Droplet Impact, Coalescence, and Droplet Formation – Review

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2022, Vol. 14(11) 1–21
Ó The Author(s) 2022
Physics of droplet impact on flexible DOI: 10.1177/16878132221137237
journals.sagepub.com/home/ade
materials: A review

Alireza Mohammad Karim

Abstract
Droplet impact on a flexible substrate is a prevalent phenomenon in nature and various advanced technologies such as
soft bio-printing, tissue engineering, smart biomaterials and flexible electronics. Recent rapid advancement in new func-
tional surfaces, ultra-high-speed imaging, nanotechnology, deep learning, advanced computational strength and the rela-
tion between fluid dynamics and interfacial science have intensified the physical understanding of droplet impact on soft
materials. Once a droplets impacts on a solid surface, it deposits, spreads, rebounds or splashes. Given the importance
of the droplet impact onto soft substrates in biotechnology, medicine and advanced flexible electronics, a deep physical
understanding of such complex phenomenon is vital. This review initially presents the liquid-solid interaction physics and
relevant interfacial science. Next, this review discusses the physics of droplet impact on soft materials with different
physical and interfacial characteristics. Moreover, this review presents advancements in droplet impact on elastic materi-
als relevant to new technologies such as soft electronics, elastic smart biomaterials, tissue engineering and the fight
against COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, this review lays out future research directions related to current problems in such
complex physical phenomenon.

Keywords
Droplet impact, droplet impact velocity, splash, spread, rebound, flexible surface, contact angle, interfacial tension

Date received: 13 August 2022; accepted: 19 October 2022

Handling Editor: Chenhui Liang

Introduction mechanism. With respect to the influence of a substrate

on the droplet impact onto soft materials, in addition
Droplet impact is a ubiquitous physical event in various to substrate roughness and substrate chemistry, the
natural and industrial processes. The examples include mechanical properties of the substrate including mate-
rain drops falling on insect wings, splashing of pesticide rial stiffness and elasticity will play important roles in
on plant leaves, coffee stain, food industry and inkjet the complex physical process.52,109–132 A soft material
printing.1–19 Physics of droplet-substrate interaction exhibits the Young’s modulus of elasticity ranging in
has been an attractive field of science in various tech- the order of magnitude of 1000 Pa–1 MPa. Therefore,
nologies including healthcare, aerospace, electronics,
coatings, printings and materials science.20–99
Previous studies about droplet impact on rigid sub-
strates demonstrated following physical events: deposit Nanoscience Centre, Department of Engineering, University of
(adhesion), breakup (fragmentation), prompt splash, Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
corona splash, partial bounce and complete bounce as
illustrated in Figure 1.5,16,17,54,100–108 However, the Corresponding author:
Alireza Mohammad Karim, Nanoscience Centre, Department of
physical process of a droplet impact on an elastic Engineering, University of Cambridge, 11 J. J. Thomson Avenue,
material is much more challenging due to interplay Cambridge, CB3 0FF, UK.
between the material elasticity and the droplet impact Email: alireza.m.k.2010@gmail.com

Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
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without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages
(https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 1. Physical events during droplet impact on a rigid substrate.54,106,107 Reprinted from The Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 892,
Burzynski, D. A., Roisman, I. V., and Bansmer, S. E. ‘On the splashing of high-speed drops impacting a dry surface’, A2, Copyright
(2020), with permission from Cambridge University Press. Reprinted from Scientific Reports, 6, Weisensee, P. B., Tian, J., Miljkovic,
N., King, W. P. ‘Water droplet impact on elastic superhydrophobic surfaces’, 30328, Copyright (2016), with permission of Springer
Nature. Reprinted from Langmuir, 33, Malla, L. K., Patil, N. D., Bhardwaj, R., and Neild, A. ‘Droplet bouncing and breakup during
impact on a microgrooved surface’, 9620–9631, Copyright (2017), with permission of American Chemical Society.

