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spiral. The cutting speed for counter boring 2.10.4 Tapping

is at least 25% lesser than that of drilling. Tapping is the operation of cutting
internal threads by means of a cutting
tool called “Tap”. Tapping in a drilling
machine may be performed by hand
Counter (or) by power. When the tap is screwed
bore
Work into the hole. It removes metal and cuts
internal threads which fit into external
threads of the same size.
The following figure illustrates
tapping operation.

Tap
Counter Boring

Counter Sinking
Counter sinking is the operation of making
a cone shaped enlargement at the end of Work
the hole. The included angle of the conical
surface may be in the range of 600 (or) 900.
It is used to provide recess for a flat headed
screw or a counter sunk rivet fitted into the
hole. The tool used for counter sinking is
known as a counter sink. It has multiple
cutting edges on its conical surface. The Tapping
cutting speed for counter sinking is 25%
lesser than that of drilling. Calculation of the Tap drill size
The figure illustrates counter Tap drill size may be derived from the
sinking operation. following formula.
Tap drill size ‘D’= T-2d
Where ‘T’ is the outer diameter of tap to
Counter be used. And ‘d’ is depth of the thread.
sink
Tap drill size can also be calculated
Work the following formula.
D=0.8T

Example:
Calculate the tap drill size. When outside
diameter of the tap is 10mm the pitch
of the thread is 1.5 mm and depth is
0.61mm.
Counter sinking

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Out side diameter of the tap T=10 mm 2.12 Feed

Pitch of the thread p=1.5 mm The feed of a drill is the distance that it
Depth of the thread d= 0.61 mm moves into the work for each revolution of
the spindle. It is expressed in millimeters.
Tap drill size D = T – 2pd
The feed may also be expressed as feed
= 10 – 2 × (1.5)×(0.61) per minute. The feed per minute may be
= 10 – 1.83 defined as the axial distance moved by
the drill into the work per minute.
D = 8.20 mm
Feed depends upon factors like the
material to be drilled. The rigidity of the
2.11 Cutting Speed machine, power, depth of the hole and
Speed in general refers to the distance a the type of finish required.
point moves in a particular period of time.
The cutting speed in a drilling operation 2.13 Depth of cut
refers to the peripheral speed of a point
on the cutting edge of the drill. It is The depth of cut in drilling is equal to
usually expressed in meters per minute. one half of the drill diameter. If ‘d’ is the
The cutting speed (v) may be calculated diameter of the drill. The depth of cut (t)
as. t=d/2 mm.

π dn ACTIVITIES
Cutting speed (c.s) V = m/min.
1000 1. To make an arrangement the
Where ‘d’ is the diameter of the drill students to visit the workshop,
in mm, polytechnic and engineering
‘n’ is the speed of the spindle in rpm colleges, to observe the various
and operations performed by drilling
22 machines.
π= (or) 3.14.
7 2. To give more exercises to the
students, to make holes by using
drilling machine and Lathe
Example:
machine in school practical
A drill of diameter 20mm makes a hole Laboratory.
on a steel part at a cutting speed of
25m/min.
Find out the spindle speed.
π dn
Cutting speed (c.s) V = m/min
1000
25 = π x 20xn/1000
n = 25x1000/ π x 20 = 398 rpm.
Spindle speed ‘n’ = 398 rpm.

