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CHEMICAL
COORDINATION

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Chemical Coordination

The coordination which occur with the help of hormones , is called chemical coordination.

A hormone is a chemical messenger that is secreted by specialized tissues called glands, that is
transported in the blood stream Hormones may reach all parts of the body, but only certain types of
cells, the target cells, are equipped to respond. Thus a given hormone traveling in the blood stream
elicits specific response in from selected target cells, while other cell types ignore the particular
hormone.

CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES

Chemicals that function as hormone must exhibit two basic characteristics.

 They must be sufficiently complex to convey regulatory information to their target cells.
 Hormones must be adequately stable to resist destruction prior to reaching their target cells.

Three primary chemical categories of hormones are as follows.

 Peptide and Protein hormones

 Amino acid derivate hormones
 Steroid hormones

Peptide and Protein hormones

Hormones composed of chains of amino acids ranging from a few to over a hundred amino acids in
length. Short chain amino acid hormones are called peptide hormones (ADH Antidiuretic hormone).
Long chain amino acid hormones are called protein hormones (GH Growth hormone) and Insulin

Amino acid derivate hormones

These hormones are manufactured by enzymatic modification of specific amino acids. This group
includes biogenic amines

Steroid hormones

These hormones are manufactured by enzymatic modifications of cholesterol. They include the
hormones testosterone, estrogen (Estradiol), progesterone, aldosterone and cortisol

Path of Chemical messenger

In human all cells have a blood supply, once hormones enter the bloodstream, they reach nearly every
cell of the body. But in order to exert their precise control, hormones must act only on certain target
cells. (path is towards the target cell)

Mode of Hormone Action

Hormone triggers changes in target cells by one of two general mechanisms depending on their
chemical nature. Hormones may be categorized as hydrophilic (polar) or protein nature hormones and
lipophilic (non-polar) steroid and thyroid hormones.

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Protein hormones (Hydrophilic)

These hormones are soluble in water but insoluble in lipids, hence these hormones cannot cross the
cell membrane. Instead they react with protein receptors protruding (to stick out) from the outside
surface of target cell membrane In general hormones (Primary messengers) that bind to surface
receptors trigger rapid, short term responses.

More frequently, a second messenger system is used. In this system when the hormone binds to the
receptor, the shape of the receptor is altered, triggering a series of biochemical reactions that alter the
activity of cell. In many cases, the binding of the hormone on the receptor activate on enzyme.
Activated enzyme catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic Adenosine mono phosphate (CAMP).

Steroid Hormones (Lipophilic)

Steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are lipid soluble and are therefore able to diffuse into the cell
membrane and binds to receptors inside the cell, both steroid and thyroid hormones alter the activity
of genes. These hormones bind to protein receptors in the nucleus (involve in protein synthesis).

Exocrine glands secrete their substances through ducts onto the body’s surface, while
endocrine glands secrete their substances directly into your blood stream. Endocrine glands
are also known as ductless glands, they secrete hormones for chemical coordination.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that contains clusters of specialized cells called neurosecretory
cells. It secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormone in the piyutary gland, in
addition to controlling water balance , sleep, temperature , appetite and blood pressure etc.

Releasing and inhibiting hormones of hypothalamus

S.No. Hormone from hypothalamus Anterior pituitary

Stimulate the release of thyroid stimulating
1 Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
hormone (TSH)
Stimulate the release of adrenocorticotropin
2 Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
hormone (ACTH)
3 Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) Stimulate the release of LH and FSH
Growth hormone releasing hormone
4 Stimulate the release of Growth hormone (GH)
(GHRH)
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone
5 Inhibits the secretion of Growth hormone
(GHIH)
6 Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) Inhibits the secretion of prolactin

7 Melanocyte inhibiting hormone (MIH) Inhibits the secretion of MSH

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Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland also known as the hypophysis, it is also known as master gland ,it is a pea sized
gland that dangles from the hypothalamus by a stalk anatomically, the pituitary gland consists of two
distinct lobes or parts, one of which appears glandular and is called the anterior pituitary lobe or
adenohypophysis The other portion appears fibrous and called the posterior pituitary lobe or is
neurohypophysis.

Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

The anterior lobe of pituitary gland produces at least seven essential hormones, collectively termed as
tropic hormones or tropins. Tropic hormones act on other endocrine glands to stimulate secretion of
hormones.

S.No. Hormone Action

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
1 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
corticosteroids.
Stimulate the synthesis and dispersion of
2 Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
melanin pigment in the skin
Growth hormone (GH) OR Somatotropic The growth of muscles, bone and other
3
hormone (STH) tissues
Stimulate the mammary glands to produce
4 Prolactin
milk
5 Thyroid Stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroxin
Stimulate gonads (testes/ovaries) for
production of steroid hormone estrogen and
6 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
progesterone from ovaries and testosterone
from testes
Stimulate development of ovarian follicles in
7 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) females. In males it is required for the
development of sperm.

Posterior Pituitary gland (Neurohypophysis)

Hormones Action
"hormone that prevents urination" helps
prevent dehydration ADH causes more water to
be reabsorbed from the urine and retained in
Antidiuretic hormone
the body, by increasing the permeability to
water of the collecting ducts of nephrons in the
kidney.
It has two primary physiological effects: it
stimulates uterine contractions during labour
Oxytocin
and stimulates breast tissue contractions to
promote lactation after childbirth

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Thyroid gland

In human thyroid gland is located at the base of neck in front of tracheae (windpipe). It is comprised of
two lobes (bilobed) and the isthmus that binds them together. Thyroid gland produces three major
hormones

 Tri-iodothyronine (T3)
 Tetra-iodothyronine (T4) or thyroxin
 Calcitonin

Thyroxin influences most of the cells in the body elevating their

metabolic rate its effects include increasing oxygen consumption and
heart rate and stimulating the synthesis of enzymes that breakdown
glucose and provide energy

Thyroxin release is stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

from the anterior pituitary, which in turn is stimulated by releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus thyroid releasing hormone (TRH).

Excessive secretion of thyroid hormone known as hyperthyroidism produces such symptoms as profuse
sweating, weight loss, heat intolerance, irritability and high blood pressure.

Low secretion of thyroid hormone known as hypothyroidism produces symptoms such as weight gain,
lethargy and cold intolerance in adults.
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Children born with hypothyroidism are stunted in their growth and suffer severe intellectual disability,
a condition called cretinism

The condition associated with a shortage of thyroid hormones is an enlargement of thyroid called
goiter, often caused by a deficiency of iodine in the diet.

Parathyroid gland

The parathyroid glands are four small glands attached to the back
of thyroid gland. The hormone produced by the parathyroid
gland is a peptide hormone called parathormone or parathyroid
hormone (PTH). It is synthesized and released in response to
falling levels of calcium in the blood. because a significant fall in
the blood calcium level can cause severe muscle spasms.

PTH stimulates osteoclasts (one of bone cells) in bone to dissolve

the calcium phosphate crystal of the bone matrix and release
calcium into the blood. Him also stimulates kidneys to reabsorb
calcium from the urine and leads to the activation of Vitamin-D, needed for the absorption of calcium
from food in the intestine

Pancreas

The pancreas is located adjacent to the stomach. It performs both endocrine and exocrine functions.
Endocrine cells makeup only 2% of the weight of the pancreas, rest of the organ is exocrine tissues that
produce bicarbonate ions and a variety of digestive enzymes that carried to the small intestine via the
pancreatic duct.

some unusual clusters of cells scattered throughout the

pancreas, called Islets of Langerhans.

Cluster of endocrine cells secrete two hormones directly into

the circulatory system

Each islet has a population of alpha cells, which secrete the

peptide hormone glucagon, and a population of beta cells,
which secrete the peptide hormone insulin. Insulin and
glucagon are antagonistic hormones that regulate the
concentration of glucose in the blood. When blood glucose
rises (for example, after a meal), insulin is released. Insulin
causes most of the cells of the body to take up glucose and
either metabolizes it for energy or convert it to fat or
glycogen for storage.