soft materials are classified as elastic and flexible The droplet motion on an inclined substrate, with
materials.133 inclination angle (a), depends on the gravity. It changes
When a droplet gets into contact with a substrate, a the droplet shape as compared to spherical cap geometry
three phase (solid-liquid-air) contact line forms, as on a horizontal substrate, as illustrated in Figure 2(d).
demonstrated in Figure 2. This physical event is called This induces the droplet to advance in one direction with
droplet spreading. This happens when the contact line advancing dynamic contact (ua ) and to recede in other
advances on the substrate as a result of the competition direction with receding dynamic contact angle (ur ).
between adhesion and cohesion forces at the three- For droplet impact on rough substrates, three well-
phase contact line.19,50–53,55,56,70–72,100,108,132,134–160 The known models were proposed to show the droplet
adhesion force leads to the advancement the droplet on conformation on the rough materials, as shown in
the substrate while the cohesion force resists the droplet Figure 2. These models are Wenzel, Cassie-Baxter, and
advancement on the substrate. mixed wetting state.72,162–165
Once the droplet impact the substrate, a contact Wenzel demonstrated the droplet shape on rough
angle is at the contact line which determines the wett- and orderly patterned substrates.163 He concluded that
ability of the substrate. The contact angle is the result presence of roughness on a substrate enhances the
of the balance between interfacial tensions. The static solid-liquid contact without any air pockets between
(equilibrium) contact angle, ue , is determined by Young them, with the apparent contact angle, represented by
equation161 through a force balance between the inter- equation (2):
facial tensions, presented by equation (1):
cos uWenzel = x cos ue ð2Þ
g LV cos ue = ðg SV  g SL Þ ð1Þ
uWenzel is the Wenzel contact angle, ue denotes the equi-
in which g LV denotes the liquid-vapour surface tension, librium contact angle on a flat smooth substrate, and x
g SV is the solid-vapour interfacial tension, and gSL pre- presents the substrate roughness.
sents the solid-liquid interfacial tension. The equili- Cassie and Baxter164,165 showed that air pockets
brium contact angle on a hydrophilic surface is less present between a droplet and a substrate. The Cassie-
than 90°, on a hydrophobic surface is between 90° and Baxter wetting model is evaluated by equation (3):
150°, and on superhydrophobic surface is larger than
150°. Figure 2(a) shows the static conformation of a cos uCassieBaxter = fðcos ue + 1Þ  1 ð3Þ
liquid droplet on a smooth solid surface with static con-
tact angle, ue , and the interfacial tensions g LV , g SL and uCassieBaxter is the Cassie-Baxter contact angle and f is
g SV . Figure 2(b) and (e) show the configuration of the the fraction of the substrate surface. The Cassie-Baxter
droplet on a rough solid surface with Wenzel state and model was applied to a droplet shape on a material with
Cassie-Baxter state, respectively. chemical and roughness heterogeneity.68,69,72,135,166–199
Mohammad Karim 3

Figure 2. Droplet shape during contact with a substrate.72 (a) Droplet on a horizontal flat substrate. (b) Droplet on a rough
substrate under Wenzel wetting mode. (c) Droplet on a rough substrate under a mixed wetting state. (d) Droplet on a smooth tilted
substrate. (e) Droplet on a rough substrate under Cassie-Baxter wetting mode. (f) Droplet on a rough substrate under a mixed
wetting state. (g) Mechanism of coalescence-induced droplet jumping process. Reprinted from Advances in Colloid and Interface
Science, 305, Wang, X., Xu, B., Chen, Z., Col, D. D., Li, D., Zhang, L., Mou, X., Liu, Q., Yang, Y., and Cao, Q. ‘Review of droplet
dynamics and dropwise condensation enhancement: theory, experiments and applications’, 102684, Copyright (2022), with
permission from Elsevier.

A droplet might exhibit a mixture of two wetting the COVID-19 pandemic, three-dimensional (3D)
conformations: portion of the droplet in contact with printing, bio-printing, nano-printing, energy perfor-
the substrate roughness and the rest is placed above the mance, and high resolution additive manufacturing in
air pockets, as demonstrated in Figure 2(c) and (f).200– biomedicine. Therefore, it is vital to focus significantly
202
The contact angle for the mixed wetting mode is on the physics of droplet impact on soft materials. This
expressed by (4): review presents a summary of studies on the physics of
droplet impact on flexible materials.
cos umixed wetting = xc cos ue + c  1 ð4Þ In the following sections, some applications of the
droplet impact on soft materials are presented. Next,
in which c presents the percentage of the substrate forces that are responsible in the physics of droplet
rough which is in contact with the droplet. impact on a substrate are discussed and pertinent non-
When two or more droplets become close to each dimensional parameters are introduced. After that, a
other, they merge (coalesce). This phenomenon is summary of previous studies of the droplet impact on
controlled by imbalance of a local pressure in which flexible materials are discussed in detail. Furthermore,
droplet surface energy converts to viscous dissipation future perspectives for extending the knowledge of this
and kinetic energy. As a result of coalescence of the dro- complex physical process are presented.
plets, droplet jumping occurs.68,69,72,154,160,171–175,203–227
Coalescence-induced droplet jumping process is demon-
strated in Figure 2(g). Applications of droplet impact on soft
Droplet impact on soft materials presents a
materials
significant interest in current technologies including
advanced functional materials, flexible printed electro- Droplet impact on soft materials shows a great interest
nics, generation of smart materials, tissue engineering, in bioprinting, fabrication of smart biomaterials, pro-
smart biomaterials, functional organs, development of duction of flexible printed electronics and fight against
biosensors, fabrication of nano-materials, fight against COVID-19 pandemic.228–233 In this section, the role of
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 3. Droplets, containing electrically conducting solutions such as silver ink, impacting onto soft viscoelastic materials for
manufacturing flexible printed electronics products.228 Reprinted from Nature Communications, 11, Modak, C. D., Kumar, A.,
Tripathy, A., and Sen, P. ‘Drop impact printing’, 4327, Copyright (2020), with permission of Springe Nature.