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QUESTIONS

Part I 6. The angle between three jaws of a

Choose the correct option drill chuck is
 1 mark a. 118˚
1. The inventor of first electric drilling b) 120 ˚
machine is c) 135 ˚
a. Henry Maudslay d)59 ˚
b. Arthur James Arnot 6. The formula to calculate tap drill
c. Eli whitney size is
d. James Nasmith a. D=T + 2d
2. The drilling machine used in b) D=T × 2d
constructional work is, c) D=T - 2d
a. Bench drilling machine d) D=T ÷ 2d
b. Portable drilling machine 7. The drift is made up of
c. Gang drilling machine a. Carbon steel
d. Multi spindle drilling machine b) Tool steel
3. Counter – bore is a c) Hard steel
a. Multi – point cutting tool d) High speed steel
b. Single point cutting tool 8. Name of the groove in drill is
c. Parting tool a. V-type groove
d. Saw teeth cutting tool b. U-type groove
4. The size of the hole can be drilled c. Flute
in radial drilling machine is
d. Straight type groove
a. up to 10mm
b. up to 12 mm Part II
c. up to 50mm Answer the following questions
d. up to 70 mm in one or two sentences.
5. Twist drills are made of  3 Marks
a. Low carbon steel 9. Define – “Drilling”

b. High Speed steel or High carbon 10. Mention any four types of drilling
steel machine
c. Brass 11. What are the special features of
radial drilling machine
d. Ceramics

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12. What are the different types of drills?

13. What are the uses of “Flute” in a drill?
14. Mention any four types of tool – holding devices in drilling machine.
15. State any two differences between the process of reaming and boring.
16. In which situation boring is needed?
17. Define “Cutting speed” of a drilling machine.

Part III
Answer the following questions in about a page
 5 Marks
18. Draw and explain a bench drilling machine.
19. How is the size of a drilling machine specified?
20. Explain any two types of drill holding devices.

Part IV
Answer the following questions in detail. 10 Marks
21. Explain the construction of a radial drilling machine.
22. Explain any two work – holding devices used in a drilling machine.
23. Explain twist drill parts with neat sketch.
24. Explain any two operations performed in a drilling machine.

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PTE
HA
C

03

R
SHAPING MACHINE

Learning Objective

To understand the students about important parts of shaping machine,

application of machine mechanism, various types of operations performed in
the machine

CONTENTS

3.1. Introduction 3.9. Swivel tool head

3.2. Process of machining 3.10. Work-Holding devices
3.3. Main parts of the shaping machine 3.11. Types of shaper tools
3.4. Types of shaping machine 3.12. Setting of shaper table, vise and Tool head
3.5. Quick return mechanism 3.13. Types of shaping operation
3.6. The size of a shaper 3.14. Special operations
3.7. Changing the stroke length 3.15. Cutting speed, depth of cut and feed
3.8. Method of table movement

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Process of Machining

Shaping is a process of machining a The work is held firmly on the table and
flat surface which may be horizontal, the ram is allowed to reciprocate over it. A
vertical, inclined, concave or convex single point cutting tool is attached to the
using a reciprocating single point tool. ram. When the ram moves horizontally
A shaping machine is a reciprocating in the forward direction, the tool removes
type of machine tool. James Nasmith, an metal from the work. During the return
Englishman designed a shaping machine stroke, metal is not removed. The ram
to produce flat surfaces in the year 1836. moves at a slow speed during the forward

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Shaping machine was designed by James Nasmith in the

year 1936. It is used to produce flat surfaces like horizontal,
vertical, inclined, concave and convex.

James Nasmith

stroke. But during the forward and return 3.3 Main parts of Shaping
motion the stroke length remain same, Machine
the time taken by the return stroke is less
as than the forward stroke. It is done by Base
‘Quick return mechanism’. The base is hollow and is made of cast
iron. It provides the necessary support
In a shaping machine, a flat
for all the other parts of the machine.
horizontal surface is machined by moving
It is rigidly bolted in the floor of the
the work mounted on the table in a
workshop.
crosswise direction to the tool movement.
When vertical surfaces are machined, the
feed is given to the tool. Column

When inclined surface is machined, It is a box like casting mounted vertically

the vertical slide in the tool head is on top of the base. Two accurate
swiveled to the required angle and the guideways are machined on the top of
feed is given to the tool by rotating the the column. The ram reciprocates on
down feed hand wheel. these guideways. The front face of the
column is provided with two vertical
The method of machining in a guideways. They act as guideways for the
shaper is illustrated in Figure. crossrail. Crossrail moves vertically along

