Communication

A Hands-on Approach
Second edition

Editor
Sandra Cleary

Authors
Sandra Cleary
Marcelle Harran
Jacqueline Lück
Sally Potgieter
Eileen Scheckle
Renée van der Merwe
Karen van Heerden
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Based on The Communication Handbook, revised 2nd edition, 2003

First published 2007
Revised reprint 2009
Second edition 2014
Reprinted September 2014
Reprinted April 2015Reprinted twice 2015
Reprinted twice 2016

© Juta & Co. Ltd, 2014

PO Box 14373
Lansdowne 7779

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ISBN 978-0-7021-97970

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CONTENTS

About the authors .................................................................................................................viii

Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................................viii
To the reader .......................................................................................................................... ix
To the lecturer .........................................................................................................................x

Chapter 1: CommuniCation theory

Objectives ................................................................................................................................1
1.1 A model of interpersonal communication .........................................................1
1.2 Elements in the communication process ...........................................................3
1.3 Communication purposes .................................................................................7
1.4 Communication contexts ..................................................................................7
1.5 Communication barriers ..................................................................................10
1.6 Verbal communication ....................................................................................16
1.7 Non-verbal communication .............................................................................18
Test your knowledge ...................................................................................................22

Chapter 2: Small-group CommuniCation

Objectives ..............................................................................................................................29
2.1 Definition ........................................................................................................29
2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of small groups ..............................................30
2.3 How groups are formed ..................................................................................30
2.4 Characteristics of small groups ........................................................................31
2.5 Small-group member roles ..............................................................................31
2.6 Group problem-solving ...................................................................................36
2.7 Conformity within a group .............................................................................38
2.8 Conflict within a group ...................................................................................40 Test your
knowledge ....................................................................................................43

Chapter 3: reading and note-taking

Objectives ..............................................................................................................................47
3.1 Approaches to reading ....................................................................................47
3.2 Types of reading ..............................................................................................50
3.3 Note-taking .....................................................................................................53
3.4 Summaries ......................................................................................................56
Test your knowledge ...................................................................................................58

Chapter 4: liStening
 Objectives ..............................................................................................................................62
4.1 The importance of listening ............................................................................62
4.2 The hearing–listening distinction .....................................................................63
4.3 The stages of the listening process .................................................................64
4.4 Deliberate and empathic listening ...................................................................65
4.5 Controlling the listening situation ...................................................................68
4.6 Checklist for listening......................................................................................68
Test your knowledge ...................................................................................................70

Chapter 5: audienCe and purpoSe

Objectives ..............................................................................................................................72
5.1 Audience ........................................................................................................72
5.2 Purpose ...........................................................................................................75
Test your knowledge ...................................................................................................77

Chapter 6: oral CommuniCation

Objectives ..............................................................................................................................82
6.1 The planning stage .........................................................................................82
6.2 The delivery stage ...........................................................................................92
Test your knowledge ...................................................................................................98

Chapter 7: Written CommuniCation

Objectives ............................................................................................................................101
7.1 Register or level of formality .........................................................................101
7.2 Clarity ...........................................................................................................104
7.3 Conciseness ..................................................................................................108
7.4 Tone ..............................................................................................................110
7.5 Paragraphing ................................................................................................115
7.6 Presentation ..................................................................................................121
7.7 The writing process .......................................................................................122
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................124

Chapter 8: BuSineSS CorreSpondenCe

Objectives ............................................................................................................................134
8.1 Letters, email, memorandums and facsimiles (faxes) .....................................134
8.2 Formats of letters, emails, memorandums and faxes .....................................137
8.3 Organisational plans for messages ................................................................145
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................179
Contents

Chapter 9: Shorter BuSineSS meSSageS

Objectives ............................................................................................................................191
9.1 Advertising and promotional messages .........................................................191

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

9.2 Other short messages ...................................................................................196 Test your

knowledge .................................................................................................200

Chapter 10: digital media

Objectives ............................................................................................................................202
10.1 Texting or short message service (sms) ..........................................................203
10.2 The online business presence: Websites .......................................................206
10.3 Social media ................................................................................................213
10.4 Facebook ......................................................................................................222
10.5 Twitter ..........................................................................................................226
10.6 Pinterest ........................................................................................................230
10.7 Linkedin ........................................................................................................231
10.8 Social media evaluation.................................................................................232
10.9 Social media etiquette...................................................................................232
10.10 Policies and legalities.....................................................................................233
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................234

