motor drives, microgrids, and automobile and transportation. Much
claims in published maps and institu-
greater consideration is being given to the resilience [1–3], efficiency [4,5], and dependa-
tional affiliations.
bility of power electronics converters in the creation of power converter topologies. Due
to safety regulations, power electronics systems must adhere to highly strict dependabil-
ity standards in the automotive and transportation industries [6]. In addition, the energy
and industrial sectors are working to increase the reliability and efficiency of power elec-
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Li-
tronics systems [7].
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
The AC/AC power converter is the commonly used topology that is most frequently
distributed under the terms and con-
employed in low-voltage and medium-voltage industrial systems [8]. Power converters
ditions of the Creative Commons At- employed in AC/AC power conversion can be classified into direct and indirect converter
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre- topologies. The indirect AC/AC power converter is termed a DC-link converter or
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). AC/DC/AC converter. A back-to-back converter, or B2B, is an indirect AC/AC converter

Electronics 2022, 11, 4213. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11244213 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 2 of 29

with a bidirectional structure that employs two stages of power conversion, as shown in
Figure 1 [9].

Figure 1. Conventional DC-link two-stage AC/AC variable frequency power converter.

A diode bridge rectifier and six active switches inverters make up the traditional
AC/DC/AC converter for various industrial applications such as induction motor drives
and grid integrations. This topology’s drawback is that the input grid current is non-si-
nusoidal and operates with a low power factor [10]. The diode bridge rectifier is further
replaced by an active six-switch converter known as a back-to-back converter to increase
the quality of input current [11]. For AC/DC/AC conversion, twelve active switches are
needed. This solution makes the system complex and bulky because of the use of a higher
number of controlled power switches and a complicated grid-size transformer for sup-
pressing input current total harmonic distortion (THD) [12]. Apart from these, the two
stages AC/DC/AC converter requires bulky filters at the inverter end for reducing THD
from the inverter output voltage. The excessive use of magnetic core material like inductor
filters raises some severe problems in the system [13–15]. Another important concern of a
two-stage AC/AC converter is the DC-link capacitor [16]. In the DC-link circuits of con-
temporary power electronic converters, aluminum electrolytic capacitors are arguably the
most frequently utilized capacitors. Additionally, multi-layer ceramic structures and met-
alized polypropylene structures are other technologies used in the manufacture of these
capacitors. Modern capacitors used in DC circuits have significantly shrunk in size, yet
they still make up the majority of the components that increase the size, weight, and cost
of power converters [17]. Additionally, the capacitor is the component that sustains dam-
age the most frequently as a result of poor operation and power grid disruptions. Because
of this, the lifespan of the DC-link AC/AC power converter device prematurely shortens
due to the usage of the most prevalent electrolytic capacitors [18–20]. For the aforemen-
tioned reasons, environmental and operational factors impacting the longevity of power
converters, particularly high-power ones, are given special consideration, with a focus on
DC-link capacitors [21]. An intriguing way to lower the price and size of power converters
is to produce them without huge capacitors in their design (DC-link) [22,23]. Another
complexity of two-stage DC-link AC/AC converters is the use of complicated pulse width
modulation (PWM) techniques. Complex high-frequency PWM techniques are used for
controlling both the AC/DC converter and the DC/AC converter of the DC-link converter.
Due to high-frequency switching, the overall switching and conduction power loss in-
creases which reduces the efficiency of the DC-link AC/AC converter [24,25].
Due to the aforementioned shortcomings of existing two-stage DC-link AC/AC
power converters (AC/DC/AC converters), the two-stage typical AC/DC/AC converters
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 3 of 29

and thyristor choppers are rapidly being replaced by single-stage direct AC/AC convert-
ers without DC-link capacitors, such as frequency changers and matrix converters [26].
The most popular topology for direct converters in low and medium-power applications
is the cycloconverter (CCV), which connects the power supply to the machine directly
using a series of power semiconductor switches to transform a three-phase or single-phase
AC voltage with fixed magnitude and frequency into a three-phase AC voltage with var-
iable magnitude and variable frequency. It enables effective power flow in both directions.
With technical advantages in low-speed range and high-torque applications, such as
grinding mills, CCV drives are an established technology [27,28]. Different topologies
with various functions are available for AC/AC converters without DC-link capacitors. In
a matrix-type single-stage AC/AC converter, the common DC link is removed in exchange
for an increase in the number of active switches in order to lengthen the converter lifespan.
For AC/AC conversion, there must be 18 active switches. As a result, complexity, and
losses related to switches rise [29]. The only drive manufacturer with commercially avail-
able products based on single-stage AC/AC converters is Yaskawa Electric. Thus, the stage
AC/AC converter is one of the most investigated but less industrially-applied converter
topologies [30]. The main drawbacks of traditional single-stage AC/AC converters are
high THD of the output voltage, SCR commutation complexity, and high-stress voltage
on semiconductor switches. [31]. Different solutions for reducing the THD from the output
voltage of single-stage AC/AC converters are available. Most of the solutions are related
to modulation techniques and filters. The standard filter scheme [32] and advanced mod-
ulation techniques [33,34] were taken into consideration for the minimization of harmonic
distortion. In order to enhance the output power’s quality, various modulation techniques
were applied, including pulse width modulation (PWM) [35], sinusoidal PWM [36], space
vector modulation, delta modulation, discrete amplitude modulation, and pulse density
modulation (PDM) [37]. Another method for removing harmonics from the output volt-
age of an AC/AC power converter is delta modulation. However, the output voltage is
controlled by an additional controller circuit, which adds expense and bulk to the archi-
tecture. For discrete amplitude modulation to produce a carrier wave for amplitude mod-
ulation (AM), an additional circuit topology is required, and for pulse density modulation
(PDM), an additional delta-sigma analog to digital converter is required. As a result, con-
ventional approaches with sophisticated modulation are not very appealing because they
raise circuit complexity and expense.
Despite the extensive research conducted over the past 40 years and all the significant
advantages connected with single-stage AC/AC power converters, such topologies are
still not extensively used in the industry because of their very serious harmonic distortion
problems. That’s why the reduction of THD for single-stage AC/AC power converters is
always an industrial concern.
Apart from these, from the viewpoint of industrial application areas, three-phase in-
duction motors have some advantages in terms of machine efficiency, power factor, and
torque ripples compared to their single-phase counterparts. Therefore, in some low-
power industrial applications, it is preferable to switch from single-phase to three-phase
induction motor drives. We should change a single-phase supply to a three-phase supply,
though, in some remote locations where there is only a single-phase utility available. The
conventional method for changing a single-phase voltage to a three-phase voltage uses
rotary, capacitor, or autotransformer converters. Most of these converters remain bal-
anced only at one specified load. On the contrary, for low-power induction motor-driven
traction applications, a three-phase induction motor drive from a single-phase utility sup-
ply is also considered a critical concern. So, it is highly desirable to develop a modular
single-phase to three-phase AC/AC power converter to meet the industrial demand for
drive applications.
In order to mitigate the problems associated with two-stage DC-link AC/AC convert-
ers and conventional single-stage AC/AC converters, a new single-stage AC/AC power
converter is proposed in this paper. The proposed topology conducts single-phase to
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 4 of 29

