GD&T Overview

• It is hard to understand all the meanings of the GD&T

symbols and regulations and correctly interpret the size (
dimensional tolerance ) at the same time
• Therefore, we explained GD&T in an easy way to
understand manner with a focus on interpretation and
measurement. The explanation treats the ISO as the
standard, and also covers how it differs from the ASME .
• GD&T basics and measurement are necessary for both
current and future product manufacturing
 What is GD&T ??

• ISO defines GD&T as “geometrical product specifications ( GPS ) – Geometrical tolerancing :

 Tolerancing of form
 Tolerancing of orientation
 Tolerancing of location
 Tolerancing of profile
 Tolerancing of run-out
• In short “geometrical product specifications” refer to the shape, size and positional relationship of a
product, while “tolerance” means the allowable error.
• “Geometric tolerance” is characterized by a definition that includes allowable errors for the form
and position in addition to size.
Differences between Size Tolerance ( Dimensional Tolerance ) and
Geometric Tolerance
• Broadly classified, there are two approaches to drawing designs:
 Size tolerances - regulates the size of each dimension.
 Geometric tolerances – regulates the shape, parallelism, tilting, position, run-out etc.

Size Tolerancing drawing Geometric Tolerancing drawing

 Advantage of Geometric Tolerance
• Why is geometric tolerance necessary?
For example, when the designer orders sheet parts, the size tolerance –based instructions will be as follows:
 Advantage of Geometric Tolerance
• This drawing may lead to a delivery of parts like those shown below

• These parts are non-conforming or detective products

• These parts are produced because there is no mention of parallelism in the drawing.
• The fault lies with the tolerance instruction by the designer, and not with the manufacturer.
 Advantage of Geometric Tolerance
• The drawing for the part will be as follows using geometric tolerance. Here, the geometric characteristics
“parallelism” and “flatness” are used in addition to size.
• This can prevent errors like those we saw above with size tolerance

• Geometric tolerance has the advantage of accurately and efficiently communicating the designer’s intended
design in a way that cannot be expressed using size tolerance alone.
 Principle of
Independency
•

•
 Principle of
Independency
•

•
 ISO Definition

• ISO defines the relationship between size and geometric characteristics as follows:
ISO 8015-1985
By default, every GPS specification for a feature or relation between features shall be fulfilled
independent of other specifications, except when it is stated in a standard or by a special indication.
The principle of independency shown above is the international standard provided by ISO.
However, some enterprises adopt the rules of ASME, which do not apply the principle of
independency. For this reason, it is recommended that you clearly determine the standards through
prior discussion upon making deals, in particular with overseas companies
 GD&T Drawing and Symbol
• Geometric tolerances are specified using symbols on a drawing. Currently, we
have 16 symbols for geometric tolerances, which are categorized according to the
tolerance they specify.
• The following is a list of symbols used for geometric tolerancing. “Single feature”
under “Feature level” means features that are independent of datums (i.e that do
not require reference datum indication).
• A datum is a theoretical, ideal feature established to determine the orientation,
location, and/or run-out. An associated feature is a feature related to a datum, and
specifies the orientation tolerance, location tolerance, and/or run-out tolerance.
True Position Theory ( Size Value in Rectangular Frame )
• True position theory is the concept of indication geometrical characteristics ( true position, profile and
angularity ) using theoretically exact dimensions TED.
• The TED are written in rectangular frames while tolerances concerning that position are written in
feature control frames.
• As shown in the drawing below, accurate positions cannot be indicated using size tolerance based
indication, because both the reference dimensions and the tolerances become the total sum of the size
tolerance ( accumulated tolerance ). On the other hand, TED based indication does not have tolerances,
which means that no accumulated tolerance is produced.
 Specifying the Tolerance Zone
• To specify the tolerance zone, in true position theory, you use TED to accurately indicate the
specification at the center of the tolerance value.
If the feature is a point, the tolerance zone is a circle, (a) or sphere, centering around that point. If the
feature is a straight line, then the tolerance zone is between two parallel planes (b), each being precisely
separated from that line by half the tolerance value. Alternatively, the tolerance zone can be a cylindrical
tolerance zone (c) with that straight line as its central axis.
 What are DATUMS ?

• A datum is a plane, a straight line, or a point that is used as a reference when

processing a material or measuring the dimensions of a target.

• ISO 5459 Definition : “One or more situation features of one or more features
associated with one or more real integral features selected to define the location
or orientation, or both, of a tolerance zone or an ideal feature representing for
instance a virtual condition.”
• Datums are established using datum features and simulated datum features.
Multiple datums can also be combined to make a datum system that specifies a
feature.
 Types of Datums