Chapter 11: BuSineSS Career: employment proCedureS

Objectives ............................................................................................................................238
11.1 The employment search ................................................................................238
11.2 The employment advertisement ....................................................................240
11.3 The covering letter ........................................................................................241
11.4 The curriculum vitae (CV) ..............................................................................245
11.5 The employment interview ............................................................................251
11.6 The follow-up letter ......................................................................................255
11.7 The letter of appointment .............................................................................256
11.8 The letter of resignation ................................................................................258
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................260

Chapter 12: aCademiC Writing

Objectives ............................................................................................................................263
12.1 Stages in the writing process ........................................................................263
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................283

Chapter 13: information literaCy and referenCing

Objectives ............................................................................................................................288
13.1 Preparatory reading: The research process ....................................................289
13.2 Plagiarism .....................................................................................................295
13.3 Referencing your work: What is referencing?................................................297
13.4 Harvard referencing conventions (author-date system) ..................................298
13.5 Harvard in-text citing ....................................................................................304

13.6 IEEE referencing conventions (numeric system) .............................................306

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 13.7 IEEE in-text citing ..........................................................................................308
13.8 Footnotes and endnotes ...............................................................................308
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................309

Chapter 14: artiCleS and media releaSeS

Objectives ............................................................................................................................313
14.1 In-house journal articles ................................................................................313
14.2 Media releases ..............................................................................................323
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................326

Chapter 15: report Writing

Objectives ............................................................................................................................328
15.1 Types of reports ............................................................................................328
15.2 The report-writing process ............................................................................329
15.3 Stage 1: Pre-writing requirements .................................................................330
15.4 Stage 2: Compiling data ...............................................................................331
15.5 Stage 3: Classifying data ...............................................................................332
15.6 Stage 4: Writing your report .........................................................................340
15.7 Graphics .......................................................................................................341
15.8 The formal report ..........................................................................................349
15.9 Other report formats .....................................................................................352
15.10 Oral reports ...................................................................................................358 Test your
knowledge .................................................................................................367

Chapter 16: meetingS

Objectives ............................................................................................................................373
16.1 Definition of a meeting .................................................................................373
16.2 Types of meetings .........................................................................................375
16.3 Types of committees .....................................................................................376
16.4 Important terms used at meetings ................................................................377
16.5 The role of the chairperson and other office-bearers ....................................378
16.6 Participation in meetings ...............................................................................381

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Contents

16.7 Meeting documentation................................................................................382 Test your

knowledge .................................................................................................396

Chapter 17: grammar in uSe

Objectives ............................................................................................................................402
17.1 Complete sentences ......................................................................................403
17.2 Concord ........................................................................................................405
17.3 Tense ............................................................................................................406
17.4 Direct and reported speech ...........................................................................409
17.5 Nouns and articles ........................................................................................413
17.6 Prepositions ...................................................................................................414
17.7 Plural formation ............................................................................................418
17.8 The apostrophe .............................................................................................418
17.9 Tone ..............................................................................................................419
17.10 Miscellaneous ...............................................................................................419
Recommended reading .............................................................................................420
Test your knowledge .................................................................................................421

referenCeS .......................................................................................................................424 index

.................................................................................................................................431

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

The author team of Communication: A Hands-On Approach first worked

together in the Department of Languages at the former Port Elizabeth
Technikon, now part of the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
(NMMU). Collectively, they have over 100 years’ experience in higher
education.

Their paths have since diverged to pursue other interests, including teaching
in areas as diverse as Academic Literacies, Language and Discourse Studies,
Literature, and Professional Communication, as well as research.

Included in team experience are:

■ under- and postgraduate teaching in South Africa and the Middle East

■ the annual presentation of TESOL courses

■ IELTS (International English Language Testing System) examining

■ the preparation of training manuals and associated editing

■ the presentation of short learning programmes.

viii
Short learning programmes include, for example, report-writing for engineers
at locally-based corporations, writing practices for business and for local
government, and in-house training in minute-writing. This exposure has
proved invaluable in the preparation of this new edition.