When blood glucose level drops (for example, after a person skips breakfast) Glucagon is released It
activates a liver enzyme that breakdown glycogen releasing glucose into the blood.

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Diabetes mellitus

It is a disease of inadequate control of blood level of glucose. In this condition blood glucose levels are
high and fluctuate wildly with sugar intake.

Diabetes type – I :

It is an autoimmune disorder i.e. the immune

system attacks and destroys its own beta (ẞ)
cells, so that little or no insulin is produced,
usually caused by body producing antibodies
against ẞ cells in islets of Langerhans. It is
treated by using insulin injections to control
blood sugar level.

Diabetes type – II :

It is associated with genetic history, obesity, stress, lack of exercise and old age. In type II insulin is
produced but the body cells (Target cells) do not respond to insulin, it can be controlled by adopting a
low carbohydrate diet

Adrenal gland

The adrenal glands are located just above each kidney. Each adrenal gland is composed to an inner
portion, the adrenal medulla and an outer portion the adrenal cortex

Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla (central part) produces two hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and nor-
epinephrine (nor-adrenaline) in response to stress. The
actions of these hormones trigger "alarm" responses similar
to those elicited by the sympathetic nervous system helping
to prepare the body for extreme efforts among the effect of
these hormones are an increased heart rate, increased
blood pressure, dilation of bronchioles, elevation in blood
glucose reduced blood flow to the skin and digestive organs
and increased blood flow to the heart and muscles The
adrenal medulla is activated by the sympathetic nervous
system which prepares the body to respond to emergencies.

Adrenal cortex

The hormones from the adrenal cortex are all steroids and are referred to collectively corticosteroids.
The three main types are glucocorticoids such as cortisol, mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone and
Androgen.

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Glucocorticoids It stimulates the breakdown of muscle protein into amino acids
which are carried by the blood to the liver.

Mineralocorticoids It promotes sodium reabsorption in transporting epithelia of the

kidney, salivary gland and large intestine.
Androgens They are crucial for male sexual and reproductive function.
They are also responsible for the development of secondary
sexual characters in man.
Cushing's syndrome

This disease also known as (Hypercortisolism), it is due to over secretion of cortisol. The symptoms of
this disease are high blood pressure, weight gain, muscle wasting and weakened bones.

Addison's disease

This disease also known as (Hyporcortisolism), Lack of cortisol results in a drop of glucose and high
susceptibility to any kind of stress due to insufficient energy supply even a mild infection can cause
death.

Gonads

These are the glands that produce hormone that are involved in reproduction and other functions of
the body. Those hormones include estrogen, progesterone and testosterone.

Testes

The testes are male gonads produce both sperm and male sex hormones. The anterior pituitary gland
secretes gonadotropin follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) FSH stimulates
sertoli cells of testes to facilitate sperm development and LH stimulates Leydig cells of testes to
release testosterone

Testosterone produces both anabolic and androgenic effects in human males. Anabolic effects of
testosterone include muscle mass, muscle strength, increased bone density, bone strength, linear
growth and bone maturation. Androgenic effects of testosterone include maturation of sex organs,
formation of scrotum in fetus, deepening of voice and growth of facial and axillary hairs

Ovaries

The ovaries are female gonads, lie in the abdominal cavity produce both egg (ova) and female sex
hormones. Ovaries secrete two lipophilic hormones estrogen and progesterone

Estrogen contributes to the development and function of the female reproductive organs and
promotes secondary sex characters which include development of breasts, fats distribution in hips,
legs and breast, armpit and pubic hairs and menarche (start of menstrual cycle) Change in estrogen
levels is encountered in various phases and involvement in female reproductive life and period of low
estrogen are associated with mood swings, depression, headaches, and irregular periods and sleep
problems.

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Progesterone hormone of ovary helps in regulating menstruation and maintaining pregnancy in human
females.

Other endocrine tissues.