 Drawing Indications
of Datum Features

•
 Annotating an Axis or Center Plane
• A datum feature is indicated by combining the dimension line and datum. The
center of the indicated datum feature becomes the datum axis or datum center
plane.
 Annotating a Generatrix
• The dimension line of a datum feature and the datum are indicated apart from
each other. The center of the indicated datum feature becomes the datum axis
or datum center plane.
 Feature Control Frame FCF
• A geometric tolerance is specified in the feature control frame. The following elements are written in the feature
control frame.
a) Geometrical characteristic symbol
Write the type of geometric tolerance.
a) Diameter symbol (when needed)
The geometric characteristics that need to be specified are as follows:
Area inside a circle on a two-dimensional plane: true position, concentricity
Area inside a cylinder in three-dimensional space:
Straightness, parallelism, perpendicularity, angularity, true position, coaxiality.
Area inside a sphere in three-dimensional space: true position
a) Geometric tolerance value
Tolerance value. The unit is the millimeter mm
a) Material requirement, common tolerance zone
Typical indications include: maximum material requirement , least material requirement Ⓛ
a) Priority datum
The designer can specify as a datum the part that they want to prioritize as a reference. To specify multiple datums, write them in
the order of priority (left to right).
Generally, designers determine the letter assigned to a datum in the order of priority—therefore, priority is generally described by
alphabetical order.
 International Industrial Standard and GD&T
• Along with the globalization of corporate activities, international standardization is proceeding in the are of
technical drawing, and national standards are periodically revised to be brought in line with the international
standards.
 Beginning of Standardization
The provisions for the standardization of drawings started in 1938 with the Taylor Principle, which aimed to control form
tolerance ( from deviation ) with size tolerance for screw fitting.
Subsequently, the indication of the control of form and location tolerances was discussed in the U.S., Canada, and the UK,
which was followed by further discussions on the geometric tolerance approach as a replacement for conventional descriptions.

 ISO Standardization
Since 1950, research has progressed in the use of geometric tolerance symbols in drawings, datum definitions, and maximum
material requirement. In 1985, the ISO adopted the principle of independency.

ISO 8015 “Principle of Independency”

Each specified dimensional or geometric tolerance on a drawing shall be met independently, unless a particular relationship is
specified.
• Dimensional tolerances do not control form deviations.
• Form deviations are controlled by geometric tolerances.
• A linear tolerance controls only the actual local sizes (two-point measurements) of a feature.
 International Industrial Standard and GD&T
 US Standardization
The American standard organization has changed from ASA and ANSI to ASME, but they have all adopted the envelope
principle. The envelope principle is the concept that the indicated toleranced size also controls the geometrical characteristics
if the target is a feature of size. This means that, under the ASME provisions, unlike the ISO, which provides that dimensional
and geometric tolerances be separately defined for a feature of size, an indication of dimensional tolerance also doubles as an
indication of geometric tolerance.

 ASME Y14.5-2009 “ Envelope Principle”

The indicated toleranced size also controls the geometrical characteristics for a feature of size.
ASME also adopted the independence symbol in 2009. When not applying the envelope principle, the principle of
independency is applied using an original symbol; the ASME is becoming more consistent with the ISO in terms of indication.

 Comparison of ISO and ASME

Both the ISO and the ASME are active in their pursuit of standardization, aiming for a globalization of drawings. However, the
Some symbols are different between ISO and ASME standards. As some are currently under review for unification, for these
standards you need to verify the latest information.re are still some differences in symbols and notations. Care must be taken
when reading and creating drawings.
Comparison of ISO and ASME
Comparison of ISO and ASME
• The details of control may be different even when the indications
are the same. The following shows an example, but there are
other differences in indications and concepts.

 ISO
Size tolerance and geometric tolerance are independent of each other.
Therefore, the geometric tolerance (flatness) is within the indicated value
(0.1) without being affected by size tolerance.

 ASME
This drawing shows a size feature that is two parallel planes, and therefore
the envelope principle is applied. The geometric tolerance (flatness) value
changes depending on the material condition. The maximum material
condition boundary (30.1) supersedes the size tolerance.
 Types of Geometric Tolerances
oForm Tolerance ( Form Deviation )
Form tolerance is a basic geometric tolerance that determines the form of the target ( part ). None of the
characteristics of form tolerance require a datum – forms can be independently determined.
 Straightness
The straightness requirement specifies how perfectly straight a target should be. It is applied to lines and not
planes, and represents a curve in the center line or generatrix. Therefore, straightness is used to indicate the
warpage tolerance of long objects.

Explanation of drawing: If a tolerance frame is connected to the size indication the diameter of a cylinder, the
axis of that cylinder must be within a cylinder with a diameter of 0.1 mm
 Flatness
The flatness requirement specifies the evenness of a surface, or how accurately flat a target
plane should be. The most protruding part and the most concaved parts must be at specific
distance between two planes that are separated vertically.

Explanation of drawings: This surface bust be between two parallel planes separated by only
0.3mm
 Roundness
The roundness requirement specifies how perfectly circular a target – the circular cross –
section of a shat, bore , or cone should be.

Explanation of drawings: The outer circumference of any cross-section of a shaft cut

perpendicularly should be between two concentric circles just 0.1 mm apart on the same plane
 Cylindricity
The cylindricity requirement specifies how accurately circular and straight a target cylinder is.
The value represents any distortion in a cylinder

Explanation of drawings: The target plane must be between two coaxial cylinder just 0.1 mm
apart.
oForm tolerance and Location Tolerance ( Profile Tolerance of Line and
Profile Tolerance of Plane )
The profile tolerances of lines and planes are also used in specifying location tolerance. Specification are
indicated in the feature control frame the same way for form tolerance and location tolerance.

 Profile tolerance of line

The profile of the line requirement indicates whether the curvature of a designed part is made to its design. The
value indicates any distortion in the profile line ( line element that appears on the cross-section of a surface ).
The cross-section line cutting across the specified curvature must be within the tolerance zone.

Explanation of drawings: The target profile on any cross-section parallel to the projection plane must be
between the two envelopes created by a circle with a diameter of a 0.03 mm and a center on the line having a
theoretically exact profile.
 Profile tolerance of plane
The profile of the plane requirement indicates whether the curvature ( surface ) of a designed part is made to
its design. Unlike the profile tolerance of a line, the profile tolerance of the plane involves the entire specified
curvature.