Karen van Heerden, at present Deputy Registrar at the University of Cape

Town, is no longer a contributing author but remains on the author team list
in recognition of her contribution to the content; we also acknowledge her
creation of the opportunity for this book.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank our publishers for their support and encouragement;
lecturers who have given us feedback on the first edition of Communication:
A Hands-on Approach; our teaching colleagues, especially Natalie Adams,
David Blignaut, Sharon Rudman and Rod Townsend; Mukhtar Raban, for a
technical review of Chapter 10; and our students over the years, from whom
we have learnt so much, and whose participation has helped to shape this
book.

The authors

To the reader

TO THE READER

This book has been written with you in mind. To help you use the book as
effectively as possible, it has been designed in a particular way.

The most effective way to read the book is by following these steps:

For each new chapter, read:

■ The objectives
Then, in shorter chapters, read:

■ The summary at the end of the chapter ■

The headings and subheadings in the
chapter In the longer chapters, read:

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ The summary at the end of each main section

■ The headings and subheadings in the section

By gaining an overview of the content of each chapter or main section in this

way, you will have prepared yourself to read the whole text more closely and
with better understanding, which is the next step.

Each chapter contains examples of the various concepts presented.

These examples are marked by the

icon

Key points are marked by the icon

Chapter 7 introduces a range of principles and techniques used in written

business messages. In subsequent chapters, the reader is reminded of these
techniques, where appropriate.

This is done by means of the icon

Where applicable, information about useful websites is provided. A reference

list for each chapter is located at the end of the book. This is intended as a
guide to further exploration.

The exercises at the end of the chapters give you the chance to apply the
concepts presented in the chapters.

Registered students have online access to interactive activities and a

comprehensive glossary. The activities incorporate current elements of game
design such as rewards and levels, and provide feedback as you progress
through the various levels.
TO THE LECTURER

Communication: A Hands-on Approach is intended as a practical resource

that students can refer to when needed. The target audience is mostly
undergraduate students in higher education, whose curriculum includes a
semester or year course in business communication.

The student in the 21st century will enter a business world characterised by
globalisation, technological evolution and innovation, and a growing
emphasis on entrepreneurialism. It is a world in which the ability to
communicate independently and effectively at all levels, using a range of
media, is increasingly valuable.

x
This book is designed to equip students with an understanding of the
principles of effective communication, and the confidence and ability to apply
these unchanging principles in diverse contexts.
In this edition, we have added to the number and range of communication
genres, each with annotated examples. These should be used selectively,
depending on curriculum requirements.

Chapter examples throughout the text are drawn from a range of fields – such
as tourism – likely to be familiar to your students. These examples can be
adapted to particular fields of study if the need arises.

Exercises at the end of each chapter enable your students to test and apply
their knowledge in a range of practical contexts and case studies. The
exercises have been extended and updated in this edition.

The reference lists at the end of the text and the webpage references, or
suggested reading, provide direction to explore the topics further.

A new chapter, Chapter 10, offers guidance in the use of digital media in a
business environment, including websites, blogs and social media.

The book is intended for communication courses that require home language
– or near home language – competence in English. However, many students
speak English as a first or even second additional language. With this in
mind, the authors have included a chapter on some of the more challenging
areas of English grammar – for all speakers – but oriented towards the needs
of the additional-language speaker. Beyond this, we rely on your expertise to
meet the particular language needs of your students.

Finally, registered students using this book have access to interactive

activities presented in an electronic format (at www.juta.co.za) as well as an
extensively cross-referenced glossary. Students work independently on the
exercises, which incorporate elements of current game design such as levels
and rewards, and receive feedback and direction as they progress through the
various levels.

xi
 Chapter 1

Communication Theory

OBJECTIVES

Human beings are so accustomed to communicating with the people

around them that they tend to take the process for granted. Yet
communication is a complex process, and needs to be understood if
meaning is to be successfully shared. Once you have grasped how the
process works, you will be able to improve your communication, and
become more effective as a communicator, in both personal and
professional situations. After studying this chapter, you should be able
to:

■ describe the interpersonal communication process with the aid of a model

■ identify the different elements in the communication process
■ identify the different purposes of business communication
■ understand the different contexts in which communication occurs
■ identify possible barriers to communication
■ understand how verbal symbols (words) are used to communicate
meaning ■ understand how non-verbal symbols are used to communicate
meanings.