droplet impact on soft materials in these leading-edge biological sample for the purpose of cell-culture-based
advanced technologies are presented in detail. researches. Three-dimensional bioprinting covers vari-
ous biomedical purposes including printing droplets
containing DNA molecules, biological cells and pro-
Coating and printing teins onto soft materials. Three-dimensional bioprint-
Among numerous printing techniques, printing droplets ing is a leading-edge technology in the area of tissue
on soft viscoelastic materials has gained a tremendous engineering, production of 3D smart biomaterials, bio-
attention in current fast growing technologies including sensor manufacturing, stem cell research, fabrication of
flexible printed electronics, production of advanced 3D functional organs and gene expression analyses.
functional materials, soft biomaterials and smart mate-
rials, as illustrated in Figures 3 and 4.228,234–237 The dro-
plets might contain biological solutions, biopolymers Biotechnology and healthcare
and electronic conducting solutions. Recent study by COVID-19 pandemic largely caused loss of millions of
Modak et al. [2020] has illustrated printing droplets, lives worldwide by transmission of the droplets con-
containing conducting solutions (silver inks) and taining SARS-CoV-2 in the community.238 The com-
polymers, on to soft tapes to produce advanced flexible mon mode of contracting the virus was realized to be
electronic materials.228 Figure 3 shows the ‘cavity- by spread of the aerosol-based SARS-CoV-2-laden
collapse-driven single-microdroplet ejection’ technique respiratory droplets from infected individuals through
to impact the droplets onto a superhydrophobic groove sneezing, coughing and exhaling.239 Face masks were
by the force balance between the dynamic pressure of shown to prevent its spread in the society.240,241
the impacting droplet and the breakthrough pressure of Therefore, the physical understanding of droplet
the groove.228 impact on soft face masks and the adhesion/deposition
Moreover, droplet impact on flexible materials has of the impacting respiratory SARS-CoV-2-loaded
shown a great influence in the area of 3D bioprinting droplets onto the soft superhydrophobic face masks are
for advancement in the field of biomedicine (Figure 4). vital.238–240,242–248 Moreover, fight against the COVID-
Figure 4 illustrates the biological droplet, DMEM 19 highlighted the lack of comprehensive knowledge
(Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium), impacting on a pertinent to the interaction of the respiratory droplets
Teflon coated surface. After drying stage, the DMEM with individual skin and various surfaces such as
droplet became hydrophilic and the rest of the Teflon- the personal protective equipment including soft
coated substrate maintained its hydrophobicity. This superhydrophobic face masks to intensify their efficacy
creates a wettability gradient on the surface with the (Figure 5).239,240,248
Mohammad Karim 5

Figure 4. Bioprinting: printing of droplets containing biological samples including biological cell-based solutions onto hydrophobic
Teflon materials for manufacturing three-dimensional biopolymers.228 Reprinted from Nature Communications, 11, Modak, C. D.,
Kumar, A., Tripathy, A., and Sen, P. ‘Drop impact printing’, 4327, Copyright (2020), with permission of Springe Nature.

