GENERAL STUDIES UNIT

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY DUTSIN-MA,

P.M.B. 5001, KATSINA STATE.
GST 121: NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND CULTURE, FIRST SEMESTER
2012/2013
LECTURE NOTE
COURSE LECTURERS: DR A MAMMAN, DR K. AZAIGBA & JEJE,
EUNICE S.A
DEPARTEMENT OF HISTORY AND STRATEGIC STUDIES,
FACULTY OF ARTS, MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

NATURE OF THE COURSE:

The course focuses on the study of Nigerian history, culture
and arts in pre-colonial times, Nigerian’s perception of his world,
culture, areas of Nigeria and their characteristics, evolution of
Nigeria as a political unit, indigene/setter phenomenon, concepts of
trade, economic self reliance, social justice, individual and national
development. But it is interesting to note that areas such as norms,
values, negative attitudes and conducts (cultism and related vices),
re-orientation of moral environmental problems will be taught by
the department of sociology.
NIGERIA’S GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
Nigeria lies between latitudes 4 0N and 140 N; it is bounded in the
south by the Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. The
history of this great nation or country has featured many of waves
of human movements from across the Sahara which has never
been a compete barrier between the lands lying to the north and
south of that great desert. In the course of colonization there were
migrations as a result of displacement and intermingling of
peoples, some groups have been put into new and often more
difficult environments and the people, given the technology at their
disposal, have had to adapt their ways of life to make the best use
of their new environment. In a nutshell, on the west Nigeria is
bounded by the Republic of Benin, to the north by the Republic of
Niger and on the east by the Federal Republic of Cameroun. On the
north-east border is Lake-Chad, which also extends into the
republic of Niger and Chad and touches the northern most part of
the Republic of Cameroun. On the south, the Nigerian coastline is
bathed by the Atlantic Ocean.
Prior to the arrival of Europeans the territories of Nigeria were
occupied and effectively controlled by traditional political
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institutions of the then existing societies. Such society had existed
in form of emprises, kingdoms and caliphate, in the case of
Northern Nigeria there was Sokoto caliphate in existence which was
made up of the Hausa city states. In the south-west were the Oyo
empire and other Yoruba kingdoms and close to the Guinea coast
were Benin kingdom, the Egbe society, the Niger Delta and Calabar
city states.
Nigeria got its name from the River Niger, its most prominent
physical feature. From the dawn of its history to the 19 th century,
the history of the movement and interaction of different peoples
and the constant process of fusion between them makes up the
history of the country. In the 9th and 10th centuries, these processes
resulted in a great upheaval which was further complicated by the
emergence of powerful religions.
NIGERIA’S PEOPLES AND CULTURE:
Archeological evidence had proved that many parts of Nigeria have
been settled by man since the Paleolithic or old stone age period as
far back as 500,000 – 9000 B.C. For example, the 1952 – 1953,
Nigeria’s census result has indicated that there are more than 250
distinct ethnic groups in Nigeria, most of whom have distinct
customs, traditions and languages, and politically dominant group
include: the Yoruba (10 million), the Igbo (7 million), the Hausa (16
million) and the Fulani (5 million). Other prominent but less
numerous groups include, the Edo, the Ibibio of the Cross River
state, the Tiv of the Benue Valley, the Nupe of the Middle Niger
Valley and the Kanuri of the Lake Chad Basin. The large
concentration of the smallest ethnic groups in the Middle Belt
where there are more than 180 different groups is a significant
feature of the distribution of ethnic groups in Nigeria.
NIGERIA ETHNIC GROUPS:
In Nigeria each ethnic group occupies a distinct and continuous
territory and most of the smaller groups had very little contact with
other groups prior to the spread of Islam and the colonial conquest
of Nigeria. There was however, considerable trade and cultural
contacts between the major grassland groups featuring the Hausas,
Fulani, Nupe and northern Yorubas.
In the forest belt, for long there had been contact between the Edo
of Benin with the Yoruba of Ife and Lagos. The Delta people whose
territory is too swampy for cultivation and who in consequence
produced mainly fish and salt carried on a sizeable trade with the
forest peoples who supplied them basic foodstuffs in exchange for