1.1 A MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of creating meaning between two or more

people through the expression and interpretation of messages.

From the moment you were born, you have been communicating with those
around you. For example, a baby’s cry communicates hunger or discomfort to
the parents. In other words, people communicate intuitively – some better
than others – without ever studying communication. It is necessary,
however, to examine the theory of communication if you want to be a good
communicator in a professional environment.
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Although communication is a process that occurs between people in a live

situation, when we study communication, we examine it theoretically. To do
this we use models. Models of communication are illustrations or
constructions intended to help us to understand the elements and
interactions in the communication process. However, no model can
accurately represent the reality it stands for, especially when that reality is
a largely internal process. Still, these models illustrate significant aspects of
the process and can thus help to clarify the nature of communication.

Communication theorists have developed numerous models based on various

theories of communication. Most of these models share certain essential
elements, but differ in terms of how the elements interact. Some represent
communication in a linear way, others in a cyclical way, focusing on
communication as a transaction. The model in Figure 1.1 is cyclical and
represents communication as a process, dynamic and ongoing, so that each
tiny interaction affects the whole.

For example, in practice, a sender, Vuyolwethu, might encode a message in

English – ‘Hello’ – using face-to-face as her medium. Her audience, Christine,
decodes the message as a greeting, and gives feedback by responding ‘Hi
Vuyolwethu’.

The model shows that there is no single beginning and no single end to
interactions. Both parties are engaged in sending and receiving messages
simultaneously. For example, a listener can show interest – or disbelief –
while the speaker is still encoding the message (speaking) and simultaneously
be a sender and an audience in this way. Each person is constantly sharing

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

in the communication process and each person affects the other. For example,
a smile, when you had expected a frown, alters your feelings about yourself
and the world at that moment.

The section that follows describes the key elements in the communication
process. Although these elements will be described separately, they are
interrelated and interdependent. The communication process occurs only
when all elements are present. They should not be thought of as existing or
occurring separately.
1.2 ELEMENTS IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1.2.1 Sender
This is the person who initiates the communication by having, for example,
an idea, a thought or information to communicate to the audience. The sender
is sometimes referred to as the source, the communicator or the encoder. The
primary responsibility for the success of any communication lies with the
sender.

1.2.2 Encoding
Before the idea or message can be sent to the receiver, the sender needs to
encode it in an appropriate code (see section 1.2.2.1). Encoding is the act of
making an idea accessible to others, of putting an idea into a code so that it
becomes perceptible to the receiver.

This can be done using a verbal code – language, whether spoken or written
– or a non-verbal code – a code without words or language (examples of verbal
and non-verbal codes are given in section 1.2.2.1). Usually, a message is
encoded in more than one code – for example, language and body language
are used when the sender says ‘come’ and beckons with his or her hand at the
same time.

1.2.2.1 Code
A code is a set of symbols which, when combined and used according to the
rules agreed upon by the users, conveys meaning. The most commonly used
code in the business and technical world is language.

The set of symbols used in language is the alphabet. The letters of the
alphabet are combined according to rules to form words, the words are
combined according to rules to form sentences and so meaning is conveyed.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

See how easy it is to combine the same four symbols (in this case, letters)
according to agreed-upon rules to create meaning. The same four letters,
when combined in a haphazard way, no longer create or convey meaning.
Rule-bound combinations – meaningful Haphazard combinations – meaningless
TAME ETAM
MATE MTAE
TEAM TAEM
MEAT AEMT

In spoken language, the symbols are the sounds of a language that are
combined according to rules to signify different meanings.
When using a code to convey meaning, it is essential that communicators
follow the rules or principles governing the code. In Chapter 7 on writing, you
will learn the principles – specific techniques – that will allow you to use
language as a powerful code to communicate your ideas effectively in the
business world. Chapter 17 offers guidance on some of the rules of English
grammar.

Language is not the only code we use to communicate. The clothes we wear,
and how we wear them, also convey meaning. For example, whether a man
wears a collar and tie to a particular function or not is determined by the
dress code. Other codes include body language, colour and pictures.