Figure 5. Role of droplet impact onto soft materials in study Figure 6. Schematics of droplet onto a soft solid surface and
of aerosol-laden, SARS-CoV-2-containing respiratory droplets the interfacial tensions along the interfaces. sLV : liquid-vapour
impacting onto soft superhydrophobic face masks for fight interfacial tension; sLS : liquid-solid interfacial tension; sSV : solid-
against COVID-19 pandemic.249 Reprinted from Current vapour interfacial tension.
Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 52, Liao, M., Liu, H.,
Wang, X., Hu, X., Huang, Y., Liu, X., Brenan, K., Mecha, J.,
(flexible) substrate with interfacial tensions acting along
Nirmalan, M., and Lu, J. R. ‘A technical review of face mask
wearing in preventing respiratory COVID-19 transmission’,
the interfaces due to deformation of the soft substrate
101417, Copyright (2021), with permission of Elsevier. via impact of the droplet.
Viscosity resists the droplet motion on a substrate
which causes the viscous dissipation. Interfacial ten-
sions induce the droplet stiffness during contact with
Forces and non-dimensional parameters in
the material. Gravity affects the droplet puddling which
physics of droplet impact on a substrate might be negligible as the droplet diameter is less than
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
When a droplet becomes in contact with a substrate, the capillary length ( s=(rg)) in which r is the droplet
the balance of physical forces and external forces, density, s is the liquid surface tension and g is the grav-
such as electric and magnetic fields, control the itational acceleration. External forces might also play
corresponding interfacial physics. The governing key roles in droplet impact physics. The external forces
physical forces are interfacial tensions, gravity and are due to acoustic waves, electric field, magnetic field,
viscosity.17,55–57,124,148,204,211,221,250–276 Figure 6 illus- dynamic pressure, substrate roughness, substrate chem-
trates the stationary condition of a droplet on a soft istry and substrate mechanical properties.
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Wi
The physical forces characterize the droplet impact and the elasto-capillary number (Ec = Oh ) in which l is
physics by various non-dimensional parameters: the the characteristic relaxation time for an elastic droplet.
Reynolds number (Re), the Weber number (We), Additional non-dimensional numbers might be
the Ohnesorge number (Oh), the capillary number (Ca), introduced in the droplet impact physics due to the
the Stokes number (St), the Bond number (Bo), the external forces (electric filed, magnetic field, vibration,
Froude number (Fr), the Weissenberg number (Wi), the wind and obstacles), substrate roughness, substrate
Deborah number (De) and the elasto-capillary number chemistry and mechanical properties of the
(Ec).17,277 substrate.17,258,259
Droplet impact physics is generally described by the Research in droplet impact physics onto soft flexible
Reynolds number (ratio of inertia to viscous effects) materials progressed remarkably since last couple of
and the Weber number (ratio of inertia to capillary decades when astonishing high-speed imaging capabil-
effects), as shown by equations (5) and (6): ities and power of computational fluid dynamics
enabled clarifying the rapid physical event.68,69,278–280
rUD Several physical parameters such as force, drag, pres-
Re = ð5Þ
m sure and shear stress, droplet shape, air cushioning and
rUD2 many more pertinent to the physics of droplet impact
We = ð6Þ on smooth soft materials were investigated through
s
experimental, computational and theoretical
68,69,280
in which r is the droplet density, U is the droplet efforts.
impact velocity, D denotes the droplet size, m is the In the physics of droplet impact on flexible sub-
droplet viscosity and s represents the droplet surface strates, besides roughness and chemistry of a substrate,
tension. The Ohnesorge number signifies the competi- the mechanical properties of the substrate including
tion between viscous, inertia and capillary effects elasticity and stiffness are vita.281–284 Material deforma-
(equation (7)): tion by droplet impact has a key role in numerous para-
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi meters in interfacial science and technology including
m We contact angle, contact angle hysteresis, adhesion, con-
Oh = pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi = ð7Þ
rU s Re densation, frost growth and evaporation. In following
sections droplet impact physics on smooth and rough
The capillary number defines the relative significance of soft materials are discussed.
viscous and capillary forces (equation (8)):