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fish and salt. In the 18th and 19th centuries Delta peoples had
accumulated much wealth because of their middleman position in
the trade between the hinterland people and European traders on
the coast.
PRE-COLONIAL NIGERIA’S ARTS AND CULTURE
Introduction: In looking at Nigeria in pre-colonial times, four broad
socio-economic systems can be identified. These include; the
territorially large scale state systems; such as Sokoto, Borno, Kano,
Katsina, Benin, Oyo, Ife, Egba, Bauchi, Hadejia, Ilorin and Zazzau
(Zaria). Others include; the Igala, Nupe, Panda, Jukun, and Daura.
They were both monarchs and chiefly bureaucracies. These also
include; the numerous Chiefdoms and Chieflets of upper Plateau
and Gongola regions. Among them are the Chamba, Angas, Sulla,
Batta, Kebba, Margi, Bacheba among others like Jallewa, Gellawa,
Wajawa, Kulawa, Yalgam, Gulmawa, Golla and Beriberi etc. the
above mentioned were some of the small-scale Chieftancies and are
part of the second category.
The third category is the mercantile city states; these are self
descriptive. They are located in the coastal areas of Nigeria in
recognition to the growing European trade. In this category belong
the people of Bonny, Brass, Calabar, Wari, Itsekiri Urhorbo, Elem
Calabari, Opobo, Benin, among others who depend on trade and
fishing organized by the house system.
The fourth category is the politically segmented societies such as
the Tiv, Igbo and Fulfulde (Fulani) speaking peoples. The
segmentary and “stateless” communally based organizations of
their societies are their unique feature. These are predominantly
agricultural people featuring cattle rearing or pastoralist as well as
manufacturing and commercial activities.
However, it is interesting to note that the study of Nigerian history,
culture and arts in pre-colonial times affects our knowledge of the
earliest human beings in the Nigerian region. That is, the people
that have been living in this area known today as Nigeria for several
successive centuries before the coming of the Europeans. For there
was actually no Nigeria before 1914, so the concept of Nigeria in
this time dimension is problematic, sincerely speaking. In addition,
it should be understood that the study of Nigerian history, culture
and arts in pre-colonial times include, the study of the knowledge
of archeology, especially, the publication in 1844 of some
antiquities in stone, bronze and iron which was first formulated by
Lucretius; as well as the evidence in 1945 of the discovery of
humanly work in tools like, flints and axes together with an
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elephant tusk in a geological deposit of the Pleistocene age (1 1/2
million – 12,000 years) ago. The evidence we have relating to the
study of Nigerian history, culture and arts in pre-colonial times
otherwise, known as pre-history of the Nigerian area, has to do
with some case studies over the whole region. Such case studies
exist in publication of art signs like Iwo Eleru, Igbo-Ukwu, Nok,
Taruga, the Niger-Benue Rock shelter, Majiro cave, the Benin site
and the Ife site. The Daima, Kursakata, Main Idon toro, Katsina-Ala
site among several others. Most of what archaeologically being
found (artifacts) help in interpreting the age materials, food, the
condition of commerce, trade, labour and communication, the way
of worship, the presence of peace and war, the burial and disposal
of the dead by pre-historians.
The framework of the study of the period under study is provided
by three successive technological ages of bronze, stone and iron
proven in stratified deposits. The period of study has comprised the
entire history of the human beings in the Nigerian area and
beyond. Thurstan Shaw opines that the period of pre-history
involves the period of man’s past before the emergence of reliable
oral tradition and written records. It is also very imperative to
define what culture is so as to have a better understanding of the
study. The concept of culture; may be defined as the fabric of ideas,
beliefs, skills, tools, esthetic objects, method of thinking, eating,
and talking as well as customs and institutions into which
members of society are born. This may include; ways of living,
music, play, celebrations and festivities, methods of
communication, transportation, shelter and type of food.
Certainly, people in the pre-colonial Nigeria had rich cultural
heritage through their arts or material remains and other cultural
practices and traditions. Some of these cultures can be examined
as follows:-
THE STONE AGE CULTURES:
This is one of the earliest cultures associated with human beings in
the region of Nigeria beginning with the stone. This associated with
the ability of man in the past to manufacture and use stones as
tools for specific purposes and this distinguished man from other
animal family. One of its basic features was that, it was dependent
on climatic change that is the shifting to areas most favorable for
human habitation.
The Stone-Age comprises the greater part of man’s past, even
though our knowledge of it is very little. The Stone Age can
conveniently be classified into different constituent units; we have
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what is called the early stone age, the middle stone age and the
later Stone Age. All these relate to stone-age culture and are
identified because of their various developmental stages.
EARLY STONE AGE AND ITS SUB DIVISIONS:-
The early Stone Age has been sub-divided into three cultures;
namely; the Old Wan culture, the Acheulian culture and the
Sangoan culture.
THE OLD WAN CULTURE;
The old wan culture is the earliest recognizable culture associated
with man. It is named after the Old Wan gorge in Tanzania where it
was first found. The site of culture though a great thickness of lake
shore deposits containing layers of volcanic larva dated by
potassium argon method of dating. One of its basic characteristics
tools is the pebble tool, structured at one end to give a flex. The
peculiarity of these tools is that they are crude, not refined to any
standard or shape and is used for hunting. Examples of tools of
this period are bones, stones and woods. The potassium organ
dating from old wan site shows that the old wan culture may have
stayed from 2,500, 000 years ago, which represents about 75% of