Any language, either spoken or written, is referred to as a verbal code, and all
other non-language codes are referred to as non-verbal codes. Both verbal and
non-verbal codes can convey the same idea.

The effectiveness of the message will depend greatly on the correct choice of
code. For example, when communicating to people with a lower level of
literacy on how to vote, or take medication, a written message will be
insufficient. Pictures will be needed to support the text.

Figure 1.2 uses both verbal and non-verbal codes to ensure understanding of
the message.

CODE

4
 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

Verbal
Non-verbal

DANGER

Figure 1.2 Codes for different audiences

1.2.3 Message
The message is the meaning, content or subject matter – that is, the encoded
idea or content that the sender wishes to convey. For example, when a student
is asked to close the door, the message is ‘Please close the door’. If the message
is not understood as intended by the sender, communication has been
unsuccessful.

1.2.4 Medium
The message must be conveyed to the receiver in a concrete form. This is
achieved through using a medium. Think of a medium as a vehicle that carries
or transports the message to the audience – rather like a taxi that transports
passengers to their destination. Examples of mediums commonly used in
business and professional communication include the telephone, email,
meetings, letters and memos, interviews and conversations. Figure 1.3
includes both written and spoken media.
LANG UAGE
Written medium Spoken medium
letter lecture telephone
email blog conversation radio
Tweet programme face-to-face
label notice conversation
book meeting video
conference
interview
Figure 1.3 Written and spoken media

Some media can convey both a written and a spoken message, for example a
cellular telephone.

The choice of medium depends on a number of factors, including:

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ proximity/geographical distance
■ the nature and complexity of the message
■ feedback requirements

■ time

■ cost.

For example, if you were in Durban and needed to convey an urgent, but fairly
simple message to someone in Cape Town, you would telephone. If the
message was very complex or involved technical information, it would be
better to email or fax it.

There is no single ‘best’ medium. The appropriateness of a medium must be

determined by the factors listed above.

1.2.5 Audience
The audience or receiver is the person to whom the sender directs the
message, and who thus has to understand the message. This means that the
audience is an active participant in the communication process. Each
audience has had unique life experiences and accordingly decodes or
interprets each message in a unique way.
This is why the focus of any communication should be on the audience.
1.2.6 Decoding
Decoding refers to the process of an audience receiving, interpreting and
understanding an encoded message.

There is far more to decoding than just receiving a message. If the audience
is unable to interpret and understand the message, there will be no shared
meaning and no communication. For example, if a monolingual isiZulu
speaker receives a message in English, that person will be unable to interpret
and understand the message.

1.2.7 Feedback
Feedback is the audience’s response to the message. Feedback is essential for
effective communication, because it provides for a two-way flow of messages.
The message can be adjusted should misunderstandings occur. Feedback thus
provides the sender with a way of ensuring that the message has been
received, interpreted and understood as the sender intended.

Examples of feedback are a nod of agreement or a written reply to an email.

6
 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

Sometimes, feedback is delayed. For example, a reply to a letter might be

received after several days or even weeks. In the case of certain radio or
television broadcasts, viewers might be invited to send text messages, tweets
or emails, or even to phone in, but usually television offers very few feedback
opportunities. This serves as a reminder that, in communication, there is not
always a second chance to convey the message. In other words, the medium
you choose to convey your message affects the timing, amount and quality of
the feedback you receive.

■ Written messages allow essentially for one-way communication with little

or no immediate feedback. However, the use of instant messaging, for
example, and Internet chat rooms has to some extent blurred the
boundaries between text and talk in that feedback can be almost
immediate.
■ Spoken, face-to-face conversations allow for two-way communication. A
great deal of feedback, including direct questions, comments and the
reading of body language, such as a frown, a smile or a nod of the head, is
possible. Meanings and feelings may be assessed.
■ Telephone messages allow for two-way communication and, therefore, for
more immediate feedback than most written messages. However, non-
verbal message perception is restricted to what is conveyed by the voice.

1.2.8 Communication environment

The environment is the physical, social and emotional situation in which the
communication takes place. Noise in the next-door room, for example,
hampers communication, while a friendly atmosphere facilitates
communication.
1.3 COMMUNICATION PURPOSES

Communication in the business world is always purposeful. An awareness of

purpose helps a communicator to tailor a message – especially a written one
– to meet this purpose. The main purposes in business communication are
briefly:

■ to inform
■ to persuade
■ to create goodwill.