mU
Ca = ð8Þ Droplet impact on soft smooth substrates
s
There were various efforts on the droplet impact phy-
In the case of non-negligible effect of the gas phase, it is
sics on smooth soft substrates that deform due to the
common to apply the Stokes number to show the role
capillary effect. It was reported that surface deforma-
of the gas phase for the lubrication layer under the dro-
tion is reversely related to substrate shear modulus.281
plet before impact. The Stokes number denotes the role
Chen et al. experimentally studied impact physics of
of gas viscosity in the droplet impact physics, as formu-
water droplets on soft viscoelastic hydrophobic sub-
lated by equation (9):
strates for a broad range of the Weber numbers by
mg mg 1 determining the physical interactions between the dro-
St = = : ð9Þ plet and the soft substrate.281
rUD m Re
At the small Weber number, the droplet bounces
in which mg is the gas viscosity. The Bond and the from the soft material while at the larger Weber num-
Froude numbers determine the importance of gravity bers, the droplet spreads and deposits on the soft mate-
in the droplet impact physics (equations (10) and (11)): rial.281 At the moderate Weber number, air bubbles
entrap inside the droplet during deposition on soft
U material.281 Similar mechanism was observed for dro-
Fr = pffiffiffiffiffiffi ð10Þ
gD plet impact on rigid substrates.281
At the large Weber numbers, droplet does not
rgD2
Bo = ð11Þ bounce from the soft viscoelastic materials. In compari-
s son, partial bouncing of the droplet from rigid materials
For the case of elastic droplets, three non-dimensional were observed. Similarly, an elastic droplet rebounds
parameters are normally used to show the role of elasti- from a superhydrophobic rigid material.281 The elasti-
city on the droplet impact physics: the Weissenberg city of a soft material does not affect on the dynamics
number (Wi = lU D ), the Deborah number (De = D )
lU
of droplet spreading after its impact on the soft
Mohammad Karim 7

material.281 However, mechanical vibration of the dro- Recently, there has been a great attention on appli-
plet after impact on a flexible viscoelastic material is cation of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (soft lubrica-
governed by wettability of the soft material.281 tion) for a broad range of systems such as
Lee et al. studied the physics of water droplet impact stereolithography and biological adhesion.171,189,289–292
on smooth bitumen materials with unique characteris- In this field of technology, experimental efforts showed
tics of being rigid and flexible viscoelastic. They showed that droplet impact dynamics on a soft material is gov-
the dynamic stick-slip feature of the droplet on the soft erned by the elasticity of the soft material.281,286,293–295
deformable material.285 Spreading and dewetting Similarly, it was reported that the droplet impact phy-
dynamics of a water droplet after impact on a rigid sics is effected by the mechanical deformation of the
material and a deformable material were compared for soft material via absorbing part of energy or due to the
different impact speeds.285 Different droplet impact contact line dynamics.296,297 Table 1 lists various stud-
mechanisms including spreading/deposition, partial ies that have been conducted on physics of droplet
rebound and complete rebound were considered at dif- impact onto soft flexible solid materials.
ferent impact speeds.285 The water droplet impact/wet-
ting has a classical quasi-static predictable condition on
a rigid material. In comparison, the water droplet Droplet impact on soft rough substrates
impact/wetting behaviour is a dynamic un-predictable Weisensee et al. showed that the material elasticity
condition on a deformable viscoelastic material due to affects on the physics of droplet impact on a soft rough
formation of wetting ridges.285 material.107 Figure 8 shows the physics of droplet
Langley et al. investigated the role of the elasticity impact dynamics onto a rigid superhydrophobic and an
of soft substrates on formation of air layer and air bub- elastic flexible superhydrophobic surface at very large
bles under the droplet at the onset of impact on the impact velocities, 1.58 and 1.57 m/s, respectively.107 As
elastic materials by an ultra-fast imaging technique shown in Figure 8, droplet impact onto a rigid superhy-