man’s past. Evidence of Oldwan culture in Nigeria is found in Beli
in Sarduana province. Homo erectus and Australopithecus is the
type of man of the Old wan age.
THE ACHEULIAN CULTURE
The culture is as old as one and a half million years (1 1/2 million
years) and fifty five thousand years ago. It is named after Saint
Acheul in France where it was first recognized but first found
earlier in Africa.
The tools of this culture shows the evidence of human tools made
to standard patterns which includes hand axe and its form is that
of a regular cut curve tool rounded and thick as well as blunt at the
end and the sharp pointed and thin at the other end. One
significant thing to note about these tools is that the technological
standard of the stone of works especially, towards the end of the
Archeulian period was extremely high and may have gone beyond
the mere period of function. In Nigeria a number of Acheulian sites
have been found in areas such as the Jos/plateau especially, in the
uplands of Jos associated with old river deposits or river channels.
Also, Mai Idan Toro where cleavers predominates, as well as in Nok
where hand axes had been found all associated with the Acheulian
culture. The Nok site has been radio carbonated to the period older
than 37,000 B.C. compared to the Old Wan, this culture has been
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dated some 500,000 years ago and had a terminal period of 55,000
years. In the old wan, the age of the Acheulian lies between 55,000
– 500,000 years. Other sites of this culture in Nigeria include,
Pungu, the upper reaches of River Gongola, the Faro and the
Nigerian Cameroun border and also Daima. This culture is
associated with human beings known as the Homo-erectus. It is a
species of human beings when they became erect. The Homo-
erectus period lies between one and half million to 50,000 years
ago. They are claimed to be the makers of the Acheulian tools
together with the homo-sapiens. The use of fire began at the end of
the Acheulian period which has transcended to the Sangoan
Culture
THE SANGOAN CULTURE
This culture is named after the Sango bay of collar Veterian. The
tools associated with this culture compared to Achieulian culture
are heavier and much harder tools. The most important of these
tools is the peak; also some hand axes around stone balls. There is
also a decrease in the standard of stone tools. Nigerian sites
identified in the regions are entirely old gravels and found in sites
at Java, Abuja, Keffi, Nassarawa and Eggon areas, much of which
has been identified in Plateau/Jos, the Sokoto River Basins and
around Abeokuta – Ibadan road and extended up to the forest zone
area. The makers of this culture are said to be Homo-sapiens which
marked the last stage of human evolution, the stage is said to have
developed, Radio carbon dates from the Kalambo falls, revealed
that the age of this culture lies between 55,000 and 40,000 years
ago. From its distribution, the Sangon culture is basically
woodland culture. During this period evidence of cave dwelling and
the use of fire was available.
THE MIDDLE STONE – AGE CULTURE
This is the age that lies between the early Stone Age and later
Stone Age. Very little of this culture had been identified in the
Nigerian region. The tools associated with this culture are also thin
in the cross section and have shapes like leaves and spear heads.
Some are flake tools. The age of this culture varies but it not lies
basically about 40,250 BC and 12,050±560 B.C.
The economy of the later Stone Age culture could be traced to three
main sources. One of them is the present Khoisan people. Others
include; the recovery of perishable objects such as vegetable, waste,
grass wooden and bone tools, as well as through arts painting of
scenes of hunting and social lives (rock art engravings and rock
painting). Furthermore, the later Stone Age people preferred rock
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shelters and rock caves and during this period hunting of animals
with bows and arrows constructed with microliths was also
developed. Another system of hunting was by poisoning selected
part of water which after drinking, the animals are expected to die.
Women were also engaged in gathering of fruits, nuts, roots and
being used in manufacturing clothes with animal’s skins. Pottery
and agriculture also developed. In Nigeria this culture consists
basically of two phases, the hunting and gathering phase spanning
the period 9000 – 3000BC and the later pottery and agriculture
phase spanning the period beginning from 3000 to the coming of
iron.
THE LATER STONE AGE CULTURE
The later Stone Age is the most important age as far as Nigerian
region is concerned. This is a period when evidence of the modern
man in Nigerian region is associated with one of its characteristics
is that, the age continued up to the present day. There are people
still associated with this cultural age like the Koma people. The
later Stone Age represented the highest land of achievement of
agriculture and domestication of animals. The commonest sites for
this culture are associated with caves and environments like rock
shelters with no great depth but where the occupants were to be
provided with shields and protection from rain. Many sites of the
later Stone Age culture have been identified in Nigeria, such as
Meijero cave near Oyo, rock rop shelter in the Jos/plateau, Iwo
Eleru near Akure and Ukpa rock shelter near Afikpo. The age of the
later stone lies between 500 and 9300±400 BC with 9250+200 BC.
Coming from Iwo Eleru.
THE EARLY IRON AGE CULTURE (500BC - 10TH C.A.D)
The introduction of iron brought about changes into human
culture. There are a lot of arguments relating to when the iron
culture and where in Africa this technology developed. One version
argues that iron started from the near east about 500BC. Another
version holds that the development of iron may have followed other
earlier developments like the use of copper and bronze, since in
other parts of the world iron did not follow the Stone Age
immediately. However, this was not the case in the African
cultures. Another source maintains that this form of technology
had started from the near east, first to Europe and then Egypt and
finally to the Atlantic coast of Africa where the two earlier periods of
copper and bronze were experienced. Because of the later arrival,
the movement was straight from Stone Age to iron.