Ram

Work Tool

Table

Machining process

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Tool Head
Ram
Claper Box

Tool
Ratchet and
Pawl mechanism

Column
Table

Base
Table support

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these guideways. The column encloses vertical and angular feed movement of
the ram reciprocating mechanism and the tool. The swivel tool head can be
the mechanism used for stroke length positioned at any required angle based on
adjustment. the job. The vertical slide can be moved
vertically or at any desired angle based
on the inclined surfaces.
Cross rail
It is mounted on the front vertical 3.4 Types of Shaping
guideways of the column. The table may Machine
be raised or lowered by adjusting the
cross rail vertically. A horizontal cross Classification of the shaping machines as
feed screw is fitted within the crossrail. follows:

1. According to the type of driving

Saddle
mechanism
The saddle is mounted on the cross rail.
a. Crank type
It holds the table rigidity on its top.
The saddle can be moved in crosswise b. Hydraulic type
direction by rotate the cross-feed screw c. Geared type
by hand or power. 2. According to the design of the table
a. Plain shaper
Table
b. Standard shaper
It is an important part used for holding
the work firmly on it. It is mounted on c. Universal shaper
the saddle which is located above the d. Heavy duty shaper
crossrail. The top and sides of the table 3. According to the position and travel
are accurately machined and have T-slots. of ram
Workpieces are held on the table with the
a. Horizontal shaper
help of shaper vise, clamps and straps.
b. Vertical shaper
4. According to the type of cutting
Ram
Ram carries the tool head on its front end. a. Push cut shaper
It reciprocates on the accurately machined b. Draw cut shaper
guideways on the top of the column. It is
connected to the reciprocating mechanism Crank type shaper
placed inside the column. The position of Crank and slotted link mechanism of a
ram reciprocate motion may be adjusted crank type shaper converts the rotation
according to the location of the work on of an electric motor into reciprocating
the table. movement of the ram. Though the lengths
of both the forward and return strokes
Tool head are equal, the ram travels at a faster speed
The tool head is fitted on the face of the during return stroke. This quick return is
ram and hold the tool rigidly. It provides incorporated in almost all types of shaper.

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Types of shaping machine

According to According to the According to the According to

the type of driving design of the table position and travel the type of cutting
mechanism of ram

Horizontal Push cut shaper

Crank type Plain shaper
shaper

Standard
Hydraulic type Vertical shaper
shaper Draw cut
shaper
Universal
Geared type
shaper

Heavy duty
shaper

Hydraulic shaper
The ram of a hydraulic shaper is connected
to a piston. Oil at high pressure is pumped
to the cylinder of the hydraulic system.
As the oil pushes the piston, the ram
reciprocates. Hydraulic shapers are high
power machines and are used for heavy
duty work.

Universal shaper
The universal shaper has a special type
of table which can be swiveled and
positioned at any angle about a horizontal Universal Shaper
axis. Apart from the cross and vertical
travel, the table of a universal shaper 3.5 Quick return mechanism
can be swiveled to any angle to machine
inclined surfaces. In the process, the The ram moves at a comparatively slower
position of the work in the table need not speed during the forward cutting stroke.
be changed. These machines are utilized During the return stroke, the mechanism
in precision workshops. is so designed to make the tool move
at a faster rate to reduce the idle return