three-phase AC/AC power conversion. A multi-winding transformer has been utilized at

the input side, and TRAIC switches are used to construct the proposed power converter.
The specialty of the multi-winding transformer is to provide variable amplitude AC volt-
ages as the inputs of the proposed power converter, which aids in producing a low har-
monic distorted output voltage. The proposed AC/AC power converter:
• Employs single-stage power conversion;
• Can perform multiple order frequency conversion by changing the gate signals only;
• Mitigates the output voltage THD;
• Utilizes line frequency switching instead of high-frequency switching, which aids to
reduces the power loss of the converter;
• Reduces the magnitude of detrimental lower-order harmonics;
• Can be used to drive low-cost three-phase induction motors in the industry from sin-
gle-phase supply;
• Reduces the overall cost and circuit complexity due to the use of TRIAC instead of
SCR;
• Can be used to drive a low-power three-phase traction motor from a single-phase
supply;
• Can be considered the best candidate for the farmers to run their three-phase induc-
tion motor-driven water pump where only single-phase utility is available.
Instead of having the abovementioned promising merits of the proposed direct
AC/AC power converter, the proposed AC/AC power converter has some drawbacks and
challenges, which are the requirements of a complex structure multi-winding transformer
and the requirement of a higher number of TRIACs with an increase of frequency conver-
sion order. These shortcomings might be considered further research challenges.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the proposed AC/AC power converter
topology, its operating principles, and simulated performance analysis are described in
Section 2. Section 3 represents the experimental validation of the proposed AC/AC power
converter. Analytical harmonics analysis for the proposed AC/AC power converter is de-
scribed in Section 4. Result analysis and comparative analysis of the proposed AC/AC
power converter with some existing topologies are depicted in Section 5. Finally, the paper
is concluded in Section 6.

2. Proposed AC/AC Power Converter

This section describes the topology and operating principle of the proposed direct
single-phase to three-phase step-down AC/AC power converter.

2.1. Topology of the Proposed AC/AC Power Converter

Figure 2 shows the generalized topology of the proposed single-phase to three-phase
step-down AC/AC power converter. The proposed converter uses a 1:3 multi-winding
center tapped transformer and bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor
(TRIAC) as a power semiconductor switch. The secondary side of the multi-winding
transformer has three separate windings for driving a three-phase load. Each winding is
isolated from the others and divided by some small sub-windings to create different volt-
age levels. Here, different voltage levels are created in each winding for desired frequency
conversion by doubling the peak magnitude of the transformer output voltage to gate
close sinusoidal waveform at the converter output. The frequency conversion order, m,
can be divided into odd frequency conversion, mo, and even frequency conversion, me. For
AC/AC frequency conversion, the conversion order, m, can be written as,
m = fi / fo (1)
where fi is the input frequency, and fo is the converted output frequency. In conversion
order, m is a positive integer value, and m = 3, 4, 5, …
Hence, the required number of windings for mo can be calculated as,
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 5 of 29

N wo = 3( mo − 1) (2)
For me, the required number of windings is equal to the number of me, i.e.,
N we = 3me (3)
The required number of switches, Nso for mo can be calculated as,
N so = 3(mo − 1) (4)
For me, the required number of switches is equal to the number of me, i.e.,
N se = 3me (5)

Figure 2. A generalized circuit configuration of the proposed single-phase to three-phase AC/AC

power converter.

2.2. Operating Principle of the Proposed AC/AC Converter

With the help of 3:1 (m = 3) and 4:1 (m = 4) frequency conversions, the operating prin-
ciple of the proposed AC/AC power converter is described here. The single-phase AC
voltage source is connected to the primary side of the multi-winding transformer in Figure
2. Now, the input AC voltage is divided into small AC voltage levels in the different seg-
ments of the transformer’s secondary winding. TRIAC switches are connected to each
winding of the transformer secondary side to pass the corresponding winding voltage.
Because of their high current flow capacity, TRIACs are used in this case. There is a total
of nine operating modes required for the proposed single-phase to three-phase step-down
AC/AC power converter to get 16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5 Hz (m = 4) output frequency from
50 Hz supply. The nine operating modes are described in this section to understand the
16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency conversion, followed by the proposed
AC/AC power converter. These operating modes are explained in detail, which may aid
in the understanding of other frequency conversions also. The operating modes of the
proposed AC/AC power converter are shown in Figure 3. m = 3 and m = 4 are taken into
consideration for demonstrating the operating modes of the proposed AC/AC power con-
verter. The operating modes are named as mode-1, mode-2, mode-3, mode-4, mode-5,
mode-6, mode-7, mode-8, and mode-9, respectively. A detailed description of each of the
modes is provided below.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 6 of 29