Gastrin

It is a peptide hormone responsible for enhancing mucosal growth, gastric motility and secretion of
hydrochloric acid (HCL) from walls of stomach.

Secretin

It is a peptide hormone from duodenum regulates environment of stomach, pancreas and liver
maintain pH to a more neutral to the basic state of the duodenum.

Cholecystokinin

It is a peptide hormone from duodenum that stimulates gall bladder to contract and stimulates
pancreas to release digestive enzymes.

 Angiotensin regulates blood pressure.

 Erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell synthesis in bone marrow.

 Atrial natriuretic hormone increases salt and water excretion to reduce blood pressure.

 Prostaglandins are lipophilic hormone involved in dealing with inflammation, blood flow and

protection from injury.

 Human brain releases endorphins hormone involved in pain relief.

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ANIMAL
BEHAVIOUR

The study of animal behavior is called as Ethology.

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One of the most important ways of adapting to environmental change is behavior.

Behaviour means the response of an organism to stimuli. Usually, the behaviour of
an organism is inherited but it can be modified by experience.

Relationship between stimuli and behaviour

Stimulus

The stimulus is a detectable change (physical or chemical) happens in the environment that causes an
organism to response. The sensory cells (receptors) of an organism located in many places on or in the
body which detect different changes receive form the environment and convert into signals (nerve
impulses).

Interpretation and response to stimuli

The receptors send signals through nerve cells to CNS (Central Nervous System). In CNS the signals are
interpreted on the basis of stimuli.

Different ways of responses to stimuli

The response of an organism to the stimuli can be positive, negative or ignored.

 A positive response is that in which one wants more or is attracted to the stimulus. For example
a person becomes happy after hearing a good news is a positive response.
 A negative response is that in which one wants to avoid the stimulus For example, a dog hides
when you want to give it a bath is a negative response.
 The ignored response is that in which an organism decides to ignore the stimulus. For examples,
you pay no attention to slight changes in the room's temperature.

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Biological Rhythms

Biological rhythms are cyclic physiological patterns of activities in an organism that are in response to
periodic environmental changes. The internal mechanism or device that controls the physiological
activities in the living organism independent from external stimuli is termed as biological clock.

Circadian Rhythms

The activity of most organisms is coordinated with the daylight or night (darkness) cycle, with most
organism their pattern of activity to a specific portion of the day or 24 hours called a day-night rhythms
or circadian rhythms.

Types of animals on the basis of Circadian Rhythms

Diurnal animals

The animals that are not active throughout 24 hours of a day, such as butterflies, birds including
mammals which are most active during the day light are called diurnal animals.

Nocturnal animals

Other animals that are active at night (darkness) such as cockroaches, owls and bats are called nocturnal
animals.

Crepuscular animals

There are still some species of the animals such as mosquitoes that are active in the early morning
(dawn) or early in evening (dusk) are called crepuscular animals.

Some animals have annual rhythms called annual cycle or circannual rhythms, including bird migration,
reproductive cycles in many insects, fishes, birds and mammals and hibernation of animals

There are two types of animal behaviour innate behaviour and learning behaviour.

Innate Behviour
The behaviour of an organism that is performed in response to stimulus at the time of birth without
prior experience is called innate behaviour or inborn behaviour.

Innate behaviour is inherited behaviour performed by the animals in a very similar way by all the
members of species. For example, a human newborn baby instinctively grasps objects placed on his
palm.

There are two types of innate behaviours.

 Orientation behaviours
 Non-orientation behaviours

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Orientation behaviours

The behaviour in which an organism moves or changes its direction in response to a source of stimuli is
called orientation behavior.

Taxes enables a faster direct response to the stimulus but is only possible if the stimulus is directional
(light , chemical)

Kineses a slower response but allows a response to a stimulus that is not always directional
(temperature , humidity)

Non - Orientation behaviours

In these behaviours the animals do not show movement toward particular directions in response to
stimuli. These are more complex behaviours than orientation. These include, reflexes, instincts and
motivations etc.