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time. This mechanism is known as quick Figure shows the crank & slotted
return mechanism. link mechanism.
At the ram moves at a faster rate When the bull gear rotates, the
during return stroke, the time taken sliding block also rotates in the crank pin
becomes less. The total machining time circle. This arrangement provides a
decreases and the rate of production rocking movement to the rocker arm. As
increases. The following mechanisms are the top of the slotted link is connected to
used for quick return of the ram. the ram, the ram reciprocates horizontally.
1. Crank and slotted link mechanism
So, bull gear rotation is converted into
the reciprocating movement of the ram.
2. Hydraulic mechanism
3. Whitworth mechanism
Quick return mechanism
As shown in the diagram, ‘KA’ indicates
Crank and slotted link
the starting point of the forward cutting
mechanism stroke and ‘KB’ the end of the cutting
An electrical motor runs the driving stroke. The rotation of the crank ‘OP’
pinion(S) at a uniform speed. This pinion in clockwise direction through the angle
makes the bull gear (M) to rotate at a CRC1 refers to the forward cutting stroke.
uniform speed. Bull gear is a large gear The rotation of the crank in the same
fitted inside the column. The point ‘O’ direction through the angle C1LC refers
is the centre of the bull gear. A slotted to the return stroke. As the angle C1LC
link having a long slot along its length is smaller than the angle CRC1, the time
is pivoted about the point ‘K’. A sliding taken for the return stroke is less than
block ‘N’ is fitted inside the slot and slides the forward stroke. So, it is evident that
along the slot, which is in the slotted the speed at which the ram travels during
link. ‘P’ is the crank pin and ‘OP’ can be return stroke is more.
considered as a crank.

Clamping lever Handwheel for

position of stroke
Ram adjustment
Bevel gear
A B
R
Crank
Slotted link
Bevel gear
Crank pin (P)
Driving
pinion (S)
O
Sliding block (N)
C L C1
Bull gear (M)

Crank and Slotted link Mechanism

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A B The specifications of the machine :

Slotted Link 1. The type of drive
R
Crank pin a. Individual motor
circle
216˚ b. Belt driven
Bull gear
144˚ 2. The method of obtaining different
C C1
speeds
L a. Gear box
b. Step cone pulley
K
3. Horse power of the motor
Quick Return Mechanism 4. Cutting to return stroke ratio
5. Number and range of speed
arrangement
Time taken for forward angle CRC1 6. The type of the table.
cutting stroke
= 3.7 Changing the stroke
Time taken for the angle C1LC length
idle return stroke
= 2160 / 1440 The stroke length is calculated to be
= 3 / 2, nearly 30 mm longer than the work. The
position of stroke is adjusted that the tool
In some machines this ratio can be set
starts to move from a distance of 25
as 7/5.
mm before the beginning of the cut and
continues to move 5 mm after the end of
The stroke length of a ram is the the cut. For example as shown in Figure,
distance between the ram moves forward the length of the work is 100 mm. The
or backward. It depends upon the stroke length of the ram is calculated to
distance between the centre of the bull be 130 mm. (25+100+5). Fig illustrates
gear and the centre of the sliding block. the calculation of stroke length.
It is adjusted according to the length of The crank pin fastened to the
the work. sliding block can be adjusted by a lever
placed outside the column. Through the
3.6 The size of a shaper bevel gears placed at the centre of the
bull gear, the radial slide lead screw can
The size of a shaper is determined by be rotated. This rotation of leadscrew
the maximum length of stroke. Shapers changes the position of the sliding block
with maximum stroke length of 175 mm to move towards or away from the bull
to 900 mm are available. Machines with gear centre. The stroke length of the ram
maximum stroke length of 300 mm, 450 is adjusted by placing the sliding block
mm and 600 mm are widely used. at a required position from the centre of
the bull gear.

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Tool Head

Forward stroke

Return stroke

Tool

Stroke length

25 Length of the work - 100 5

Work

Table

Ram Position

Note: T
 he strokelength of the ram and
by side. It is not possible to operate
its position should not be adjusted both of them at the same time.
when the machine is in operation. 6. The work mounted on the table is
The machine should be stopped provided with required feed only
before these adjustments are made. during the end of the return stroke.

3.8 Method of table 3.9 Swivel tool head

Movement The tool head of a shaper holds the cutting
1. The table moves in a cross direction
tool rigidly. It is fitted on the face of the
when the cross-feed screw is rotated. ram. The vertical slide of the tool head
can be moved vertically or at a particular
2. A crank handle is provided to rotate
angle to provide vertical and angular feed
the cross-feed screw manually. movement to the tool. It allows the tool
3. When the cross-feed screw is rotated to have an automatic relief during the
in clockwise direction, the table will return stroke of the ram.
move towards left.
The tool head has a swivel base
4. When the elevating screw is rotated, attached to the circular seat on the ram.
the table slides up and down on the The swivel base has angular graduations
face of the column. marked on it. As the vertical slide is
5. The handles are used for cross-feed mounted on the swivel base of the
screw rotation and elevating screw toolhead, it may be set and moved at any
rotation and they are placed side desired angle to machine angular surfaces
like ‘V’ grooves and dove tail grooves.