Figure 3. Operating modes of the proposed AC/AC power converter for m = 3 (16.67 Hz) and m = 4
(12.5 Hz) order frequency conversion with 50 Hz supply frequency.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 7 of 29

Mode-1: In this mode, switch S1 for phase-A as well as phase-C and S4 for phase-B,
creating a conduction path through the three-phase load, as shown in mode-1 of Figure 3.
Phase-A and phase-C pass the positive half cycle, and phase-B passes the negative half
cycle. The output voltage polarity of phase-A and phase-C remains the same with the in-
put, but the output voltage polarity of phase-B is changed by 180°. Again, the amplitude
of the half-cycle output voltage of phase-B is twice as compared to that of phase-A and
phase-C. Thus, the converted output voltage expression for individual three phases can
be written as,
Vm
VA = (6)
2
VB = −Vm (7)

Vm
Vc = (8)
2
Mode-2: In this mode, switch S4 for phase-A, S1 for phase-B, and phase-C create a
conduction path through the three-phase load, as shown in mode-2 of Figure 3. Phase-A
passes the positive half cycle, and phase-B and phase-C pass the negative half cycle of the
input. The output voltage polarity of phase-B and phase-C remain the same width, fol-
lowed by the input, but the output voltage polarity of phase-A is changed by 180°. Again,
the amplitude of the half-cycle output voltage of phase-A is twice compared to phase-B
and phase-C, respectively. Thus, the converted output voltage expression for individual
three phases can be written as,
V A = Vm (9)

Vm
VB = − (10)
2
Vm
VC = − (11)
2
Mode-3: Switch S1 for phase-A as well as phase-B and S4 for phase-C take part in
flowing the load current, as shown in mode-3 of Figure 3. On the contrary, phase-A and
phase-B pass the positive half cycle followed by the input voltage, but phase-C passes the
negative half cycle by 180° polarity reversal compared to the input voltage with twice
amplitude. The output voltage expressions can be written as,
Vm
VA = (12)
2
Vm
VB = (13)
2
VC = −Vm (14)
Mode-4: Here, switch S3 for phase-A, S1 for phase-B, and S4 for phase-C flow the load
current as shown in mode-4 of Figure 3. Phase-A and phase-B pass the positive half cycle
with the same polarity of the input voltage, but phase-C passes the negative half cycle by
180° polarity reversal of the input voltage. The half-cycle amplitude of phase-B is half
compared to phase-A and phase-C, respectively. The output voltage expressions can be
written as,
V A = Vm (15)

Vm
VB = (16)
2
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 8 of 29

VC = −Vm (17)
Mode-5: Switch S2 for phase-A, S4 for phase-B and S3 for phase-C flow the load cur-
rent shown in the mode-5 of Figure 3. On the contrary, phase-A and phase-B pass the
positive half cycle but phase-C passes the negative half cycle. The polarity of the phase
phase-B is altered by 180° where phase-C remains same polarity of the input voltage.
Therefore, the amplitude of the phase-A is half compared to the phase-B and phase-C,
respectively. The output voltage expressions can be written as,
V A = Vm (18)

Vm
VB = (19)
2
VC = −Vm (20)
Mode-6: In this mode, switch S2 for phase-A as well as phase-C and S3 for phase-B,
creating a current-carrying conduction path as shown in mode-6 of Figure 3. On the con-
trary, phase-A and phase-B pass the positive half cycle, and phase-C passes the negative
half cycle. The output voltage polarity of phase-A and phase-C is altered by 180°, but
phase-B remains the same, followed by the input voltage. The amplitude of the half-cycle
output voltage of phase B is twice as compared to phase-A and phase-C, respectively.
Thus, the converted output voltage expressions can be written as,
Vm
VA = − (21)
2
VB = Vm (22)

Vm
VC = − (23)
2
Mode-7: Here, switch S3 for phase-A, S2 for phase-B and phase-C flow the load cur-
rent as shown in mode-7 of Figure 3. Phase-B and phase-C pass the positive half cycle with
180° polarity of the input voltage, but phase-A passes the negative half cycle with the same
polarity of the input voltage. The half-cycle amplitude of phase-A is twice as compared to
that of phase-B and phase-C. The output voltage expression can be written as,
V A = −Vm (24)

Vm
VB = (25)
2
Vm
VC = (26)
2
Mode-8: Switch S4 for phase-A, S2 for phase-B and S3 for phase-C flow; the load cur-
rent is shown in mode-8 of Figure 3. On the contrary, phase-A and phase-B pass the neg-
ative half cycle, but phase-C passes the positive half cycle. The polarity of phase-A and
phase-B is altered by 180°, where phase-C remains the same polarity followed by the input
voltage, and the amplitude of phase-B is half compared to phase-A and phase-C, respec-
tively. The output voltage expressions can be written as,
V A = −Vm (27)

Vm
VB = − (28)
2
VC = Vm (29)
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 9 of 29

Mode-9: In this mode, switch S1 for phase-A, S3 for phase-B and S4 for phase-C create
a current-carrying conduction path as shown in mode-9 of Figure 3. On the contrary,
phase-A and phase-B pass the negative half cycle, and phase-C passes the positive half
cycle. The output voltage polarity of phase-A and phase-B remains the same, but phase-
C is altered by 180° followed by the input voltage. The amplitude of the half-cycle output
voltage of phase-A is half compared to phase-B and phase-C, respectively. Thus, the con-
verted output voltage expressions can be written as,
Vm
VA = − (30)
2
VB = −Vm (31)
VC = Vm (32)
Table 1 summarizes the corresponding switching state of the proposed single-phase
to three-phase AC/AC power converter for frequency transformation of m = 3 (16.67 Hz)
and m = 4 (12.5 Hz).