Explanation of drawings: The target must be between two envelope planes created by a sphere with a
diameter of 0.1mm and a center on the plane having a theoretically exact profile
oOrientation tolerance
Orientation tolerance determines the orientation for the form in relation to a reference. A datum is always
necessary to indicate orientation tolerance; as such, it is a geometric tolerance for features related to datums.

 Parallelism
While it appears to be similar to flatness, parallelism involves a datum ( reference plane or line ).
The parallelism requirement specifies that two lines or planes are parallel.

Explanation of drawings: The plane indicated by the indication arrow must be parallel to datum plane A and be
between two planes only 0.05 mm apart in the direction of the indication arrows.
 Perpendicularity
The perpendicularity requirement specifies the accuracy of how perpendicular a target is to the datum
( reference plane or line ).
Instead of degrees, millimeters or inches are used as the unit for the value of perpendicularity indication.

Explanation of drawings: The plane indicated by the indication arrow must be within two parallel planes
perpendicular to datum plane A and with a diameter of 0.03 mm.
 Angularity
The angularity requirement specifies how accurate an angle is to the datum ( reference plane or line ) when
the specified line or plane is not 90 degrees.
Instead of degrees, the millimeter or inches are used to the unit for the values of angularity indication.

Explanation of drawings: The plane indicated by the indication arrow must be theoretically exactly angled
by 45 degrees to the datum plane A and between two parallel planes only 0.3 mm apart in the direction of
indication arrows
oLocation tolerance ( Location Deviation )
Orientation tolerance determines the orientation for the form in relation to a reference. A datum is always
necessary to indicate orientation tolerance; as such, it is a geometric tolerance for features related to datums.

 True position
The true position requirement specifies the accuracy of the position in relation to the datum (reference plane or
line).

Explanation of drawings: The center of the circle indicated by the indication arrow must be within a circle with
a diameter of 0.1 mm
 Coaxiality
The coaxiality requirement specifies the coaxiality of the axes of two cylinders (no deviation of the central
axis).

Explanation of drawings: The axis of the cylinder indicated by the indication arrow must be within a
cylinder with datum axis line A as the axis and a diameter of 0.03 mm.
 Concentricity
The concentricity requirement specifies the accuracy of concentricity of the axes of two cylinders (no
deviation of the center). Unlike coaxiality, the datum is the center point (plane).

Explanation of drawings: The axis of the cylinder indicated by the indication arrow must be within a
cylinder with datum axis line A as the axis and a diameter of 0.05 mm.
 Symmetry
The symmetry requirement specifies the accuracy of how symmetrical a target is to the datum (reference
plane).

Explanation of drawings: The center plane indicated by the indication arrow must be between two parallel
planes symmetrical to the datum center plane A and separated from each other by 0.05 mm.
oRun-out tolerance ( Run-out Deviation )
Run-out tolerance is a geometric tolerance that specifies the run-out fluctuation of a target’s feature when the
target (part) is rotated on an axis (specified straight line). A datum is always necessary to indicate run-out
tolerance; as such, it is a geometric tolerance for features related to datums.
 Circular Run-out
Circular run-out specifies the run-out of any part of a circumference when a part is rotated.
To meet the circular run-out requirement, the run-out of the measured value when the part is rotated must be
within the specified range.

Explanation of drawings: The run-out of the cylindrical surface in the radial direction, indicated by the
indication arrow, must not surpass 0.03 mm on any measurement plane perpendicular to the datum axis line
when the target is rotated once on the datum axis line.
 Total Run-out
Total run-out specifies the run-out of the entire surface of a part when it is rotated.
To meet the total run-out requirement, the run-out of the measured value of the entire cylinder surface must be
within the specified range.

Explanation of drawings: The total run-out of the cylindrical surface in the radial direction, indicated by the
indication arrow, must not surpass 0.03 mm at any point on the cylindrical surface when the cylinder part is
rotated on the datum axi line.
 Maximum Material Condition MMC and Least Material
Condition LMC
• Maximum material condition (MMC) is used to indicate tolerance for mating parts such as a shaft and its
housing. Least material condition (LMC) is used to indicate the strength of holes near edges as well as the
thickness of pipes.
• To apply the maximum material requirement to a certain dimension, you write after the geometric tolerance
value, or, in some cases, after the datum symbol in the feature control frame. For the least material condition,
you write Ⓛ .

Advantages of MMC and LMC

Volume can be accurately specified with size
deviation and geometric tolerance deviation,
which caters to appropriate tolerance
establishment. For example, using the
maximum/least material condition for
tolerancing shafts and bores can accurately
indicate the volume of parts, which offers the
benefits of reducing processing costs and
improving quality.
 Datums
Major type of datums
• A datum feature can be a plane, line or point – these are selectively used
depending on the tolerance and feature you need to specify.
Datum Plane
A datum plane is a pane on the target that is established as a datum. It can be a target’s
external plane ( datum plane ) or center plane ( datum center plane ).
“Datum plane “ is defined as follows in ISO and ASME standards:

ISO 4349L2011 : A datum that is a theoretically exact plane.

ASME Y14.5-2009: The plane of a datum feature simulator established from the datum
feature.
Datums
Major type of datums
Datum Plane
A datum plane is a datum established on
an external surface of a target. To use a
flat surface as a datum, the following
indication symbol is used.