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Iron is claimed to have been from eastern Hittite government, when
it became weakened and iron smelting had to diffuse to the Near
East and Europe, as a result, Egypt then moved from stone to iron,
and later also moved to bronze age. The Egyptians remained under
the Bronze Age until when the technology was introduced into
Egypt after the Assyrian conquest 700 BC.
NIGERIAN EARLY IRON AGE CULTURE
The earliest evidence of iron in Nigerian area is at Taruga. A study
conducted on this area had shown evidence of figurines of iron
containing remains of iron smelting furnaces. Underneath the site
one, iron shrine revealed the construction of 300±100BC. Radio
carbon dating. Another area of Nigeria is at Nok which revealed a
concentration of culture which seems to exist since the beginning
of iron age. The Yelwa site (Rs 63+32) also revealed profound
evidences of use of iron using technology in Nigeria. Here a
deserted settlement site was excavated which revealed a man
proven to have occupied a fully iron using age society dating A.D.
100±155 and A.D. 700±105.
DALLA HILLS IN KANO
This had also revealed sufficient evidences of iron stone age
culture. The area has been an important iron smelting centre since
the 7th century, A.D. revealing the possibility of indigenous iron
production. Evidences in support of independent development of
iron content varying between 45 and 50 percent iron. For example,
the age of the Niger-Benue bend both at lower and upper are as is
put at 65 – 140 million years ago.
IRON AGE IN ZARIA; NORTHERN PART OF NIGERIA
Iron working around Zaria reveals that series of excavation at
Samaru west where numerous evidences of iron in the past exist
both at upper Kubani valley areas where iron slag’s and actual
furnaces have been encountered. Other areas such as Tsauni site
and Dumbi were exact places/sites where broken pieces of
furnaces shreds of large pots and pounding stones were discovered,
as well as in Kufena, A.B.U dam and Samaru stream where
remains of charcoal where found which radio-carbon dated to
about 7th century A.D. In Zaria, archeological study conducted has
proved that smelting activities in Zaria lasted for two or more
centuries with evidence of consistency and continuity in cultural
development. In fact, it has been evidently found that iron society
had been in existence in this region since in the 6th century A.D.
THE IMPACT OF THE IRON AGE CULTURE
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The Iron Age brought about profound development of human
culture in the Nigerian region in particular. It had ensured far
greater control of the environment and led to increase in the
development of environment. Efficient use of it had also
distinguished personality in war and empire building. It had
further revolutionized efficiency in agriculture as well as hunting
and herbs collecting. It also led to quick spread of population and
reduction in death rate. There was increase in man’s leisure. As the
people eventually became sedentary and began to produce instead
of gathering, they inevitably entered into different kinds of relation
with nature and among themselves in the process of which the
family, private property and social differentiation began to develop.
As time went on the sedentary community mastered their
environment, manufactured tools, improved on their production
organization and brought into being, a higher material culture. This
could be seen from the variety of the plastic figurines of Nok that is
the world of arts represented by art in plastic figurines, terracotta
figurines and remains of torsos.
The secrecy surrounding iron gave rise to taboo, which still persists
in Nigerian societies, especially with the smiths’ men. This
technology led to the rise and expansion of states. It brought about
the beginning of paganism or dis-organic civilization and also the
domestication of animals especially through the use of iron traps to
capture and domesticate them.
The last but not the least, it is safe to conclude that later evidences
of cultures that are iron based in Nigerian region also include; the
Igbo Ukwu, Benin and Ife cultural areas. The most significant and
interesting about later cultures is the fact that they also witnessed
the development of bronze and copper technologies in the region
and revolutionized their productions in artifact for ceremonial
ornamental and other cultural purposes. These later evidences that
are iron based in technological development in the Nigerian region.
This may be fully examined under the study of Nigerian cultural
areas and the characteristics in general.
CULTURAL AREAS OF NIGERIA AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
NOK CULTURE:- The area of Nok culture covered an area of about
300x100 miles lying across the Niger-Benue valleys mostly north of
the confluence covering, Kagara, Wamba, Tare, Jama’a, Abuja and
Katsina-Ala. The concentration of this culture is in the town of Nok
where the original culture was discovered. The Nok site was radio
carbon dated to the period older than 37,000 BC. The culture
seems to have existed since the beginning of Iron Age Acheulian
period. Nok culture is referred to as pre-historic culture of the
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central Nigerian area, which flourished between 500 BC and 200
A.D. Nok was a metal or iron using society. Scientists have shown
how people lived in the region of this confluence of the Niger-Benue
rivers began using iron more than 200 years ago. They have been
able to demonstrate this from the evidence of iron and tin working
left behind by the people who also modeled skillfully in baked clay.
The Nok culture may be regarded as the beginning of the West
African Iron Age.
FEATURES OF NOK CULTURE
This culture was based on a metal or iron working tradition, which
involved smelting furnaces in iron and tin. Products of culture
includes;
(i) Teracotta figurines (backed clay). The terracotta depicts human
heads and the heads of such animals as snakes, monkeys, and
elephants.
(ii) Other sculptural forms are in shapes of cones, spheres and
cylinders
(iii) Other distinctive features include some ground stone, axes,
furnaces waste, perforated quartz, beads, iron axes and other tools.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NOK CULTURE
Nok culture represents mixed stones and iron using cultural
industry, a cultural context that is transitional from the stone-age
to Iron Age.