Table 1. Switching states of the proposed AC/AC converter with corresponding frequency conver-
sion order (m = 3 and m = 4).
Switching State Output Voltage (V)
Output Phase Phase
Mode
Frequency (Hz) A (0°) B (120°) C (240°)
A B C
S1 S2 S3 S4 S1 S2 S3 S4 S1 S2 S3 S4
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 +Vm/2 +Vm/2 −Vm
2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 +Vm −Vm/2 −Vm/2
3 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 +Vm/2 −Vm +Vm/2
16.67 Hz (m = 3)
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 −Vm/2 −Vm/2 +Vm
2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −Vm +Vm/2 +Vm/2
3 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 −Vm/2 +Vm −Vm/2
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 +Vm/2 +Vm/2 −Vm
2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 +Vm −Vm/2 −Vm/2
4 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 +Vm −Vm +Vm/2
5 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 +Vm/2 −Vm +Vm
12.5 Hz (m = 4)
6 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 −Vm/2 −Vm/2 +Vm
7 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 −Vm +Vm/2 +Vm/2
8 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 −Vm +Vm −Vm/2
9 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 −Vm/2 +Vm −Vm
Note: Switch ON = 1; Switch OFF = 0.

Here, mode-1, mode-2, and mode-3, as shown in Figure 3 are used for frequency con-
version at m = 3 (16.67 Hz). In order to perform m = 3 frequency conversion (16.67 Hz
output from 50 Hz input), the output side needs a total of six half-cycle portions where
three of the half cycles occur during the positive side and another three half-cycles occur
during the negative side. Whereas operating mode-1, mode-2, and mode-3 repeat twice
as shown in Figure 4a–c, respectively. Hence, the six-state output voltage expression of
the corresponding separated three phases is shown as follows:

1 
Va = Vm sin  
2 
Vb = −Vm sin  0     (33)
1 
Vc = Vm sin  
2 
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 10 of 29


Va = −Vm sin  
1 

Vb = Vm sin      2 (34)
2 
1
Vc = Vm sin  
2 
1 
Va = Vm sin  
2
1 

Vb = Vm sin  2    3 (35)
2 
Vc = −Vm sin  


1 
Va = Vm sin  
2 
Vb = −Vm sin  3    4 (36)
1 
Vc = Vm sin  
2 

Va = −Vm sin  
1 

Vb = V m sin  4    5 (37)
2 
1
Vc = Vm sin  
2 
1 
Va = Vm sin  
2
1 

Vb = Vm sin  5    6 (38)
2 
Vc = −Vm sin  


Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 11 of 29

Figure 4. Output voltage waveforms of (a) phase-A, (b) phase-B, and (c) phase-C for m = 3 order
frequency conversion mode.

On the contrary, a total of eight operating modes are required for frequency conver-
sion at m = 4 (12.5 Hz) except mode-3. In order to perform m = 4 frequency conversion
(12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input), the output side needs a total of eight half-cycle portions
where the four half-cycles occur during the positive side, and another four half-cycles oc-
cur during the negative side. In contrast, every operating mode except mode-3 is active,
as shown in Figure 5a–c. Hence, the eight-state output voltage expression of the corre-
sponding separated three phases is shown as follows:

1 
Va = Vm sin  
2 
Vb = −Vm sin  0     (39)
1 
Vc = Vm sin  
2 

Va = −Vm sin  
1 

Vb = Vm sin      2 (40)
2 
1
Vc = Vm sin  
2 
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 12 of 29

Va = Vm sin  
1 
Vb = Vm sin  2    3 (41)
2 
Vc = −Vm sin  

1 
Va = − Vm sin  
2 
Vb = −Vm sin  3    4 (42)
Vc = Vm sin  


1 
Va = − Vm sin  
2 
Vb = Vm sin  4    5 (43)
1 
Vc = − Vm sin  
2 

Va = Vm sin  
1 

Vb = − Vm sin  5    6 (44)
2 
1
Vc = − Vm sin  

2 
Va = −Vm sin  
1 
Vb = − Vm sin  6    7 (45)
2 
Vc = Vm sin  

1 
Va = Vm sin  
2 
Vb = Vm sin  7    8 (46)

Vc = −Vm sin  


Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 13 of 29

Vm

Mode
Mode
0.5Vm

Mode

Mode
0

Mode

Mode
-0.5Vm

Mode

Mode
-Vm
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π

Phase A
(a)

Vm
Mode

Mode
0.5Vm
Mode
Mode

0
Mode

Mode
Mode
-0.5Vm Mode

Mode
Mode

-Vm
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π
Phase B
(b)

Vm
Mode

Mode
Mode

0.5Vm
Mode
Mode

0
Mode

Mode

-0.5Vm
Mode

Mode

-Vm
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π

Phase C
(c)

Figure 5. Output voltage waveforms of (a) phase-A, (b) phase-B and (c) phase-C for m = 4 order
frequency conversion mode.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 14 of 29

2.3. Performance Analysis of the Proposed AC/AC Power Converter

Two distinct frequency conversions, named m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input)
and m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input), were simulated in the MATLAB/Simulink
software environment to analyze the performance and reliability of the proposed single-
phase to three-phase step-down AC/AC power converter. The simulation parameters of
the proposed AC/AC power converter are depicted in Table 2. The nominal power rating
of the power converter is 1.8 kVA. Two thyristors equivalent TRIAC switches are used
during the simulation. The on-state resistance (Ron), forward voltage drops (Vf), snubber
resistance (Rs), and snubber capacitance (Cs) of the TRIAC are provided in Table 2. A three-
phase, 1.5 hp induction motor is used as a load during the simulation.

Table 2. Simulation parameters of the proposed AC/AC power converter.