The surface of the target ( datum feature )

indicated as the datum may be uneven or
wraped. Datum Plane A can be
established by supporting the surface set
up as a datum using a surface plate or
other higher precision plane. The
supporting plane is the simulated datum
feature,
Datums
Major type of datums
Datum Center Plane
A datum center plane is the theoretical plane
established on a center plane of the target.
To use the center plane of two parallel
surfaces as a datum, the following
indication symbol is used:

In the same way as a datum plane, the

surface of the target (datum feature)
specified as a datum may be uneven or
warped. The datum center plane can be
established by supporting the surface set up
as a datum from both sides using precision
planes. The two supporting planes are the
simulated datum features. The theoretical
plane generated from these features is the
datum center plane.
 Datums
Major type of datums
Datum Line
A datum line is the theoretical straight line established on the center of a cylinder bore or cylinder
shaft, or a ridge such as the target’s edge. A datum line can be a datum axis or datum axis line. A
datum line is generally established on the center of a target’s cylinder bore or cylinder shaft, and is
rarely established on a ridge. This section explains cases where a datum axis is established on a
cylinder bore and on a cylinder axis. “Datum axis” is defined as follows
in ISO and ASME standards

ISO 4349L2011: A datum that is a theoretically exact straight line.

ASME Y14.5-2009: The axis of a datum feature simulator established from the datum feature.
Datums
Major type of datums
Datum axis ( cylinder bores )

A datum established on the center of a

cylinder bore is indicated using the
following symbol:

The surface of the cylinder bore of the

target specified as a datum (datum feature)
may be uneven or warped. By inserting a
precision shaft that closely fits the bore, a
datum can be established in this bore.Here,
the inserted shaft is the simulated datum
feature, and the axis line is the datum axis
line.
Datums
Major type of datums
Datum axis ( cylinder shaft )

A datum established on the center of a

cylinder shaft is indicated using the following
symbol:

The surface of the cylinder shaft of the target

specified as a datum (datum feature) may be
uneven or warped. By inserting the shaft into
a precision housing that closely fits the shaft,
a datum can be established in the housing.
Here, the housing is the simulated datum
feature, and the axis line is the datum axis
line.
Datums
Major type of datums
Point

A datum point established on the center

of a spherical target is indicated using
the following symbol:

The spherical surface of the target

specified as a datum (datum feature)
may be uneven or warped. When four
contact points are made with two V-
blocks, the datum feature sphere’s
surface is the simulated datum feature,
and the center is the datum point.
 Common Datums and Datum Systems
A common datum means a pair of a single
datums specified to function as one datum. On
the other hand, a datum system is a group of
datums that is created by combining multiple
datums.
Common Datums
A common datum is a single datum consisting
of two datum features. Separate datum features
are applied to a common practical datum
feature.
For example, indication using a common
axis line made by fixing the two smallest
circumscribed cylinders—which are
coaxial—is described by connecting the
two letters of the datums within one frame.
This makes a straight line from the axes of
datums A and B.
 Common Datums and Datum Systems
A datum system is a group of
datums created by combining more
than one individual datum in order
to use it as a reference for
toleranced features.
Datum Systems
For example, three datums are used
to completely capture the
orientation of a part. A datum
system comprising three datum
planes that are perpendicular to
each other is called a three-plane
datum system. This enables the
optimal surface to be used as a
datum.
Datum Targets
A datum target is a point, line, or limited zone on a target with which machines and
instruments for processing, measuring, and inspection come into contact in order to
establish a datum.

The need of Datum Targets

• If a plane defined as a datum is warped or otherwise shaped inappropriately, using that entire
surface as a datum feature for indication can cause a significant error during processing or
inspection.
Measuring under such conditions can result in deteriorated repeatability and reproducibility.
Using a concaved bottom as a datum plane may also cause problems in placing it directly on
the surface plate.
• In such cases, you can indicate a datum target to define the minimum required part as a
datum.
Datum Targets
A datum target is described using a circular frame with a horizontal line drawn through the
middle (datum target frame). In the bottom half of the datum target frame, you write the
letter/symbol indicating the same datum as that of the entire feature, along with the number
of the datum target.
GD&T Measuring Instruments and Principle
Measurement Instruments
• Surface Plate
A measuring tool that provides an ideal plane as a reference for
measurement. In GD&T measurement, it is used as a plane that supports
the datum plane. Surface plates are generally made of either stone
(granite, etc) or casted iron.
The most common type of surface plate is the box-type surface plate. The
type of surface plate with the highest precision is the precision surface
plate, which is still used as the basic reference instrument for measurement
and inspection.
• Dial Gauge
A measuring tool that measures and compares parallelism and height. A
dial gauge can indicate changes in the target’s warpage or eccentricity in
detail. Dial gauges come in two types: the spindle type, which has a stroke
of several millimeters, and the lever type, which uses the dial to increase
the rotation angle of the cantilever. Digital indicator types, which display
measurements digitally, are also used today. When using a dial gauge for
GD&T Measuring Instruments and Principle
Measurement Instruments
• V-Block
V-blocks are used as support for circular or spherical measurement
targets. They are made of steel or casted iron. Types include
common V-blocks, box-blocks with a V groove, and A-type V-
blocks. These are selectively used according to the feature of the
target and/or the purpose of measurement
• Height Gauge
A height gauge is used in part machining and measures dies, tools,
and jigs. Measurements can be accurately read, with the scale (or
digital meter), the base of the scale, and the surface gauge being
integrated. Using a dial indicator holder, a lever-type dial gauge can
be attached to measure parallelism, flatness, and straightness.
Measurements need a surface plate to be used as a reference.
 Measuring GDT
Straightness Tapperd
Measuring GDT
Perpendicularity
Measuring GDT
Parallelism
 Measuring GDT
Straightness of Profile
 Measuring GDT
Tapperd Hole Diameter
Measuring GDT
Circular Run-out
 GD&T Measuring Instruments and Principle
Measuring Machines
• Roundness Measuring Instrumet
This measuring instrument can
measure straightness, roundness, cylindricty, parallelism, perpendicularity, c
ircular run-out, and total run-out. Generally, roundness measuring
instruments are equipped with a rotary table and use a stylus that touches
targets to measure various geometrical characteristics.
• Cordinate Measuring Machine CMM
Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) can measure different
geometrical characteristics for form tolerance, orientation tolerance,
and location tolerance.
A contact-type coordinate measuring machine detects three-dimensional (X-
Y-Z) coordinates when the operator specifies the target’s measurement point
or line with the spherical stylus, which is at the tip of the probe. Because the
elements (straight lines, planes, circles, spheres, etc.) are calculated from a
set of detected coordinates, a coordinate measuring machine can precisely
measure angles, positional relationships between elements, profile, and
geometrical deviations, in addition to lengths of complex stereoscopic
objects.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Straightness
When measuring straightness, you are checking how accurately straight a target
is.
This indication applies to straight lines and not to planes. Therefore, measuring
straightness can identify any warpage in long objects.
Secure the target so that the height is evenly matched on the left and right, using
small jacks in order to prevent the target from tilting. Move the target or the
height gauge straight to measure the straightness.
The difference between the maximum and minimum values (△H) is the
straightness.
In general, height gauges have lower precision than coordinate measuring
machines. In addition, measured values can change with the force used to place
the measuring part of the height gauge on the target, causing the measurement
results to become unstable.
With targets that cannot be placed level, the height gauge cannot be moved,
which makes measurement difficult.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Straightness CMM