 It is among the earliest known plastic art in Africa, south of

the Sahara consisting of terracotta’s of both animals and
human beings.
 The culture depicts a representation of the actual people
themselves in addition to the fragments of tools and pots they
have left behind.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NOK-CULTURE

 The culture is distinctive, original and widespread in central

Nigerian area covering over twenty archeological sites.
 It had diffused the use of iron working for the first time in
Nigeria. Indeed, Iron working is strongly associated with most
myths and legends.
 It also represents an important pre-requisite to our agrarian
revolution, hunting and demystification of plants and
animals.

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  It is important due to its wide geographical coverage. Indeed it
has historical reference to the non-civilization spanning 500
BC-200A.D.
IGBO – UKWU CULTURE:-
This culture flourished around 900 A.D at Igbo-Ukwu, 40km south
east of Onitsha. A famous archeologist Thurstan Shaw unearthed a
number of bronze objects in the area. These include, pottery
decorated in highly ornamental styles, bronze, beads (mostly
coloured glass), copper like wrestles, bolts and cylindrical objects of
copper like wrestles and bolts. Igbo Ukwu bronzes were composed
of copper and tin and adopted the lost wax method of casting.
Pottery and vessels found were decorated with models of some
animals like ram head, chameleon, lizards etc. the culture belongs
to the time when iron technologies have become fully established. It
was also of copper alloys used for ceremonial and ornamental
purposes.
THE DISCOVERED ARTIFACTS IN IGBO UKWU:
This culture site its discovery accidental and the first site excavated
was Igbo Isaiah which yielded a lot of material remains like iron
blades, highly decorated pots, bronze objects richly decorated, six
and one bones, eleven small bowls bronzes were used for
ceremonial or ritual practices, while the ornaments and the regalia
point to the existence of important personality. Another site was
Igbo Richard which revealed artifacts like iron potsherds, copper,
bronzes and some burial remains belonging provably to an
influential man, grave goods and slaves were found in the tomb.
From the position of the bones and all other objects, the corpse
seems to have been buried in sitting position. The dating of Igbo
Ukwu according to Thurstan Shaw is 9th century.
THE IFE CULTURE
A German ethnographer Leo Frobenius discovered evidence of an
ancient artistic tradition of terracotta of bronze and other arts
works of extremely remarkable materialistic styles. More accidental
evidence of bronzes heads were discovered in 1938 at Ife. Ife arts
were described as genuine expression of Yoruba culture. Example
of the discovered artifacts include, bronze, copper and zinc.
Archeological evidences proved that people have been living in the
area since distinct Stone Age times.
BENIN CULTURE AND BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:-