Parameters Values
Nominal power rating 1.8 kVA
Ron = 0.001 Ω, Vf = 0.8 V, Rs = 500 Ω, Cs =
TRIAC (Two-thyristors equivalent)
250 nF
Supply voltage 230 V
Supply frequency 50 Hz
RL Load R = 10 Ω, L = 5 mH
Induction motor (IM) 1.5 hp
Stator winding of IM Rst = 0.6 Ω, Lst = 0.34 mH
Rotor winding of IM Rrt = 0.65 Ω, Lrt = 5.47 mH
Mutual Inductance of IM Lm = 35.4 mH

A 1:3 multi-winding center-tapped transformer is used to convert the single-phase

supply to a three-phase supply. Three separated converters are connected to the separated
three winding of the transformer’s secondary side. Each winding of the transformer is
divided into different sub-windings to create different voltage levels, and a TRAIC switch
is connected to the sub-winding to pass the positive as well as the negative half cycle,
respectively. Figure 6 illustrates the half-cycle phase conversion and inversion technique
for converting a single-phase 50 Hz power source to a three-phase 16.67 Hz power source.
The half-cycle phase conversion is done by the separated three converters connecting with
the transformer’s three windings. Similarly, Figure 7 illustrates the half-cycle phase con-
version and inversion technique for converting a single-phase 50 Hz power source to a
three-phase 12.5 Hz power source. From Figures 6 and 7, it is evident that the converted
output voltage of each phase follows the sinusoidal pattern as closely as possible. The
output waveforms of Figures 6 and 7 are investigated for resistive load.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 15 of 29

220

Voltage (V)
110
0
-110
-220
220
Phase A
Voltage (V) 110
0
-110
-220
220
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110 Phase B
-220
220
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110 Phase C
-220 -

30 60 90 120 150 180

Time (ms)

Figure 6. Simulated input-output voltage waveforms of the proposed single-phase to three-phase

AC/AC power converter for m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input).

220
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
-220
220
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
Phase A
-220
220
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
Phase B
-220
220
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
Phase C
-220
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (ms)

Figure 7. Simulated input-output voltage waveforms of the proposed single-phase to three-phase

AC/AC power converter for m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input).

The performance of the proposed single-phase to three-phase AC/AC power con-

verter is assessed here with RL load and double squirrel cage induction motor load also.
Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the single-phase to three-phase output voltage waveforms of
16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency conversion, respectively, for RL load.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 16 of 29

220

Voltage (V)
110
0
-110
Phase A
-220
220
Voltage (V) 110
0
-110 Inductive
Phase B
-220 load effect

220 Vm Vm/2
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
Phase C
-220
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (ms)

Figure 8. Simulated input-output voltage waveforms of the proposed single-phase to three-phase

AC/AC power converter for m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input) for RL load.

220 Phase A
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110 Inductive
-220 load effect

220
Voltage (V)

110 Phase B
0
-110
-220
220 Vm/2
Vm Phase C
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
-220
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (ms)

Figure 9. Simulated input-output voltage waveforms of the proposed single-phase to three-phase

AC/AC power converter for m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input) for RL load.

It is seen that the output voltage waveforms have little distortion because of the na-
ture of inductive load. Figure 10 shows the output current waveforms of individual three-
phases for m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input). The output current of each phase has
inductive load effect and the distortion area indicates that some harmonic components are
present there due to inductive spike.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 17 of 29

Current (A)
Phase A
0
Distortion
-7 area

7 Distortion
Phase B
Current (A) area
0

-7

7
Phase C
Current (A)

-7
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (ms)

Figure 10. Simulated separated three-phase output current waveforms of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) frequency
conversion for RL load.

Figures 11 and 12 show the combined three-phase load current waveforms for m = 3
(16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input) and m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input) frequency
conversion order, respectively. It is noticeable that the distortion area of the three-phase
load current is reduced for 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency conversion. So, it is clear that the
power quality is improved when the frequency conversion order, m, is increased.

7
Phase A Phase B Phase C
Current (A)

-7
0 30 60 120
Time (ms)

Figure 11. Simulated combined three-phase output current waveforms of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) frequency
conversion for RL load.

Phase A Phase B Phase C

7
Current (A)

50 100 150 200 250

Time (ms)

Figure 12. Simulated combined three-phase output current waveform of 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency
conversion for RL load.

The harmonic spectrums of the three-phase load current of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5
Hz (m = 4) frequency conversion are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively, for RL load.
The THDs for phase-A, phase-B, and phase-C are found 13.1%, 13.52%, and 13.26%, re-
spectively as depicted in Figure 13a–c for m=3 frequency conversion. Similarly, the THDs
for phase-A, phase-B, and phase-C are recorded 10.14%, 10.37%, and 10.21%, respectively
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 18 of 29

as depicted in Figure 14a-c for m=4 frequency conversion. The THDs of the three-phase
load current of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency are found to be 13% and
10% (average), respectively, for RL load. The power quality parameter, which is expressed
in terms of THD, is improved by 3% by increasing the frequency conversion order, m be-
cause the output current follows a more sinusoidal wave shape. Figures 15 and 16 illus-
trate the three-phase output voltage waveforms of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5 Hz (m = 4)
frequency conversion, respectively, for induction motor load. Because of the motor load,
the output voltage waveforms show little distortion. Figures 17 and 18 show the load cur-
rent of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency conversion for the motor load.

Mag (% of Fundamental)
Mag (% of Fundamental)

12 THD =13.1% THD =13.52%

12
(% of Fundamental) (% of Fundamental)
Phase A Phase B
6 6

(a) (b)
0 0
0 250 300 0 250 300
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Mag (% of Fundamental)

12 THD=13.26%
(% of Fundamental)
Phase C
6

(c)
0
0 250 500
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 13. Harmonic spectrums of the simulated three-phase load currents for 16.67 Hz (m = 3) fre-
quency conversion with RL load.
Mag (% of Fundamental)

Mag (% of Fundamental)

8 8
THD=10.14% THD=10.37%
Phase A Phase B
4 4

(a) (b)
0 0
0 250 500 0 250 500
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Mag (% of Fundamental)

8
THD=10.21%
Phase C
4

(c)
0
0 250 500
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 14. Harmonic spectrums of the simulated three-phase load currents for 12.5 Hz (m = 4) fre-
quency conversion with RL load.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 19 of 29

220
Phase A

Voltage (V)
110
0
-110 Motor load
-220 effect
220
Phase B
Voltage (V) 110
0
-110
-220

220 Vm/2
Vm Phase C
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
-220
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (ms)

Figure 15. Simulated three-phase output voltage waveforms of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) frequency conver-
sion with motor load.