(Figure 7(a) and (b)).286 Figure 7 demonstrates the drophobic surface causes the droplet breakup and
images of the air entrapment dynamics after impact of splashing while after droplet impact onto an elastic
an ethanol droplet on a glass substrate in comparison superhydrophobic surface, the substrate vibrates and
with the ethanol droplet impact on a soft (flexible) sili- the droplet lifts-off in a pancake geometry.107 The time
cone substrate. The elasticity of a soft material delays interval over which a water droplet is in contact with
compressibility of air layer, formed under the droplet an elastic superhydrophobic substrate is half of the
after impact. Material elasticity induces generation of time interval a water droplet is in contact with a rigid
thicker air films as compared to the air films formed superhydrophobic substrate (Figure 8).
under the droplet after impact on the rigid materials.286 Alizadeh et al. studied the role of the material elasti-
Chen and Bertola studied the physics of a water dro- city on the mechanism of a water droplet impact on a
plet impact on a curved soft elastic material by a high- smooth and a patterned superhydrophobic substrates
speed imaging considering different material elasticity with various elasticity.300 The droplet spreading on and
and curvatures.287 Moreover, their observations were retraction from a soft material depends on the material
compared with their simulations over a broad range of elasticity through viscoelastic energy dissipation event.
the impact Weber numbers. It was shown that increase It was shown that decrease in elasticity of a soft mate-
in the elastic material curvature induces more droplet rial induces a reduction in the droplet retraction from
receding from the soft material.287 When a droplet the soft material.300 A water droplet spreads less on a
impacts on an elastic curved material, the dynamic con- soft material with higher elasticity.300
tact angle depends on three parameters: material curva- Few studies were attempted to gain insights on the
ture, material elasticity and the impact Weber role of material roughness in the area of droplet impact
number.287 After a droplet impacts on an elastic curved on soft flexible material. The mechanism of droplet
or flat substrate, viscous energy dissipation happens spreading and droplet penetration inside pores of a
due to deformation of the soft material after droplet rough flexible material were investigated by high-speed
impact. imaging and results were compared with their simula-
Poulain and Carlson analytically studied the coupled tions.311 This test was conducted for the impact of
interactions between the droplet and the substrate blood droplet on flexible rough fabrics. Moreover,
coated with a thin soft material containing one of the recent efforts were attempted on the droplet response
following: viscous film, elastic compressible film and an to the impact on a flexible soft material. Recently,
elastic sheet protected by a viscous layer.288 Their Banitabaei and Amirfazli studied the collision of the
results were compared with their simulations. They droplets with arrays of spherical particles and reported
showed that the droplet impact dynamics and droplet the role of impact speed and the wettability of the sphe-
configuration depend on the nature of the soft material. rical particles on the mechanism of impact.312
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 7. (a) Ultra-rapid interferometry bottom view images of a water droplet impacting on a flexible viscoelastic silicone surface:
The pictures show gliding stages of water droplet after impact onto soft silicone material and the gliding area in each image is shown
by a red solid line.286 (b) Ultra-fast interferometry imaging to compare air entrapment in terms of its size after impact onto a rigid
and a soft material: bottom view images of an ethanol impacting on a glass surface (left) and a soft elastic silicone surface (right) with
the air rings entrapped inside the droplet; along with the plots under each image to illustrate the profile of the half of the entrapped
air disc ring evaluated along the red line shown in each image.286 Reprinted from Soft Matter, 16, Langley, K. R., Castrejón-Pita, A. A.,
and Thoroddsen S. T. ‘Droplet impacts onto soft solids entrap more air’, 5702, Copyright (2020), with permission of Royal Society
of Chemistry.