Reflexes

Reflex behaviour is the simplest form of response to stimulation. It describes the rapid automatic
response of the body or part of the body to simple stimuli.

Instincts

The Instinct or instinctive (innate or inborn behaviour) is an inherited behaviour pattern that does not
require learning or practice. These are complex behaviour patterns that are genetically programmed,
which develop along with the developing nervous system.

Migration of Salmon Fish as an example of instincts behaviour

In fish, the migration of the salmon is remarkable

Salmon spends their life in two different habitats i.e
river and ocean. In the freshwater, the female
deposits her eggs and male deposits his sperms over
eggs, this process is called Spawning. Young spends
early life in the fresh water and then leave the
freshwater, moving thousands of kilometers into the
open ocean. In the ocean, salmon lives six months to
seven years, where they continue to feed and grow
and after two ог three years transform into smolt
(stag of sexual maturity). During breeding season
smolts stop feeding and then start their journey
approximately hundreds miles back to exact stream
for spawning where they hatched. The journey from
oceanic feeding grounds to freshwater spawning
grounds, risking death from exhaustion or predation,
a small percentage of salmon reach their spawning ground. This migration of salmon is an instinct or
innate behaviour as they do it to perfection without having prior experience

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Dances of bees as an example of instincts behaviour

Honey Bees have one of the interesting behaviour of communication systems to signal other bees of
hive the distance and direction of the food Bees
(scout) leave hive and forage for food when they
return back at their hive, other bees gather around
and detect the odour of nectar source the scout has
discovered. The scout performs a dance on the wall of
hive, which indicates the distance and often direction
of food Scout performs two types of dance round
dance and waggle dance. If the source of food is less
than 90 meters away from the hive, the bees perform a round dance. If the source of food is farther 90
meters away, the scout bee performs a waggle dance indicating both direction and distance. This type
of communication among bees is instinct or inborn, bees born with this ability to understand this type
of behavior.

Nest building by birds as an example of instincts behaviour

All birds have different strategies to build nests for their eggs
deposition, the long tailed tailor-birds have ability to build a hanging
nest. A young long tailed tailor-bird to acquire a mate builds nest for
their eggs laying. This bird builds nest between hanging leaves with
twigs and grass. The tailor bird has not learned nest building by older
birds and had no prior experience in such a task, however it builds a
nest by its instinct behaviour

Building of spider's orb web as an example of instincts behaviour

The circular or orb web is spun by common spiders all over the world.
The orb web is built of silk threads which are secreted by special silk
glands present in the abdomen. A sclera protein secretion emitted
as a liquid hardens on contact with air to form the silk. Spider applies
the main rule contains a set of sub rules for measuring angles and
walking set distances up certain threads. By following the program
of elementary rules the spider can build a complex structure without
having a plan for it in her head. The orb web of spider is the outcome
of highly complex and instinct or inborn behaviour patterns.

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LEARNING BEHAVIOUR
Learning is a process in which the animals modify their behaviour as a result of specific experience.
This modification is adaptive, because it allows an animal to not only change its response to fit a given
situation, but also to improve its response to subsequent, similar environmental changes.

Learning behaviour is not controlled by genes like innate behaviour but it is achieved by the
experience from the environment. Learning behaviour is more prominent in those animals that have a
comparatively long life span and well developed nervous system.

Following are the examples of learnt behavior.

 Habituation
 Imprinitnig
 Classical condition
 Instrumental condition
 Latent learning
 Insight learning

Habituation

Habituatio n is the simplest form of learning, in which the animals learn

that repeated harmless stimuli from humans or other animals then ignore
the stimuli and behave accordingly.

Imprinting

Imprinting is a type of learning in which a young

one fixes its attention on the first moving object
or another animal then follows soon after birth
or hatching. Imprinting was first observed in
birds when chicks, ducklings, and goslings
followed the first moving object they saw after
hatching

Differentiate habituation and imprinting as reversible and irreversible learned behaviour

Habituation is a reversible. For example a snail crawling on a sheet of glass retracts into shell
when glass is tapped After pause, it emerges and continue moving A second tap causes retraction
again but it emerges more quickly Ultimately, tapping has no effect and snail ceases to respond it
is reversible learning behaviour because after some time this habituation will vanished and snail
again will show same response. Imprinting is learning that is limited to as specific time period in
animals life and that is irreversible i.e. it remains throughout life.