220
Phase A
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110 Motor load
effect
-220
220
Phase B
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
-220
220
Vm Phase C Vm/2
Voltage (V)

110
0
-110
-220
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (ms)

Figure 16. Simulated three-phase output voltage waveforms of 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency conversion
with motor load.

Phase A Phase B Phase C

15
Current (A)

-15

50 100 150 200 250

Time (ms)

Figure 17. Simulated three-phase output current waveforms of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) frequency conver-
sion with motor load.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 20 of 29

Phase A Phase B Phase C

15

Current (A)
0

-15
50 100 150 200 250
Time (ms)

Figure 18. Simulated three-phase output current waveforms of 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency conversion
for motor load.

It is seen that the current wave-shape distortion of 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency conver-

sion is less than that of 16.67 Hz (m = 3) frequency conversion. The THDs for phase-A,
phase-B, and phase-C are found 17.31%, 17.67%, and 17.21%, respectively as depicted in
Figure 19a–c for m=3 frequency conversion. Similarly, the THDs for phase-A, phase-B, and
phase-C are recorded 12.28%, 12.58%, and 12.37%, respectively as depicted in Figure 20a–
c for m=4 frequency conversion. The average THDs of the three-phase load currents of
16.67 Hz (m = 3) and 12.5 Hz (m = 4) frequency are found to be 17% and 12% (average),
respectively, for the motor load as depicted in Figures 19 and 20, respectively. Thus, the
THD is improved by 5% by increasing the frequency conversion order, m. So, it can be
claimed that by increasing the frequency conversion order (m = 5, 6, 7…), the THD of mo-
tor load current can be minimized to less than 5% as per the requirement of IEEE-519
standard.
Mag (% of Fundamental)

Mag (% of Fundamental)

16 THD=17.31% 16
THD=17.67%
Phase A Phase B
8 8

(a) (b)
0 0
0 250 500 0 250 500
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Mag (% of Fundamental)

16
THD=17.21%
Phase C
8

(c)
0
0 250 500
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 19. Harmonic spectrums of the simulated three-phase load currents for 16.67 Hz (m = 3)
frequency conversion with motor load.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 21 of 29

Mag (% of Fundamental)
Mag (% of Fundamental)
10 THD=12.28% 10 THD=12.58%
Phase A Phase B
6 6

(a) (b)
0 0
0 250 500 0 250 500
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

Mag (% of Fundamental)
10 THD=12.37%
Phase C
6

(c)
0
0 250 500
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 20. Harmonic spectrums of the simulated three-phase load currents for 12.5 Hz (m = 3) fre-
quency conversion with motor load.

3. Experimental Validation
In order to verify the analysis and simulation results, a reduced scale prototype was
built and tested in the laboratory. This condensed version emphasizes verifying the con-
ceptual idea of the proposed converter topology. The photograph of the experimental
setup is shown in Figure 21. The experimental parameters are provided in Table 3. BT 135
TRAIC switches are used to construct the proposed converter. For producing gate pulses
for the TRIACs, zero-crossing detection (ZCD) circuit has been designed using a 4 N35
optocoupler. The zero-crossing control signal is feedback to the processor board. The Ar-
duino ATmega2560 processor board is used here to control the overall circuit. The gate
pulses are produced from the processor board based on zero-crossing information. After
that, the gate pulses are passed through a gate driver circuit consisting of MOC3021 opto-
couplers. The MOC3021 ensures the isolation between the low-voltage processor board
and high-voltage power switches of the proposed AC/AC power converter. This scaled-
down converter is tested for an RL load to observe filtered current waveforms for both m
= 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input) and m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input)
frequency conversion, respectively.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 22 of 29

Figure 21. Experimental test rig of the proposed AC/AC power converter.

Table 3. Parameters of experimental setup.

Item Specification
Input voltage (AC) 230 V, 50 Hz
Multi-winding transformer (28–14–0-14–28) V (1:4 winding)
TRIAC BT136
Opto-coupler MOC3021, 4N35
Microcontroller board Arduino Mega (ATMega2560)
Load resistor 10 Ω, 10 W
Load inductor 5 mH

The gate drive signals are the main control pulses for the TRIACs to conduct certain
frequency conversion operations. The experimental gate drive signals generated from the
ArduinoMega2560 processor board for m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input) and m =
4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input) frequency conversions are depicted in Figures 22 and
23, respectively. The converted output voltage waveforms of m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from
50 Hz input) and m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input) frequency conversions are
shown in Figures 24 a and b, respectively, against an RL load. Some spikes are notable in
the voltage waveforms of Figures 24 a and b, respectively, which are due to the impact of
reactive load. From Figures 24 a and b, it is evident that the experimental result agrees
well with the simulation results of Figures 8 and 9, respectively. Figure 25a depicts the
experimental output current waveforms for m = 3 (16.67Hz output from 50Hz input) fre-
quency conversion order. The current waveforms look more sinusoidal than voltage
waveforms that are because the currents are filtered by the load inductance. Similarly, the
output current waveform for m = 4 (12.5Hz output from 50 Hz input) frequency conver-
sion order is shown in Figure 25b. The current of the waveform of m = 4 frequency con-
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 23 of 29

version is more sinusoidal than that of the current waveform of m = 3 frequency conver-
sion. Thus, it is clear that with the increase of frequency conversion order, both the voltage
and current waveforms will follow a more sinusoidal pattern, and overall harmonic dis-
tortion will be decreased consequently.