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Archeological evidences have indicated that Benin had been one of
the earliest cultures in Africa. The people of the area were skillful,
craftsmen and farmers.
Benin’s art works include, bronze and brass heads and figuring,
stools and decoration of the walls of Oba’s palace, carvings,
manilas, bracelets and beads similar to that of Ife. Some of the
African cultural arts were lost during the Second World War.
NIGERIAN’S PERCEPTION OF HIS WORLD:
Nigerian’s perception of his world is enmeshed in stereotypes,
prejudices and products of colonial mentality as well as self
negation. To a scholar in person of Udenta a very natural approach
to the study of any culture is to describe the way the people
perceive their world. The physical device and techniques which
individual use to perform the task of making their bio-physical and
inter human environment serve their needs and interests. These
reflect the technological dimension of culture. Then, we have the
norm, values and ethical standards which govern social relations
including the social relations of production and distribution in
society, and the various socio-economic and political institutions
which sustain these relations.
Finally, we have symbols such as art objects, dance, songs and of
course language. All these are perceptive products of man in
society. Thus perception itself is the process by which we organize
and interpret the stimuli in our environment. A very natural
approach to the study of any culture is to describe the way the
people perceive their immediate world.
Culture is learned and not inherited at birth in form of genetic trait,
but have to be acquired during the life of each and every individual
though people perceive their world differently.
In case of Nigeria, the country emerged as a political unit in 1914
when the British protectorates of northern and southern Nigeria
were amalgamated with Lord Lurgard as its first Governor General.
Thus by 1914 British power prevailed over the existing independent
indigenous political entities which became grouped under
provinces.
There are several notions about Nigeria’s perception of their world
ranging from Nigerians been unpatriotic, discriminatory,
indiscipline and pervasive and deceitful. The average Nigerians of
his world thus does a disservice to his life and those of other fellow
Nigerians and this does not guarantee their future and those of
their children.
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This is exemplified in existence of indiscipline and corruption of the
highest order in public sector. This greatly affects the nation’s life
since it is not the consciousness of man that determines their
social existence, but on the contrary their social existence that
determines their consciousness. Nigerians perception is associated
with colonial phenomenal who reinforced gross exploitation,
segregation and regionalism application of excessive force, diet,
mental fortune and underdevelopment. In post-colonial era the
same found, there is post colonial dependent economy which
reinforces autonomous accumulation and under- development.
However, the way forward or out to redeeming Nigeria’s negative
perception of his world has to do with the ability to overcome the
past and make a radical change for the better. This can be done
through a through character reorientation and independent
education which is capable of demolishing colonial mentality. It can
also be done through hard work in the spirit of Nigeria nationalism,
Nigerianisation process and through process of exemplary
leadership.
EVOLUTION OF NIGERIA AS A POLITICAL UNIT.
The evolution of Nigeria as a political unit started during British
colonial administration especially with the amalgamation of 1914,
then the creation of regional structure, attainment of the present
structure of thirty six states with a federal territory. This
development started as far back as 1861 with the annexation of
Lagos as a British colony. The name Nigeria itself was given in
1897 by Miss Flora Shaw who later on became the wife of Sir
Frederick Lugard, joined the colony and protectorate of Lagos, the
oil rivers protectorates and the Niger Territories under British