A coordinate measuring machine can

measure straightness by the operator simply
putting the stylus lightly on the target.
Thanks to this feature, there is almost no
error caused by measurement pressure, and
stable measurement results can be obtained.
Additionally, the stylus can be placed on the
target from different angles, which enables
accurate measurement of targets that cannot
be secured level, i.e., targets that cannot be
measured using a height gauge
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Flatness
When measuring flatness, you are checking for unevenness in the
surface, to see how precisely flat a surface is.
The most protruding part and the most concaved part must be at a
specific distance between two planes that are separated vertically.
Place the target on the precision plane table and secure it in place.
Set the dial gauge so that its measuring part comes into contact
with the measurement surface.
Move the target so that the measurement surface is evenly
measured, and read the dial gauge values.
The largest deviation value is the flatness.
The measured values may change depending on any changes in the
measurement points, since the measurement points change
depending on how you move the target. Therefore, it is difficult to
obtain stable measured values.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Flatness CMM

Put the stylus on four or more points

for point measurement of flatness.
Increasing the number of
measurement points enables precise,
stable measurement even for wide
measurement ranges.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Roundness

When measuring roundness, you are measuring the roundness of a circular

cross-section of a shaft, bore, or circular cone, to see how accurate a circle
it is.
• Two-point measurement is performed on the outer form by dividing it into
four to eight sections. The roundness is the value obtained by dividing the
difference between the maximum and minimum values by 2.
A micrometer is all that is needed for measurement; you can take
measurements easily, anywhere.
• Roundness = (Dmax - Dmin) / 2
• Dmax: Maximum value
• Dmin: Minimum value

There is a limit to the accuracy of the measurement, as the value is an

average of two-point measurements. Additionally, an error may occur due
to the differences in how the micrometer measurement terminal is placed on
the target. To analyze the obtained data, you also need to enter it into a
computer.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Roundness CMM

Put the stylus on four or more points

for point measurement of roundness.
The measured value is calculated
by least-squares method, where the
sum of the deviations from all
measurement points is the smallest.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Cylindricity

Cylindricity specifies the roundness and straightness of a

form. When measuring cylindricity, you are checking for
distortion in the cylinder, to verify the accuracy of its
cylindrical form.
Firmly set the target in place on the rotary table of the
roundness measuring instrument. Put the stylus on the
target, rotate the rotary table, and measure the
measurement points.
If the target is large, secure the table in place and rotate
the stylus or move it up or down.
Due to the limited movable range of the stylus,
measuring large targets can be difficult.
As the roundness measuring instrument is a dedicated
measuring device for measuring roundness and
cylindricity, another measuring machine is needed to
measure targets with any other geometric characteristics.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Cylindricity CMM

Cylindricity specifies the roundness and straightness of a

form. When measuring cylindricity, you are checking for
distortion in the cylinder, to verify the accuracy of its
cylindrical form.
Firmly set the target in place on the rotary table of the
roundness measuring instrument. Put the stylus on the
target, rotate the rotary table, and measure the
measurement points.
If the target is large, secure the table in place and rotate
the stylus or move it up or down.
Due to the limited movable range of the stylus,
measuring large targets can be difficult.
As the roundness measuring instrument is a dedicated
measuring device for measuring roundness and
cylindricity, another measuring machine is needed to
measure targets with any other geometric characteristics.
 Measurig Form Toleraces
Measuring Cylindricty CMM

Using point measurement, measure

four or more locations on the surface
of the target to complete the
measurement.
The stylus position can be changed
to measure the target at any angle or
in any location.
One coordinate measuring machine
supports the measurement of various
geometric characteristics.
 Measurig Profile Toleraces
Measuring Profile Tolerance Line
When measuring the distortion in the profile tolerance of a
line (line element that appears on the cross-section of a
surface), you are checking whether a designed part has its
curvature made to the specified design. The line of the cross-
section that cuts through the specified curved surface must be
within the size tolerance zone (tolerance zone).
Prepare a trace sheet with envelope lines drawn to indicate the
range of the standard, with the center line being a theoretically
exact radius.
Attach the trace sheet to the screen, and emit light on the target
placed on the XY glass table. Compare the radius of curvature
of the target projected on the screen with the radius of curvature
drawn on the trace sheet to check whether it is within the
tolerance zone.
Positioning the target and determining the point of origin take
time. Tracing by hand is also time-consuming.
The measurement results can be affected by focusing, and with
the direction and intensity light as it hits the target can change
how the edges appear, causing an error in measurement.
 Measurig Profile Toleraces
Measuring Profile Tolerance Line CMM

