Civics Assignment

Summary of chapter two: Approach to Ethics

Name: yohannes Addisu

Section: 21

Id number: UGR/7521/15

Submission date:08/08/2023
Submitted to: Dr Bisrat
Approach to Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with moral principles and values that govern
the behavior of individuals and groups. It is the study of what is right and wrong, good and bad,
and what actions are morally permissible or impermissible. Ethics involves examining and
evaluating moral beliefs and practices, and developing and applying moral principles and values
to guide decision-making and behavior. It is a fundamental aspect of human life and is essential
for creating a just and moral society.

Normative ethics
Normative ethics is a branch of ethics that is concerned with developing and evaluating moral
norms and principles that guide human behavior. It is the study of what ought to be, rather than
what is. Normative ethics aims to provide a framework for determining what actions are morally
right or wrong, good or bad, and what moral obligations individuals and groups have towards
each other. Normative ethics is concerned with answering questions such as: What are the
fundamental principles that should guide human behavior? What are the moral rules that
individuals and societies should follow? What are the virtues that individuals should cultivate in
order to live a good life? Moral philosophy focuses on the purpose, ends, or goals of an action,
emphasizing that the consequences of an action determine the morality or immorality of a given
action. This means that an action is judged as right or wrong depending on what happens because
of it.

 Teleological ethics (consequentialist): Teleological ethics, also known as

consequentialist ethics, is an ethical theory that focuses on the consequences or outcomes
of actions. It holds that the morality of an action is determined by its ability to produce
good consequences or outcomes. In other words, an action is considered morally right if
it leads to a desirable outcome, and morally wrong if it leads to an undesirable outcome.
Teleological ethics is often associated with utilitarianism, which is a specific form of
consequentialist ethics. Utilitarianism holds that the best action is the one that maximizes
overall happiness or pleasure and minimizes overall pain or suffering. This means that
utilitarian believe that the morality of an action is determined by its ability to produce the
greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. Critics of
teleological ethics argue that it can be difficult to predict the consequences of an action,
and that it can be difficult to determine what constitutes a desirable outcome. They also
argue that teleological ethics can lead to situations where the ends justify the means,
which can result in unethical behavior.
 Egoism: Ethical and psychological Egoism:
Egoism is a philosophical and psychological concept that refers to the belief that
individuals should prioritize their own self-interest above all else. There are two main
types of egoism: ethical egoism and psychological egoism.
1. Ethical egoism is the belief that individuals should always act in their own self-
interest, even if doing so may harm others. This means that ethical egoists believe
 that it is morally right to pursue one's own self-interest, and that individuals have
no moral obligation to consider the interests or well-being of others.
2. Psychological egoism, on the other hand, is the belief that individuals are
inherently selfish and always act in their own self-interest, even if they appear to
be acting altruistically. This means that psychological egoists believe that all
human actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest, and that individuals are
incapable of acting purely out of concern for others.
Critics of egoism argue that it is an overly simplistic and unrealistic view of human
nature, and that it fails to account for the complex motivations and behaviors of
individuals. They also argue that ethical egoism can lead to situations where
individuals prioritize their own self-interest at the expense of others, which can result
in unethical behavior.
 Utilitarianism: Producing the best consequences
Utilitarianism is a moral theory that judges the moral worth of an action based on its
ability to promote the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of
people. It is a consequentialist theory, meaning that it focuses on the outcomes or
consequences of actions rather than the intentions behind them. Utilitarianism is based on
the principle of utility, which states that actions are right in proportion as they tend to
promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. The ultimate
goal of utilitarianism is to create a society that maximizes overall happiness and
minimizes overall suffering.
1. Classic Utilitarianism is a moral theory that holds that the best action is the one
that maximizes overall happiness or pleasure and minimizes overall pain or
suffering. It is based on the principle of utility, which states that actions are right
in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce
the reverse of happiness.
2. Jeremy Bentham: Quantity over Quality Jeremy Bentham was a philosopher who
believed in the principle of utility and founded the moral theory of utilitarianism.
He emphasized the importance of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain, and
believed that the quantity of pleasure was more important than the quality of
pleasure.
3. John Stuart Mill was a philosopher who believed in the principle of utility and
emphasized the importance of higher qualities of pleasure such as knowledge,
intelligence, freedom, friendship, love, and health over mere quantity of pleasure.
4. Act-utilitarianism judges the morality of an action based on its ability to promote
the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure, while rule-utilitarianism judges the
morality of an action based on whether it follows a rule that leads to the greatest
amount of happiness or pleasure.
5. Altruism is a moral theory that holds that an action is right if it benefits others,
even if it comes at a cost to oneself.
 Deontological Ethics (Non- Consequentialist)
 Deontological ethics, also known as non-consequentialist ethics, is a moral theory that
holds that the morality of an action is not solely determined by its consequences, but also
by whether it follows certain moral rules or duties, such as keeping promises, telling the
truth, or respecting human dignity.
1. The Divine Command Theory The Divine Command Theory (DCT) is a moral
theory that holds that ethical principles are simply the commands of God, and that
they derive their validity from God's commanding them. According to this theory,
moral rightness simply means "willed by God," and moral wrongness means
"being against the will of God."
2. Rights theory is a duty-based approach to ethics that holds that a "right" is a
justified claim against another person's behavior, and that rights and duties are
related in such a way that the rights of one person imply the duties of another
person.
3. Kant’s Categorical Imperative Kant's Categorical Imperative is a deontological
ethical theory that is based on the idea that there are certain objective ethical rules
in the world. The first formulation of the categorical imperative states that we
should choose our 'codes of conduct' only if they serve perfect/imperfect duty and
are good for all.
4. Ross's Prima Facie Duties are a set of moral guidelines that dictate what we
should do when other moral factors are not considered. These duties include
duties of fidelity, duties of reparation, duties of gratitude, duties of justice, duties
of beneficence, and duties of self-improvement.
 Virtue Ethics is a normative ethical theory that emphasizes the virtues, or moral
character, of an individual. It is focused on developing good character traits, such as
honesty, courage, and compassion, rather than following rules or maximizing the
consequences of actions.