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Classic Conditioning

The animal learns the same response for two different stimuli which are presented together to the
animal is called classic conditioning. The most famous experiment of classical conditioning was
developed by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. He presented food to the dog and rang the bell simultaneously
After a while, the dog began to salivate at the sound of the bell, whether or not food was available.

Instrumental conditioning (operant learning)

The animal learns while carrying out certain searching actions such as walking and moving about. When
the animal finds food during these activities, the
food reinforces the behaviour and the animal
associates the reward with the behaviour is
called operant learning. A classic example of
instrument conditioning is that in a Skinner box'
developed by well-known psychologist B.F
Skinner (1904-1990) When, he placed rat in the
box, the rat began to explore. It moves all about
the box and by accident or eventually presses a
lever and is rewarded with a food pellet.
Because food rewards are provided each time
the rat presses the lever, the rat associates the
reward with behavior. Through repetition, the
rat learns to press the lever right away to
receive the reward. In this type of learning, the animal is instrumental in providing its own reinforcement
Finally, the rat learns to press the lever to obtain food.

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Latent Learning

Sometimes animals seem to learn without any obvious immediate reward. For instance, an animal can
learn important characteristics of its
environment during unrewarded explorations
and then use this information later. If food or
another reward is provided, the animals
suddenly respond quickly to it by previous
learning, but remain latent or hidden until an
obvious reinforcement is provided called
Latent learning.

The American psychologist K.L. Lashley used a

maze, a rat was put in the maze. The rat
explores the maze in order to find the exit
Eventually, the rat found the way to exit but it
also learned the location of food in the maze.
The rat was not hungry at that time so it did not
pay attention to the food. Then the same rat was put in the maze when it felt hungry. The rat, because
of its previous experience, found the food quickly than a rat has been put without previous exploratory
experience.

Insight Learning

In the insight learning animals use cognitive process, practice or judgment to solve the problem, it is
based on trial and error without prior
experience.

German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler in the

1920s performed an experiment on the
behaviour of chimpanzees Kohler placed
chimpanzees in a cage, provided several sticks
and boxes and hung a bunch of bananas that
were out of reach. The chimpanzees first
looked at the bananas and tried to reach but
they could not reach, after that they thought
and observed to solve this problem to reach
the bananas. In the first they placed the sticks
into another stick to make a long stick that
could be used to knock down the hanging
bananas. The chimpanzees would also solve the problem by stacking the boxes on top of each other,
which allowed them to climb up to the top of the stack of boxes and reach the bananas. This type of
learning based on observation Kohler called insight learning.

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SOCIAL LEARNING
The interaction between two or more individuals of the same species living together is called social
behaviour.

Following are the ways for social learning.

 Aggregation and Animal Societies

Aggregation is a simple group of animals that may be

together due to feeding, drinking or mating but do not
interact behaviorally. Fruit flies hovering on a piece of
rotting fruit, huge flocks of birds of many species living on
trees together, groups of zebra, school of fish are examples
of aggregations.

The group of animals of the same species living together

that have cooperative social relationships is called social
group or society. The basis of social life is the interaction of Individual members who exchange food,
water, body care and sexual favor.

 Hostile and helpful intraspecific interaction.

Hostile and helpful interaction seen in many social insects, the

best known interaction is observed in the honey bees In the hive,
there are three different castes i.e. workers, drones and queen.
This attraction is helpful interaction, all castes work together like
workers collect nectar and convert into honey, drones are
specific to provide defense mechanisms and fertilize the eggs and
queen lay eggs.