The reference element (plane) can be set and the

deviation from the target element (plane) can be
measured just by putting the stylus on their respective
measurement points, which offer quick, stable
measurement with high accuracy.
 Measurig Profile Toleraces
Measuring Profile Tolerance Plane

When measuring the profile tolerance of a plane, you are checking

whether a designed part’s curved surface is made to the specified design.
Unlike the profile tolerance of a line, the measurement of the profile
tolerance of a plane involves the entire specified curvature.
Put the stylus on the measuring starting point of the target and specify
the measurement length to measure.
The system performs analysis using the measured data and the
theoretically correct data registered in the system, and outputs the P/V
value (the maximum and minimum values, as well as the standard
deviation σ from the theoretically correct feature).
Due to the limited movable range of the stylus, measuring large targets
can be difficult.
The stylus also cannot enter measurement points located in a difficult-
to-reach position.
Deformation can occur to the measurement surface by the load
(measuring pressure) of the stylus, which can cause an error in the
measurement result.
 Measurig Orientation Toleraces
Measuring Profile Tolerance
Plane CMM

The stylus position can be changed to

measure the target at any angle or in
any location.
As the stylus only comes into light
contact with the measurement point,
there is no concern of deformation on
the measurement surface caused by the
load (measuring pressure) of the stylus.
Additionally, this enables quick, stable
measurement with high accuracy.
 Measurig Orientation Toleraces
Measuring Parallelism

The parallelism requirement specifies that two lines or planes are

parallel.
While it may appear to be similar to flatness, the measurement of
straightness involves a datum (reference plane or line), and as
such a datum plane is secured to the surface plate when
measuring.
Secure the target in place on the surface plate. Move the target or
height gauge straight forward to perform measurement. The
difference between the largest measured value (highest height)
and the smallest measured value (lowest height) is the parallelism
value.
Because the measurement is done in a line, multiple points must
be measured. If the target is a non-rigid part (such as soft resin or
rubber product), the load of the stylus (measurement pressure)
can cause the measurement surface to deform, possibly
preventing accurate measurement.
Additionally, targets whose reference plane cannot be properly
fixed to the surface plate are difficult to measure.
 Measurig Orientation Toleraces
Measuring Parallelism CMM

Put the stylus on four points on the

target to perform measurement. The
stylus only comes into light
contact, which enables accurate
measurement without deforming
non-rigid targets.
The stylus can also be put on the
target at different angles and
locations, which makes both the
measurement and the setting of
reference elements easy even for
targets that cannot be properly
secured to the surface plate.
 Measurig Orientation Toleraces
Measuring Perpendicularity
When measuring perpendicularity, you are
checking how perfectly the target is
perpendicular to the datum (reference plane
or line).
Hold the square ruler against the target.
Measure the gap between the square ruler and
the target using a feeler gauge or pin gauge.
This gap indicates the perpendicularity.
Accuracy is low due to the simplicity of the
measuring tools used. This method cannot be
used when the measurement surface is not
perpendicular to the surface on the surface
plate.
The measurement data needs to be
handwritten or manually input.
 Measurig Orientation Toleraces
Measuring Perpendicularity
CMM
Set the datum by putting the stylus
on multiple points on the datum
plane (surface plate), and then
measure the perpendicularity by
putting the stylus on the
measurement plane (target).
This enables accurate measurement
even when the target’s measurement
surface is not perpendicular to the
surface plate.
It is also possible to measure the
perpendicularity of axes of cylinders,
bores, and circular cones.
 Measurig Location Toleraces

• Location tolerance determines the location

(true position) of the feature in relation to a
reference.
As this involves measurement of a three-
dimensional feature, it is difficult to use
calipers, micrometers, or any other
instrument that measures the distance
between two points for accurate
measurement.
• A datum is always necessary to indicate
location tolerance; as such, it is a geometric
tolerance for features related to datums.
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring True Position
When measuring true position, you are
checking the accuracy of the position of the
target in relation to the datum (reference
plane or line).
A pass/fail judgment is performed using a
measuring gauge or inspection gauge.
It has the benefit of having no variation in
operation speed and inspection quality
deriving from the skill level of the operator
as well as supporting automation thanks to
its simple operation.
Gauges need to be prepared for each
target—custom-made gauges have a
substantial up-front cost, which makes it
difficult to introduce during the prototyping
phase.
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring True Position CMM
• Set the reference plane and put the
stylus on the measurement point on
the target. The measurement result is
instantly displayed on the screen.
• Cartesian coordinates can also be
measured, and composite true
position can be output with a single
measurement.
To measure bores, take several
measurements by changing the depth
to output verification results of
cylindricity, perpendicularity, and
straightness.
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring Coaxiality
When measuring coaxiality, you are checking for
any deviation in the central axes (i.e., that the axes
of two cylinders are coaxial).
Hold the target in place and put the dial gauge on
the vertex of the circumference for which tolerance
is indicated.
Rotate the target and measure the maximum and
minimum run-out values using the dial gauge.
Repeat measurements on the specified axis. The
greatest maximum-minimum difference is used as
the coaxiality.
Factors such as the angle and strength used to put
the dial gauge on the target affect the measured
value, which implies that measurements may differ
depending on the operator.
Because measurements are repeated on the
specified axis, the measurements and their results
must be checked at all times.
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring Coaxiality CMM
• Put the stylus on the measurement point on
the datum element (cylinder), and then put the
stylus on the measurement point on the target
element (cylinder) to measure the coaxiality.
The measurement result is recorded in the
measuring machine.
There are two modes of putting the stylus on a
surface: point measurement, which measures
by putting the stylus on the surface for each
measurement; and auto trigger (scanning)
measurement, which measures continuous
points by moving the stylus while maintaining
contact with the surface.
This enables the spiral movement of the stylus
to measure cylinders, which are difficult for
the stylus to come into contact with.
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring Concenctricity