administration in 1900. He also merged the Niger coast,
protectorate with Lagos colony in 1906 to form the colony and
protectorate of Southern Nigeria, carving Nigeria into Southern and
Northern protectorates. The Southern and Northern protectorates
of Nigeria were united to form a single territorial unit known as
Nigeria and ruled by Governor General, Sir Lord Frederick Lugard.
In 1922 Sir Hugh Clifford succeeded lord Lugard as Governor of
Nigeria. He introduced the Clifford constitution. According to him,
it is important to note that in observing the process of the unit, the
services of Sir Herbert Richmond Palmer as the Lieutenant
Governor of Northern provinces in late 1920’s are more significant
in the study of British administration in Nigeria. The Governor of
Nigeria at the outbreak of the war, Sir Bernard Bourdillon had
already been preparing a new constitution prior to his retirement in
1944. Such preparations were seen in the memorandum on future
13
political development of Nigeria. His successor, Sir Arthur
Richards, later put finishing touches to these memorandums,
which then formed the foundation for the Richards constitution. In
the Macpherson constitution of 1951, the colonial administration
was careful not to repeat past mistakes, so they went from a wide
measure of consultations with the people to a general conference.
Finally, the conference recommended that a federal system
consisting of the three existing regions should be set up and Lagos
created a separately administered municipality.
Furthermore, with independence, Nigeria embarked upon a
democratic British pattern of politics both at the centre and in the
regions. Hence under the 1960 (independence) and 1963
(Republican) constitutions, a true federal system made of strong
states or regions and a central or federal state with united powers,
was instituted. The period 1960 – 1966 was a necessary prelude to
the eradication of overt British political influence that set the scene
for the subsequent Nigerianisation process. By 1979, after thirteen
years of military rule, when the Murtala regime and Obasanjo
military government decided to hand over power to a civilian
government; the subsequent system of government for Nigeria but
was later shortlived with another military rule in 1983 since then
Nigeria has been experiencing one military rule or the other.
Interestingly by 1999 a new dawn evolved with the emergence of
civilian and democratic rule which has spanned till date. Although
democratic process in Nigeria has been filled with a lot of hiccups,
challenges that has characterized the political process as the
problems of the masses, poverty, corruption, issues of
development, religious and ethnic violence has not been addressed
but had eaten deep into the society
THE INDIGINE/SETTLER PHENOMENON
The indigene/settler phenomenon is an important aspect of
Nigerian problems which represents a significant dimension of the
National Question in Nigeria. Substantial attention is drawn to this
problem in view of the current waves of conflicts processes and
undue savagery, these conflicts have unleashed especially, in many
of our urban centers, towns and cities today, which have recorded
a plethora of histories of mass destruction of lives and property and
still are experiencing all the more.
The latest cases of these conflicts include, the Jos, Bauchi, Kano,
Gombe, Adamawa, Zankwa, crises, the Jalingo, Yola, Kaduna,
Yobe, Potiskum, Numan, Zangon-Kataf, Awe, Nassarawa, Lafia,
Wukari, crises, the Zaki Biam and Odi military invasions and
massacre, Mambila, Kogi, Ife-Modakeke crises, the Umuleri-
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Aguleri, Makurdi and many other crises/conflicts between and
within states and local councils. Earlier on, some of the
pronounced conflicts were Maitatsine in Kano, in which about
4,177 people were annihilated in 1981, conflicts in
Bulunkutu/Maiduguri in 1981, Rigachukun/Kaduna in 1982,
Bauchi and Jimeta, Kafanchan and Kaduna riots in 1982, Yola in
1984, Gombe in 1986, Zaria in 1987, Jos in 2001, Katsina in 2002,
Asaba, Ogoni and Niger-Delta crisis to mention but a few out of
many that had occurred in Nigerian area:

A CASE STUDY OF JOS/PLATEAU

Jos as a peculiar dimension of the settler phenomenon; in the
plateau, colonial rule and colonial economy, which cantered on the
tin industry, resulted in a phenomenal influx of settler populations
in the area centered on the mining districts and the growth of
towns which sprang from this. Because of the historical role which
these settler communities played in colonial era; commerce
industry and estate development, they enjoyed a relative prosperity
visa-vis the host communities who remained a largely peasant folk.
This related economic strength of the settler communities’ vis-à-vis
that of the “natives” continued down to independence and after.
This has very serious implications for development, governance and
powerful co-existence in the town particularly in Jos, the cockpit of
economic and political activity did not become wealthy in Jos but
seen to be in control of lucrative economic sectors of the host
community. In a nutshell, this is one of the factors responsible for
current Jos inter-ethnic conflicts and religious intolerance. The
settler factor is an aspect of our history which must be addressed
through the articulation of just and democratic policies, rather
than the lackadaisical manner in which it has thus far been
handled by most governments in this country as evidenced in the
Jos crises in 2001 and 2002 which spread fast along political,
religion, ethnic and socio-economic sentiments. Failure to
articulate the problems and find democratic solutions towards a
lasting resolution of the National Question it would certainly lead to
serious social upheavals as it has always been in history.
BASIC CAUSES AND ISSUES
Studies conducted have clearly indicated that issues of rivalry over
political and economic opportunity, tribalism and ethnic
complexities, formation of associations, religious differences,
creation of stereotypes, the irreconcilable nature of Nigerian
indigeneship quagmire struggle for scarce resources, the question
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of equality of right of citizens, the nature of emergence of Nigeria as
a political entity, individual and class interests, rapid
urbanization, the issue of unemployment as well as fear of
domination or endangerment and survival as a people and stiff
competition among groups as well as lack of strong national feeling
(organization) as one nation, one people are the basic issues
causing indigene settler conflicts in most areas in Nigeria (urban
and rural) in general.

REFERENCES/WORK CITED
Ajayi, J.F.A and Crowder, M. (1989) A History of West Africa, Vol.2
Lawal, B. (1972) “Archaeological Excavation of Igbo Ukwu” A Re-
Assessment in Odu Journal of West African Studies, New
Series No. 8
Fagan, B.M. (1974) Men of the Earth: Introduction to World Pre-
History (University of California, Little Brown Boston,
Turonto).
Afikpo, A.E. (1980) Studies in Igbo History and Culture (Unsukka,
Nigeria).
Barkindo, B. (etail) (1994) Africa and the Wider World 3 (Nigeria,
Longman)
Mile, T.J.(2010) Studies on Nigerian People Culture and
Contemporary Problems of Youths (Makurdi, Benne
succession world publication company)
Obaro I (ed): Ground work of Nigerian History. Heinemann, Ibadan,
1980

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