Figure 22. Experimental gate drive signals (5 V/div) of m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz input)
frequency conversion for (a) phase-A, (b) phase-B, and (c) phase-C.

Figure 23. Experimental gate drive signals (5 V/div) m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input) fre-
quency conversion for (a) phase-A, (b) phase-B, and (c) phase-C.

Figure 24. Experimental output voltage (20 V/div) waveforms for (a) m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from
50 Hz input) and (b) m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input) frequency conversion order with RL
load.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 24 of 29

Figure 25. Experimental output current (1 A/div) waveforms for (a) m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50
Hz input) and (b) m = 4 (12.5 Hz output from 50 Hz input) frequency conversion order with RL load.

4. Analytical Harmonics Analysis for the Proposed AC/AC Power Converter

The THD of the proposed single-phase to three-phase step-down AC/AC power con-
verter is evaluated in this section for 16.67 Hz (m = 3) frequency conversion only. The THD
of the output waveform of the AC/AC power converter can be determined by the Fourier
series expression, as shown below.

nt nt
Vo (t ) = ao +  an cos( ) + bn sin( ) (47)
n =1 m m
where, m is the frequency conversion ratio. To analyze the harmonic distortion of the out-
put voltage by using Equation (47), all ao and an Fourier coefficients are zero, except the bn
coefficient. All even harmonic components are zero for the bn coefficient, leaving only odd
harmonic components. As a result, the Fourier series expression of the traditional m = 3
frequency conversion output voltage can be written by Equation (48) using the half-cycle
pairs method [38].

n
24Vm sin( )
3 sin( nt )

Vm
Vo (t ) = sin( t ) +  (48)
3 n =1, 5, 7....  (m 2 − n 2 ) m
n 3

where the first term represents the 3rd harmonic component and the second term repre-
sents any harmonic components other than the 3rd order harmonic. The frequency con-
version ratio and harmonic order are denoted by ‘m’ and ‘n’, respectively, in Equation
(48).
The half-cycle pair method can also be used to measure the harmonic distortion of
the proposed AC/AC power converter output voltage, followed by Equation (48). Similar
procedures can be followed for calculating the analytical harmonic components of the
output voltage waveforms of the AC/AC power converter. Thus, any order (m = 3,4,5,
6,….) harmonic components and overall THD can be evaluated using Equation (47) and
Equation (48).

5. Result Analysis and Comparisons

Table 4 summarizes a comparative analysis for m = 3 (16.67 Hz output from 50 Hz
input) order frequency conversion in terms of load current THD for RL load and induction
motor load, respectively. For motor load, the DC component is found 3.22% for the con-
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 25 of 29

ventional 3:1 converter, whereas 1.10% DC component is found for the proposed 3:1 con-
verter. The highly 3rd harmonic component is completely suppressed by the proposed 3:1
converter for RL load, whereas 30.89% 3rd harmonic component is found for the conven-
tional 3:1 power converter for the same load. For motor load, the 3rd harmonic component
is 0.07% for the proposed 3:1 power converter, whereas 37.68% 3rd harmonic component
is found for the conventional 3:1 converter. The 5th harmonic component is found at
28.45% and 40.07% for the conventional 3:1 converter with RL load and motor load, re-
spectively. On the contrary, 12.42% and 16.21% 5th harmonic components are found for
the proposed 3:1 power converter with RL load and motor load, respectively. The 7th har-
monic component is recorded at 8.73% and 12.46% for the conventional 3:1 converter with
RL load and motor load, respectively. At the same time, 3.65% and 3.80% 7th harmonic
components are found for the proposed 3:1 power converter with RL load and motor load,
respectively. The 8th, 9th, 10th, 12th, 14th, and 15th harmonic components are completely
nullified by the proposed 3:1 power converter. The overall current THDs of the conven-
tional 3:1 converter are found to be 42.97% and 57.81% for RL load and motor load, re-
spectively. On the contrary, 13.00% and 17.31% current THDs are recorded for the pro-
posed 3:1 power converter with RL load and motor load, respectively. From Table 4, it is
clearly observable that the proposed 3:1 power converter outperformed than conventional
3:1 converter in terms of all harmonic components and overall THD for both RL and motor
load, respectively.

Table 4. Comparison between conventional and proposed power converter in terms of THD (m =
3).

Conventional 3:1 (m = 3) Proposed 3:1 (m = 3)

Harmonic
Fund. % of Output Fund. % of Output Fund. % of Output Fund. % of Output
Order
Current (A) (RL Load) Current (A) (M. Load) Current (A) (RL Load) Current (A) (M. Load)
DC Component 0.00% 3.22% 0% 1.10%
1 100% 100% 100% 100%
2 0.01% 4.23% 0.04% 0.66%
3 30.89% 37.68% 0.00% 0.07%
4 0.01% 4.09% 0.03% 0.45%
5 28.45% 40.07% 12.42% 16.21%
6 0.06% 5.54% 0.01% 0.43%
7 8.73% 12.46% 3.65% 3.80%
8 0.01% 2.97% 0.00% 0.16%
9 0.04% 3.95% 0.00% 0.01%
10 0.01% 2.96% 0.00% 0.12%
11 2.14% 2.93% 0.92% 1.12%
12 0.01% 3.52% 0.00% 0.17%
13 1.24% 0.75% 0.54% 0.39%
14 0.01% 0.97% 0.00% 0.07%
15 0.03% 1.80% 0.00% 0.00%
THD 42.97% 57.81% 13.00% 17.31%
Note: Fund. = Fundamental; M. = Motor.