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The down feed screw handle is cutting edge from dragging on the work
rotated to move the vertical slide up and surface. Fig. illustrates the swivel tool
down. A graduated dial is placed on the head of a shaper.
top of down feed screw to control the
amount of depth of cut or feed accurately.
3.10 Work Holding Devices
Apron consisting of clapper box,
Workpieces can be hold and supported
clapper box and tool post is clamped on
on the shaper table directly or by having
the vertical slide by a screw. By releasing
some special devices. Depending on the
the clamping screw, the apron can be
size and shape of the work, it may be
swiveled either towards left or towards
right with respect to the vertical slide. supported on the table by any one
The clapper box has two vertical walls of the following methods.
within which the clapper block is housed. 1. Shaper vise
It is connected to the clapper box with
2. Clamps, stop pins and Toe dogs
the help of a hinge pin. This arrangement
provides relief to the tool while machining 3. T-bolts and step blocks
vertical or angular surfaces. The tool 4. Angle Plate
post is mounted upon the clapper block. 5. V-Block
The tool post is provided with a slot to
6. Special fixtures
accommodate the tool and a screw to
hold the tool rigidly on the tool post.
Vise
The clapper block fits securely
Vise is the most common and simple
inside the clapper box to provide a rigid
work holding device used in a shaper.
tool support during forward stroke. On
Different types of vises are used in a
the return stroke, a slight frictional drag
shaping machine according to the need
of the tool on the work lifts the block out
and they are: 1. Plain Vise, 2. Swivel Vise,
of the clapper box and prevents the tool
3. Universal Vise

Down feed handle

Micrometer dial
Down feed
screw Angular
Vertical slide graduations

Clapper box

Tool post

Clapper block
Tool

Swivel Tool Head

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directly on the machine table. The t-bolts

Movable Jaw
Screw Fixed jaw are fitted in the T- slots of the machine
Work
table. One side of the clamp holds the
Swivel work and the other side rests on a step
base of the step block. The different steps of
the block are useful in leveling the clamp
when holding works of different heights.
A nut on the top of the clamp holds the
work rigidly.

Step block
T-Bolt
Clamp
Vise

Work
Clamps, stop pins and Toe dogs
T-bolts are fitted into the T-slots of the
Work
table. The work is placed on the table. The
work is supported by a rectangular strip
at one end and by a stop pin at the other
side. The screw is tightened to secure the
work properly on the machine table. The
use of stop pin is shown in Figure.
Stop pin
Clamp Bolt
Work
Table

T-bolt and clamp

Angle Plate
Angle plate resembles the English alphabet
‘L’. It is accurately machined to have two
Clamp and Stop pin sides at right angles. Slots are provided
on both sides. One of the sides is bolted
to the machine table and the workpiece
T-bolts and step blocks are held on the other side. The use of an
The step blocks are used in combination angle plate is shown in Figure.
with T-bolts and clamps to hold the work

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Work
Angle plate

Packing
Table

Angle Plate

Clamp Work

T-Bolt

V-Block

Table

V – Block

V-block 3.11 Types of shaper cutting

V-block is a metal block having a ‘v’ tools
shaped groove on it. It is used for holding
According to the type of operation, various
cylindrical workpieces. Operations
tools are used in a shaper. They are
like keyway cutting, slot cutting and
machining flat surfaces can be performed
Right hand (R.H) tool
on the cylindrical workpieces held on a ‘V’
block. The use of a ‘V’ block is illustrated This is a tool used for machining by
in Figure. moving the job from right to the left.