It was shown that as a result of droplet impact on It should be noted that most of studies focused on
an elastic superhydrophobic surface the contact time the dynamics of a droplet motion after impact on a soft
between the droplet and the superhydrophobic soft material. There were few research attempts on the
substrate is remarkably reduced as compared with dro- response dynamics of the elastic soft superhydrophobic
plet impact on a rigid superhydrophobic substrate.107 surfaces. Recent study by Soto et al. demonstrated the
Moreover, it was reported that micro- and nano- dependency of the deformation dynamics of a thin can-
patterns on superhydrophobic soft surface can enhance tilever plate on the force, due to droplet impact, using
the droplet removal performance by properly control- momentum conservation law.314 Similarly, theoretical
ling the flexibility of the superhydrophobic material.313 work by Gart et al. showed the elastic response of a
Mohammad Karim 9

Table 1. Summary of researches on droplet impact onto soft smooth substrates.

Model Liquid Solid Comment

Rioboo et al.298 water droplet cross-linked PDMS wettability characteristics

(polydimethylsiloxane) including contact angle
elastomer thin solid surfaces hysteresis, advancing and
and of receding contact angles were
octadecyltrichlorosilane self- experimentally studied and
assembled compared with droplet impact
monolayers on rigid substrates
Langley et al.286 water and ethanol droplets silicone soft material effect of material stiffness on air
cushioning formation under the
droplet after impact on a soft
material and formation of air
bubbles under the droplet
Chen and Li294 water droplet superhydrophobic soft water droplets bounce from
materials non-superhydrophobic soft
materials in the range of
minimum and maximum impact
speeds, presence of air films
under the droplet and
deformability of the soft
material at higher impact speeds
Chen et al.299 water droplet soft PDMS elastomer formation of a thin air film
under the droplet after impact
on a soft material, air film
entrapment during droplet
impact due to shear-thinning
behaviour of the soft material,
droplet bouncing after impact
Alizadeh et al.300, Mangili water droplet soft PDMS materials with role of material elasticity on
et al.301 different elasticity spreading and receding dynamics
of the water droplets after
impacting flat and patterned
superhydrophobic flexible
materials
Howland et al.295 ethanol droplet silicone or acrylic materials visualization of the impact
with different stiffness and mechanism of an ethanol
elasticity droplet on silicone gels with
different stiffness and elasticity;
material stiffness affects
splashing threshold by reducing
or vanishing it
Chen et al.281 water droplet soft PDMS viscoelastic role of mechanical stiffness of
materials with various shear the soft material on droplet
modulus impact mechanism is related to
the dynamic response of the
soft viscoelastic material after
droplet impact
Pericet-Camara et al.302 ionic liquid 1-butyl-3- soft polymeric materials: bulk wettability was studied
methylimidazolium flexible PDMS substrates; experimentally after droplet
hexafluorophosphate doped thin flexible PDMS film on a impact on the soft materials by
with fluorophore Nile Red glass measuring static contact angle
Kern and Müller303 droplet elastic isotropic thin film wettability was studied
theoretically after droplet
impact on the soft materials by
evaluating static contact angle
Yu and Zhao304 droplet thick flexible elastic theoretical and numerical study:
membranes with finite wettability was studied
thicknesses theoretically and
computationally after impact on
the soft materials by calculating
static contact angle
(continued)
10 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 1. Continued

Model Liquid Solid Comment

Gerber et al.305 colloidal droplet thick silicone elastomer controlling wetting and drying
coated glass surface mechanisms of a colloidal
droplet on a soft material by
modifying environment humidity
Liu et al.306 water droplet soft PDMS materials anti-icing performance of soft
PDMS materials with adjustable
shear modulus
Dressaire et al.307 various silicone oils thin flexible fibre elasticity of the soft material can
be tuned to enhance efficiency
of droplet capture after impact
Li et al.308 water droplet elastic substrate analytical model for droplet
impact on elastic-plastic
substrate
Adler309 water droplet deformable surface Theoretical modelling of drop
impact on a soft elastic surface
Andreotti and Snoeijer296, droplet deformable substrate role of soft material on capillary
Bico et al.310 flows

Figure 8. High-speed visualization of water droplet impact on a rigid (top) and an elastic (bottom) superhydrophobic surface.107
Reprinted from Scientific Reports, 6, Weisensee, P. B., Tian, J., Miljkovic, N., King, W. P. ‘Water droplet impact on elastic
superhydrophobic surfaces’, 30328, Copyright (2016), with permission of Springer Nature.

cantilever plate due to water droplet impact. The elastic Future perspectives
response dynamics consist of deflection, vibration,
damping and bending.315 Various studies have been attempted on the physics of
Dong et al. applied smoothed particle hydrody- droplet impact over soft elastic (flexible) materials con-
namics approach to numerically model the impact phy- sidering both smooth and rough surfaces with or with-
sics of a droplet on a cantilever plate as well as a out curvature. Moreover, numerous physical non-
flexible beam.316 However, their simulation is limited dimensional parameters were considered to explain the
to small deformation of the elastic beams. Huang et al. physics of droplet impact dynamics onto soft elastic
followed up previous work for modelling the elastic substrates including Weber number and Reynolds
beam deformation due to droplet impact for much number. Majority of investigations on the dynamics of
larger deformation.317 Table 2 lists various studies that droplet impact onto soft flexible materials involve
have been conducted on physics of droplet impact onto Newtonian liquids such as water, silicone oil and
soft flexible solid materials. ethanol. However, considering the complexity of the
Mohammad Karim 11

Table 2. Summary of researches on droplet impact onto soft rough substrates.