Table 5 summarizes the comparative analysis results for m = 4 (12.5Hz output from
50Hz input) order frequency conversion in terms of load current THD for RL load and
induction motor load, respectively. The 3rd harmonic component for RL load and motor
load is found at 32.49% and 44.73%, respectively, with the conventional 4:1 converter. On
the contrary, 6.03% and 4.44% 3rd harmonic components are found for RL load and motor
load, respectively, with the proposed 4:1 power converter. The 5th harmonic components
are recorded 21.07% and 34.62% for the conventional 4:1 converter with RL load and mo-
tor load, respectively. On the contrary, 2.20% and 1.74% 5th harmonic components are
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 26 of 29

found for the proposed 4:1 power converter with RL load and motor load, respectively.
The overall current THDs of the conventional 4:1 converter are found to be 49.82% and
78.09% for RL load and motor load, respectively. On the contrary, 12.00% and 16.35% cur-
rent THDs are recorded for the proposed 4:1 power converter with RL load and motor
load, respectively. The proposed power converter also outperforms than conventional
converter for 4:1 frequency conversion also, as cleared in Table 5.

Table 5. Comparison between conventional and proposed power converter in terms of THD (m =
4).

Conventional 4:1 (m = 4) Proposed 4:1 (m = 4)

Harmonic
Fund.% of Output Fund. % of Output Fund. % of Output Fund. % of Output
Order
Current (A) (RL Load) Current (A) (M. Load) Current (A) (RL Load) Current (A) (M. Load)
DC Component 1.90% 35.79% 0.77% 1.62%
1 100% 100% 100% 100%
2 3.54% 10.26% 6.01% 8.89%
3 32.49% 44.73% 6.03% 4.44%
4 3.00% 5.05% 1.98% 3.43%
5 21.07% 34.62% 2.20% 1.74%
6 2.47% 3.90% 2.30% 2.45%
7 27.57% 47.41% 7.24% 9.95%
8 2.06% 5.91% 2.22% 4.50%
9 11.90% 19.30% 1.16% 3.03%
10 1.74% 4.59% 2.39% 2.40%
11 1.98% 2.95% 1.36% 1.35%
12 1.51% 1.36% 1.01% 1.26%
13 1.57% 2.24% 0.85% 0.90%
14 1.32% 2.99% 0.76% 0.69%
15 2.69% 2.97% 0.61% 0.91%
THD 49.82% 78.09% 12.00% 16.35%
Note: Fund. = Fundamental; M. = Motor

A comparative study has also been conducted in terms of current THD for both fil-
tered and unfiltered conditions among various AC/AC power converter topologies, as de-
picted in Figure 26. This comparison is conducted against the RL condition for the m = 4
frequency conversion order. The unfiltered THDs for AC/AC power converter of [39–44]
are 70.31%, 70.31%, 67.12%, 64.65%, 60.14%, and 52.95%, respectively. In contrast, the fil-
tered THDs for AC/AC power converter of [39–44] is 11.22%, 11.12%, 9.21%, 8.39%, 6.52%,
and 6.03%, respectively. Among all filtered THDs, none of them follow the IEEE-519
power quality standard. On the contrary, the filtered and unfiltered THDs are found to be
3.25% and 12.00%, respectively, for the proposed AC/AC power converter. The filtered
THD of the proposed AC/AC power converter follows the IEEE-519 power quality stand-
ard. Thus, the proposed AC/AC power converter outperforms those of existing counter-
parts in terms of current THD, which ensures the better power density of the proposed
AC/AC power converter.
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 27 of 29

70.31
70.31
67.12
64.65
60
fundamental)
THD (% of

60.14
40
52.95
20 11.22
0 11.12
9.21
8.39 12
6.52
6.03
3.25

Figure 26. Comparative analysis of filtered and unfiltered THDs among various AC/AC power con-
verter topologies: Agarwal+2009 [39], Agarwal+2010 [40], Khedekar+2019 [41], Idris+2006 [42],
Biswas+2017 [43], and Islam+2021 [44].

6. Conclusions
In this paper, a new topology of direct single-phase to three-phase AC/AC power
converter is introduced. The proposed converter is designed with a multi-winding trans-
former and TRIAC switches. The performance of the proposed AC/AC converter is ana-
lyzed and tested through computer simulation and experimental evaluation against dif-
ferent load type. The proposed converter outperforms than conventional counterpart in
terms of individual harmonic components mitigation and overall THD reduction of the
output voltage/current. For m = 3 (16.67Hz output from 50 Hz input) frequency conversion
order, the overall current THD gets reduced by approximately 30% (Table 3) for RL load
and 40% for motor load with the proposed AC/AC power converter. For m = 4 (12.5 Hz
output from 50 Hz input) frequency conversion order, the overall current THD gets re-
duced by approximately 38% (Table 4) for RL load and 60% for motor load by utilizing
the proposed topology. The switch count is reduced by 50% as compared to conventional
SCR based single-phase to three-phase AC/AC power converter. Due to the use of TRIAC
switches, the overall gate driving complexity also gets reduced for the proposed AC/AC
power converter. The proposed AC/AC power converter can perform any order frequency
conversion without changing the circuit topology by modifying only the line frequency
switching pulses. Due to the use of line frequency switching pulses instead of high-fre-
quency modulated gate pulses, the proposed AC/AC power converter can be considered
the best candidate for reduced power loss and highly efficient power conversion applica-
tions. Although it is notable that direct AC/AC converters without DC-link have not been
implemented on an industrial scale, this type of advanced direct AC/AC power converter
without DC-link may reopen the door of further research interest to the industrial com-
munity.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.P.B. and M.S.U.; methodology, S.P.B. and M.R.I.; soft-
ware, M.S.U. and S.M.; validation, S.P.B., S.M. and J.N.; formal analysis, M.R.I.; investigation, S.P.B.
and J.N.; resources, M.R.I. and J.N.; data curation, S.M., writing—original draft preparation, S.P.B.;
Electronics 2022, 11, 4213 28 of 29

writing—review and editing, M.R.I.; visualization, M.S.U.; supervision, M.R.I.; project administra-
tion, S.P.B. and M.R.I.; funding acquisition, M.R.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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