Non-Normative Ethics/Meta-ethics
Meta-ethics is a branch of ethics that deals with the nature of ethical thought and language. It is
concerned with questions about the meaning of moral language, the nature of moral facts, and
the possibility of moral knowledge. Some of the questions that meta-ethics addresses include:
What is the meaning of moral terms? Do moral facts exist? How can we know whether our moral
judgments are true or false?
Cognitivism and non-cognitivism
Cognitivism and non-cognitivism are two opposing views in meta-ethics about the nature of
moral judgments. Cognitivists believe that moral judgments express beliefs that can be true or
false, and that moral statements are capable of being assessed in terms of truth and falsity. Non-
cognitivists, on the other hand, believe that moral judgments do not express beliefs, but rather
express non-cognitive states such as emotions or desires. Non-cognitivists argue that moral
judgments are not capable of being true or false.
 cognitivism
 1. Strong cognitivism is a theory that holds that moral judgments are capable of
being true or false and can be evaluated in terms of truth and falsity. Strong
cognitivist theories can be either naturalist or non-naturalist. Naturalists believe
that moral judgments are rendered true or false by a natural state of affairs, and it
is this natural state of affairs to which a true moral judgment affords us access.
According to naturalists, a natural state of affairs is one that is the subject matter
of the natural sciences and psychology. Naturalist reductionists, such as Richard
Boyd, believe that moral properties are reducible to other natural properties that
are the subject matter of the natural sciences and psychology. Non-naturalists
believe that moral properties are not identical to or reducible to natural properties.
They are irreducible and sui generis. Moore's ethical non-naturalism and the
contemporary version of non-naturalism that has been developed by John
McDowell and David Wiggins. Both types of non-naturalists are moral realists,
meaning they believe that there really are moral facts and moral properties, and
that the existence of these moral facts and instantiation of these moral properties
is constitutively independent of human opinion
2. J.L. Mackie's "Error-Theory" is a form of strong cognitivism without moral
realism. Mackie argues that moral judgments are capable of being true or false,
but that they are always false because there are no objective moral facts or
properties in the world. According to Mackie, moral properties are metaphysically
queer and unlike anything else in the universe as we know it. Mackie's error-
theory is a form of moral skepticism, which denies the existence of objective
moral truths. Mackie argues that our moral judgments are the result of a cognitive
error, and that we should abandon the idea that there are objective moral truths.
3. Weak cognitivism about morals without moral realism is a theory that holds that
moral judgments are capable of being true or false, but that there are no objective
moral facts or properties in the world. 'Best Opinion' theories are a type of weak
cognitivist theory that holds that moral judgments are the result of the best
opinion of a particular community or society. According to 'Best Opinion'
theories, moral judgments are not objectively true or false, but are instead the
result of a social consensus or agreement. 'Best Opinion' theories are a form of
moral anti-realism, which denies the existence of objective moral truths. Instead,
moral judgments are seen as the result of social conventions and agreements.
 Non-cognitivism
Internalism and externalism, Humeanism and anti-Humeanism are all related to the
question of how moral judgments are related to motivation. Internalism is the view that
there is an internal or conceptual connection between moral judgment and motivation.
According to Internalism, if you sincerely make a moral judgment, you will be motivated
to act in accordance with that judgment. Externalism, on the other hand, denies that there
is an internal or conceptual connection between moral judgment and motivation.
According to externalism, moral judgments can motivate us, but only because of external
factors such as social pressure or the desire for approval. Humeanism is the view that
motivation always involves the presence of both beliefs and desires. According to
 Humeanism, if you are motivated to act in a certain way, it is because you have a belief
about what you ought to do and a desire to do it. Anti-Humeanism, on the other hand,
denies that motivation always involves the presence of both beliefs and desires.
According to anti-Humeanism, there are other factors that can motivate us, such as
emotions or moral intuitions, that do not involve beliefs and desires.
Over all Ethics is a crucial discipline that promotes a healthy society and a fulfilling experience
for individuals. It is essential for human growth and prosperity, as it helps maintain a stable
society and maintain peace. Moral values govern behavior and maintain society's value, requiring
individuals to respect and maintain its stability. Traditional moral theories, such as utilitarianism,
deontology, and virtue theory, have been critiqued and updated to better understand human
living. Contemporary ethical theories, such as principlism, narrative ethics, and feminist ethics,
aim to offer developments and improvements on traditional theories, fill in dimensions of human
living, and guide decision-making and moral judgments.