Model Liquid Solid Comment

Chen and Li294 water droplet superhydrophobic soft substrates water droplet bounces from a non-
superhydrophobic soft material in the
range of minimum and maximum droplet
impact velocity thresholds due to
presence of air film under the droplet and
flexibility of the soft material at the impact
speed larger than the minimum threshold
Alizadeh et al.300, water droplet PDMS flat and patterned effect of material elasticity on spreading
Mangili et al.301 superhydrophobic substrates with and receding of a water droplet after
different elasticity impact on the flat and patterned
superhydrophobic soft materials
Lu et al.318 water droplet superhydrophobic soft porous water droplet bounces from a
materials superhydrophobic soft porous material;
water droplet is trapped in the concave
structures of a soft porous material, this
condition challenges defining the contact
line on a soft porous material.
Chen et al.319 oil droplet robust superamphiphobic coated superamphiphobic soft material repels
water droplet soft materials water, glycerol, peanut-oil droplets and
some organic solvents
Huang et al.320 water droplet soft elastic superhydrophobic contact time reduction of water droplet
cotton bouncing onto a soft elastic
superhydrophobic cotton
Kim et al.89 water droplet superhydrophobic coated flexible coupled dynamic responses of flexible
PDMS superhydrophobic surfaces after droplet
impact with high-speed imaging technique
Vasileiou et al.313 water droplet flexible hydrophobic substrate: material flexibility alongside surface micro-
low-density polyethylene film patterning and nano-patterning can
treated with a hydrophobic increase the superhydrophobicity of the
nanocomposite coating material
Weisensee et al.321 water droplet elastic superhydrophobic surfaces influence of frequency of vibration of
elastic superhydrophobic surfaces due to
droplet impact on the physics of droplet
impact
Dong et al.316 water droplet elastic superhydrophobic beams numerical model to describe the droplet
impact on elastic beams
Zang et al.322 water droplet flexible polymer sheet droplet evaporation mechanism on
flexible substrates
de Goede et al.311 blood droplet soft flexible thin rough fabric mesh effect of fabric roughness on penetration
of blood droplet inside fabric pores after
impact
Huang et al.317 droplet elastic cantilever theoretical study of droplet impact on an
elastic cantilever with large deformation

real-life problems related to the field of droplet impact flexible materials with heterogeneous morphology/
onto soft elastic materials, these studies need to be sig- chemistry and heterogeneous biological cell-contained
nificantly enhanced. droplets for biomaterials.
Droplet impact on flexible materials show a signifi- Given the importance of advancement in healthcare,
cant role in current science and technology including medicine, energy and smart technology, it is vital to
fight against COVID-19, energy efficiency, nano-print- enhance applying emerging advanced technologies such
ing, bio-printing, 3D-printing, tissue engineering, smart as deep learning, quantum computation and
biomaterials, functional organs, flexible printed electro- nanoscience in imaging such as transmission electron
nics and high-resolution additives in medicine. For microscopy and cryogenic electron microscopy to
example, heterogeneous droplet impact on a flexible strengthen physical understanding of complex droplet
material presents a key role in pharmaceuticals. Liquid impact on real-life heterogeneous flexible materials.
drugs are heterogeneous droplets that contain insoluble Droplets in real-life can contain complexity in terms of
solid particles in the aqueous solution. To name a few rheology, interfacial properties, and physical
more are impact of virus-contained droplets onto properties. Similarly, flexible materials can consist of
12 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 9. List of various droplets, flexible materials and environment conditions for complex physic of droplet impact on a flexible
substrate. Flexible material might exhibit multiple features mentioned in the list. Environment condition might consist multiple
complexity mentioned in the list.

heterogeneity in morphology, chemistry and mechani- Despite the fact that all real-world problems, attrib-
cal properties in real-life problems. uted to the area of droplet impact on soft materials,
A comprehensive list is provided for complexity of contain complex droplets and real-life heterogeneous
droplet impact on flexible materials in real-life prob- flexible materials, most previous studies in this physical
lems (Figure 9). Future research directions in the area phenomenon were contributed to the Newtonian fluids
of droplet impact on flexible materials need to consider and homogeneous soft materials. As a result, it is
these complexities. extremely vital to enhance physical understanding in
Moreover, environment condition has a key role on the area of impact of complex droplets on real-life
the physics of droplet impact on soft materials. For heterogeneous flexible materials under variant environ-
instance, pressure affects on droplet splash- ment condition suitable to the real-world situations.
ing.17,52,323,324 Air enhances air film entrainment under
the droplet after impact on a soft material. The dro- Declaration of conflicting interests
plets need to be in perfect contact with soft materials
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with
for high-quality biomaterials, tissue engineering and
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
flexible printed electronics. Furthermore, Marangoni article.
effect controls the droplet behaviour on a soft material
via the interfacial tension gradient due to the tempera- Funding
ture gradient. Therefore, it is vital to consider such
The author received no financial support for the research,
complexities in the future researches in the area of dro- authorship, and/or publication of this article.
plet impact on soft viscoelastic materials.
Also, scientific community from various fields are ORCID iD
strongly encouraged to collaborate to unravel physical
Alireza Mohammad Karim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
understanding of this complex interfacial phenomenon. 2031-9057
The physics of complex droplet impact on real-life het-
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