When measuring concentricity, you are checking the

accuracy of the coaxiality of the axes of two cylinders, that
the center points match. Unlike coaxiality, the datum is the
center point (plane).
Hold the target in place and put the dial gauge on the vertex
of the circumference for the axis for which tolerance is
indicated. Rotate the target and measure the maximum and
minimum run-out values using the dial gauge. Measure
around the specified circumference. The greatest maximum-
minimum difference is used as the concentricity.
Factors such as the angle and strength used to put the dial
gauge on the target affect the measured value, which implies
that measurements may differ depending on the operator.
The friction between the tip of the dial gauge and the surface
of the target may also leave scratches on the surface of the
target.
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring Concentricity
CMM

Unlike with coaxiality, you measure

the circle of the plane.
Put the stylus on the measurement
point on the datum circle, and then
put the stylus on the measurement
point on the target circle to measure
the concentricity.
The stylus only comes into light
contact with the surface and does
not scratch the target.
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring Symmetry

When measuring symmetry, you are checking how accurately

symmetrical the target is against the datum (reference plane).
Measure parts of the target using an analog caliper or
micrometer to check the symmetry.
It is useful for repeated measurements of single items thanks to
its simple, quick usability.
Both calipers and micrometers come in various types, which
are selectively used depending on the location and form to be
measured.
The accuracy of measured values and speed of measurement
rely on the skill level of the operator in addition to the
measurement error of the individual instrument. Furthermore,
while size can be measured as these instruments measure the
length between two points, geometric tolerance (form) is
difficult to measure.
Additionally, the measurement data needs to be handwritten for
 Measurig Location Toleraces
Measuring Symmetry
CMM

The reference element

(plane) set-up and the
deviation from the target
element (plane) can be
quickly and accurately
measured by anyone just by
putting the stylus on each
measurement point.
The measurement result is
recorded in the measuring
machine.
 GD&T Techniques

GD&T is an indication system for regulating

form. By using GD&T drawing techniques,
you can improve the efficiency of processing
and inspecting mating parts such as shafts and
bores. You can also accurately indicate
specifications to maintain a certain thickness
for a part that needs strength.
Additionally, heights of protruded screws, as
well as shapes of rubber or resin products or
other soft parts, can be specified.
This section introduces the techniques for
indicating specifications for extraordinary
circumstances and materials
 GD&T Techniques
Envelope Requirement
The envelope requirement means that the maximum (or minimum)
allowable size for a part must be within the same range (or out of the
same range) as the maximum size (or minimum size). It specifies
that the surface of a single feature of size (a cylindrical surface or a
feature established by two parallel opposite plane surfaces) should
not violate the imaginary envelope of perfect (geometrically ideal)
form at the maximum material size.
Feature of Size
“Feature of size” is the geometric shape defined by size dimensions
such as length and angle. Examples of feature of size include
cylindrical and spherical forms as well as two opposing planes.
Since the feature is defined by size dimensions, the overall size
changes along with the dimensions.
The target parts for geometric tolerance depend on the position
where the indication line is drawn. In the following drawings, for
example, based on where the indication lines are, the center lines
and generatrices for straightness in the same shape may or may not
indicate a feature of size.
 GD&T Techniques
Maximum Material Size MMS

• This determines a feature’s maximum

material condition (MMC). The maximum
material condition is a state of the considered
extracted feature, where the feature of size is
at that limit of size where the material of the
feature is at its maximum everywhere, e.g.
minimum hole diameter and maximum shaft
diameter. In short, the maximum material
size is what defines the maximum material
condition of a feature.
 GD&T Techniques
Envelope of Perfect Form

This means the perfect zone made in the

maximum material condition for the size
tolerance indicated in a drawing, and the
target must exist inside the zone of the
maximum material size
 GD&T Techniques
What is Ⓔ ??
To apply the envelope requirement to a dimension, you write Ⓔ after the size tolerance. “E” stands for
“envelope,” and this symbol indicates that if a part conforming to size tolerance is within the envelope
of perfect form, which has the maximum material size, the part passes this requirement. If not, the part
has failed to fulfill the requirement.
 GD&T Techniques
Maximum Material Condition MMC
The maximum material condition is used when
designing two mating parts.
Taking a shaft designed to fit into a bore as an
example, this specification ensures that the shaft
actually fits into the bore under the maximum
material condition (MMC), while also preventing
excessively strict size tolerance from being applied in
order to avoid cases where the shaft does not fit into
the bore.
What is Ⓜ ??
To apply the maximum material requirement to a
dimension, you write Ⓜ after the size tolerance in
the feature control frame. “M” stands for “maximum
material condition" (MMC). This symbol indicates
the application of maximum material requirement.
 GD&T Techniques
Handling Size Tolerances
Size tolerance is always followed when the maximum material condition is used. However, if a size
tolerance is deviated from the maximum material size, the difference can be added to a geometric tolerance
to make a virtual size.
 GD&T Techniques
Expreesing Maximum Material
Condition MMC using a Dynamic
Tolerance Diagram