 Agonistic Behaviour

In the society of animals, conflicts arise due to limited

resources, such as food, mates, these conflicts are settled
by the agonistic behaviour. i.e. In many species, males
show their aggressiveness in the form of signals that warn
other males of an intention to defend an area. Agonistic
behaviour is important in the maintenance of territories
and dominance hierarchies.

Territory

A territory in an area or home which is fixed by animals. The size of the territory varies with the
species, it is typically used for feeding, mating, rearing young, or combinations of these activities. A
territorial animal uses agonistic behaviour to defend their territory against other individuals.

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Territorial behaviour in Gorillas

Gorillas are social mammals that live in groups (called Troops). Troops consist of 1-4 old and strong
males called silverback, some immature males called
black backs and several adult and young females. The
adult male silverback is usually dominant in the troop and
has exclusive breeding rights to the females. The
adolescent female transfers from troop to another before
reproducing age (about 8 years). The rank of female in the
troop is determined by the order of recruits in the troop.
Late arrivals in the family do not receive the benefit of
high ranking females because having offspring remain
close to the silverback male for protection.

On the other hand, adolescent male split from his family

due to lack of breeding opportunities. Usually, he remains
alone until he forms his own family. Silverback is typically
more aggressive than other group members because the
troop's safety is his responsibility. He does exhibit
territorial behaviour by standing upright on their two legs and profoundly their chest in order to intimate
whatever threat he has given. He is dominant over his family, makes all troop's decisions, is responsible
for all calls, receives the dominant portion of food and can terminate troublesome behaviour with just
a look.

Dominance hierarchy

A dominance hierarchy describes situations in which animals organized a rank that determine the
resources such as access to food, mating, and grooming services of other members in their social
group Individuals at the top of hierarchies often have first access to more food, more mating
opportunities, and safer territories than individuals at the lower end of hierarchies.

Pecking order of chicken

Pecking order in chickens is a good example of a dominance

hierarchy. When several hens unfamiliar with one another
are placed together, they response by fighting, chasing and
pecking among themselves until established a clear pecking
order. The alpha, or top ranked, hen in the pecking order is
dominant, she is not pecked by any other hens and can
usually drive off all the others by threats rather than actual
pecking. The alpha hen also has first access to resources such
as food, water, and roosting sites. The beta, or second-
ranked, hen similarly subdues all others except the alpha, and so on down the line to the omega, or
lowest, animal. Once the hierarchy is set, peaceful coexistence is possible and occasionally fights will
occur if a hen tries to move up in the order.

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ANSARI’S COACHING CENTRE
Altruism

Altruism is a behaviour performed by animals without regard of self-interest. Animals sacrifice some of
their own reproductive potential to benefit other members of its society. Altruism behaviour is often
found in the social animals. In insect societies, especially, reproduction is limited to only one pair, the
queen and her mate

Altruism in the organization of honeybee society

Honeybees are social insects that live together in an organized group or colony. A colony of honeybee
consists of three types of castes i.e. the queen, the workers and the drones. These castes perform
specific functions in the colony. The queen lays fertilized and unfertilized eggs from which other bees
develop. New queen also develops from the fertilized egg, the larva of the queen feeds on the special
food called (Royal jelly). The old queen and new developed queen may both be present in the hive for
some time. Then, the new queen to emerge may be killed by the other members of the colony and
assume the same rule or may create
a swarm and leave the colony to
establish the new hive.

On the other hand, the old queen

and swarm (group) of females and
drones leave to establish a new hive
or accidentally killed, lost, or
removed from the hive.

The drones are male bees that

develop form the unfertilized eggs.
The main function of the drones is to
fertilize the queen during her mating flight. But unfortunately they die after mating. The workers are
sterile females (non-reproductive) developed from the fertilized eggs. The workers are relatively small
in size but the greater number in the colony. The workers perform all the labor of the hive such as
cleaning and polishing the hive, building beeswax combs, forage (food) for nectar, care for the queen
and guard the entrance. Even though sterile female workers spend their lives feeding and looking after
their other members of the colony, they are prevented producing offspring.

ASIM ANSARI (0333-3007970) 22