Left hand (L.H) tool

Special fixtures
This is a tool used for machining by
When internal keyways are to be moving the job from left to right.
machined on the holes, the work is held
with a special fixture. The fixture has a According to the material of the
V-block attached to it and the cylindrical cutting tool used in a shaping machine
work is mounted on it. should have more hardness and temper
when compared to the material of the

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workpiece. So, the shaper tools are made Goose neck tool
of the following materials. They are This is a special type of tool used for
1. High Carbon Steel finishing operation. Very good surface
finish will be obtained. The cutting edge
2. High Speed Steel
of goose neck tool has a springy action.
3. Carbide tipped tool The tip of the cutting edge lies in the
4. Stellite tool same line with the rear side of the shank.

Rough machining tool Slot cutting tool

When it is required to remove a good Wide rectangular or square grooves are
amount of material from the workpiece. known as slots. Rough machining of the
The cutting edge will be very thick, slot is carried out using round nose tool.
sharp and strong to withstand the After that, a slot cutting tool is used for
cutting pressure and to dissipate the finishing work.
heat generated at the cutting point. The
surface obtained will be very rough. T-slot cutting tool
The central rectangular (or square) slot
is first machined using rough machining
Finishing tool
tool and then by using parting tool (or slot
After the rough machining is performed, cutting tool). After that, a T-slot cutting
the finishing tool is used to obtain a very tool is used to machine underneath the
high quality of surface finish. The cutting rectangular groove.
edge will be either flat or slightly convex.
Different types of shaper tools are shown Form tool
in Figure.
Form tools are made to suit some specific
requirements for machining V shaped
grooves or similar special shaped grooves
in concave or convex form.

3.12 Setting of shaper table,

vise and tool head
Round Roughing Finishing The machining accuracy will not be perfect
nose tool tool tool if the machine table and toolhead are not set
properly. When the sides are perpendicular,
it is referred as squareness. Parallelism
means the two sides are absolutely parallel
to each other. Alignment is an arrangement
in which the relative positions of the table,
Side Slot Goose
the jaws of the vise, the toolhead and the
recessing tool cutting tool neck tool ram are perfect. The above setting of the
Types of shaper tools table, work and the tool are done with the
help of test bars and feeler gauges.

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3.13 Types of shaping
operations
Different types of operations are Apron

performed in a shaping machine. They

are broadly classified as
1. Regular operations
2. Special operations
Tool
Work
General operations
Machining horizontal surfaces
A shaper is mostly used to machine a Machining Horizontal Surfaces
flat surface on a workpiece. Horizontal
surfaces are machined by moving the Machining vertical surfaces
work mounted on the machine table at
A vertical cut is made while machining
a cross direction with respect to the ram
the end of a workpiece, squaring up a
movement. The clapper box can be set
block or machining a shoulder.
vertical or slightly inclined towards the
uncut surface. This arrangement enables The feed is given to the tool by
the tool to lift automatically during the rotating the down feed screw of the
return stroke. The tool will not drag on vertical slide. The table is not moved
the machined surface. vertically for this purpose. The apron is

Shaping machine operations

General Operation Special operations

Dovetail cutting
Machining horizontal surface
V-block cutting

External keyway cutting

Machining vertical surface

Internal keyway cutting

Machining inclined surface T-slot cutting

Irregular surface

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Apron

Tool

Work

Machining vertical surfaces

Apron

Tool

Work

Machining Inclined surfaces

swiveled away from the vertical surface Machining the inclined (angular)
being machined as shown in the diagram. surfaces can be done in several ways.

Machining Inclined surfaces 3.14 Special Operations

If the surface to be machined is neither
Apart from machining horizontal, vertical
horizontal nor perpendicular, the surface
and vertical flat surfaces, the shaping
is called inclined surface. The vertical
machine can do some special machining
slide of the tool head is swiveled to the
operations.
required angle machining ‘V’ grooves
and dovetail grooves are some examples
for angular machining.

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