The dynamic tolerance diagram is a tool that

visually expresses the changes in the tolerance
zone of size tolerance and geometric tolerance.
By marking geometric tolerance on the vertical
axis and size tolerance on the horizontal axis,
the variations in both size tolerance and
geometric tolerance can be presented at the
same time. The application of the maximum
material condition also clarifies the bonus
tolerance that occurs when the geometric
tolerance increases.
 GD&T Techniques
Least Material Condition LMC
The least material condition is used to manage the
size and position of holes, as well as the thickness
of the material.
For example, if a part’s hole has imprecise size or
position under the least material condition (the hole
has maximum size), the part will have insufficient
strength and may break. The least material
requirement is useful for designing parts with such
strict space requirements.
Using Least Material Condition
The most undesirable condition in terms of
designing thickness is when the hole diameter is
large (least material size) and the hole is positioned
close to the edge. In contrast, when the hole
diameter is small (maximum material condition),
strength can be maintained even when the hole is
close to the edge.
 GD&T Techniques
What is Ⓛ ??
To apply the least material condition to a dimension,
you write Ⓛ after the size tolerance in the feature
control frame. In some cases, a datum symbol may be
followed. “L” stands for “least material condition"
(LMC). This symbol indicates the application of least
material requirement.
Sample Indication of Least Material
Condition
The following drawing is an example of indicating
the least material condition for the edge and hole
when the minimum thickness is indicated using true
position.
When Ⓛ is applied to the size tolerance zone, the
true position specification Φ0.5 is only applied when
dia. 24 hole is in its least material condition Φ24.1.
The geometric tolerance increases as the hole gets
smaller
 GD&T Techniques
What is Projected Tolerance Zone ??
The projected tolerance zone applies to a feature’s protrusion. In most cases, the zone to which geometric
tolerance is applied is limited to the range of the feature specified in the drawing. In contrast to this,
indications using the projected tolerance zone can specify a virtual zone for the specified feature’s mating
part.
Projected Tolerance Zone Annotation
To indicate the projected tolerance zone, which applies to the range of the mating part, you write Ⓟ after
the value of the length of protrusion in the feature control frame.
 GD&T Techniques
Projected Tolerance Zone Specification Example

The following shows a sample indication that specifies that “the dia. 28 mm shaft center in the virtual space
must be inside a dia. 0.5 mm cylinder throughout the entire length of the 30 mm protrusion of the dia. 28
mm cylinder whose axis is located 40 mm from datum B and perpendicular to datum A.” The protrusion is
indicated by a dashed-two dotted line.
This indication enables the manufacture of parts that are guaranteed to fit, provided that their specifications
are within tolerance.
 GD&T Techniques
GD&T of Non-Rigid Parts
Parts like those made of rubber or resin, where deformation beyond what is specified in the drawing is
presumed to occur due to a release of internal stress generated during the manufacturing process, are called
non-rigid parts.
For non-rigid parts, you will indicate the geometric tolerance in a free state (a state where only the force of
gravity is applied). You will also need to indicate that the part is non-rigid and the conditions under which
the geometric tolerance under free state is ensured (such as direction of gravity).
Annotation of Non-Rigid Parts
Generally, geometric tolerance applies to rigid parts. For parts that deform beyond size tolerance or
geometric tolerance in a free state, you will write Ⓕ after the geometric tolerance in the feature control
frame to indicate that the part is a non-rigid target.
“F” stands for “free state,” and means to apply the tolerance under a free state.
 GD&T Techniques
Non-Rigid Parts Specification Example

The sample indication below specifies that “in any orientation, datum B must have a roundness within 5.0
mm, and the circular run-out on the left side is applied under restrained condition.”
 Glossary
• Least Material Virtual Condition LMVC
A state where the volume made by size tolerance and geometric tolerance becomes the smallest.

• Maximum Material Virtual Condition

A state where the volume made by size tolerance and geometric tolerance becomes the greatest.

• Nominal Value
Mean value of actual measurement data obtained from measuring machines.

• Perfect Form
A form with absolutely no geometrical deviation.

• Spot Facing
Cutting the entry point of a bore by a larger diameter for the purpose of making the surface smooth in order to prevent the heads of bolts and screws from
protruding or to reinforce tightening.

• Taylor Principle
The maximum material size of a workpiece must be inspected using a GO gauge accurately made to the workpiece’s maximum material size. The least
material size of a workpiece must be inspected using a NO-GO gauge made to the same least material size of that workpiece and designed to individually
inspect each element of the workpiece.
 Glossary
• Tolerance Classes
Tolerance values in the 0.01 mm to 0.09 mm or 0.001 mm to 0.009 mm ranges make it difficult to read indications. This standard is used to avoid this and
write tolerance indications concisely. Tolerances are divided into classes by deviation from the reference dimension (specified size), and each class is given
an upper-case or lower-case letter as a symbol.

• Virtual Size
The dimension that defines the virtual condition of a feature. For external features:
Maximum allowable size + Orientation tolerance or Location tolerance
For internal features:
Minimum allowable size - Orientation tolerance or Location tolerance

• Zero Geometric tolerance

A method of presuming no geometrical deviation (zero geometrical deviation) under maximum virtual condition and adding the difference to geometric
tolerance as a feature gets closer to the least virtual condition.
GDT& SYMBOLS
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