These are explained in Chapter 5.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

1.4 COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS

Communication occurs in a context – a set of circumstances or a situation.

Communication may occur between two friends, among colleagues in a small-
group business setting, or between a lecturer and students in an auditorium.
The number of participants involved affects the kind of communication that
takes place, the codes used and the medium or media selected. While the
number of participants varies, the intention to achieve shared meaning is
common to all. The contexts are:

■ intrapersonal communication
■ interpersonal or two-person communication
■ small-group communication
■ public communication
■ mass communication ■
organisational
communication ■
intercultural communication.

1.4.1 Intrapersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication refers to communication within ourselves,
‘talking’ to ourselves. Examples are considering options before making a
choice, evaluating someone else’s point of view and planning your activities
for the week. Intrapersonal communication is important in the formation of a
person’s self-image and, therefore, in building self-esteem and self-confidence.

1.4.2 Interpersonal or two-person communication

Interpersonal communication occurs between two people, and forms the basic
unit of communication. The model of communication used in this chapter
depicts this interpersonal context.

Interpersonal communication accounts for most informal, everyday

communication transactions, including personal and intimate relationships,
as well as many business situations. Because messages are tailored for
individual audiences, the chances of successful communication are enhanced.

The advent of social networking media has brought new opportunities for
interpersonal communication, whether individual to individual, organisation
to customer, customer to organisation, or organisation to organisation.

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

1.4.3 Small-group communication

Small-group communication refers to the communication that takes place
among people who work together with a common goal. In any organisation
there are various types of small groups, either formal (eg a meeting) or
informal (eg study or tutorial groups).

Group members all need to subscribe to the same values and norms that are
developed within that group if they are to work together effectively. In
smallgroup communication, the challenge lies in motivating all parties to
participate and remain focused. Group communication is discussed in
Chapter 2.

1.4.4 Public communication

Public communication refers to public speaking, and occurs in public rather
than private places. Even though both sender and audience are present when
public communication takes place, it is largely one-way communication and
is formal in nature. Examples are a formal lecture and a speech made at a
political rally. The challenge in the public communication context lies in
making each member of the audience feel that you are speaking just to her or
him. See Chapter 6 for a discussion of oral communication.

1.4.5 Mass communication

Mass communication refers to the transmission of a message to a mass
audience. Traditionally, mass communication differed significantly from the
four types of communication discussed above, being essentially a one-way
form of communication with limited feedback opportunities. Until recently,
there was also no direct or personal contact between the sender and the
receiver. Senders, therefore, had to work hard to understand their audience’s
needs before composing and conveying their messages. To a great extent, this
is still the case.

However, the advent of social media such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as
the use of SMS (texting) and email, has led to increasing feedback
opportunities for the audiences of mass messages. Mass communication
senders also have a wider range of media available to promote feedback
interactivity with their audiences.

Mass communication is no longer controlled solely by organisations through

their advertising and public relations agencies, although this is largely still
the case.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Anyone, by using social media such as Facebook and Twitter, can send mass
communication messages. As a result, organisations cannot control the
nature and direction of the conversations they initiate on social media
platforms, bringing new and different challenges to their mass
communication activities.

The use of social media for business communication is discussed in Chapter

10.

1.4.6 Organisational communication

An organisation is defined by Fielding (2006: 31) as consisting of ‘groups of
people who work together to reach specific goals’. The individuals have to
communicate with each other and share information if they are to reach
shared goals.

How the organisation is managed (for example, autocratically or

democratically) affects the communication within that organisation.

The direction in which the message travels between a sender and an audience
within an organisation is referred to as a channel. There are four channels or
directions:

■ upwards
■ downwards
■ lateral (sideways)
■ informal (the grapevine).

So, for instance, if the sender is a worker addressing a manager, the channel
will be upwards. When the manager replies, the channel is downwards.
However, when the worker communicates with a co-worker, the channel or
direction is lateral. The formal channels are illustrated in Figure 1.4.

Manager

Worker Worker

Figure 1.4 Upwards, downwards and lateral channels

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

Communicators need to be aware that in the organisational context,

messages, whether flowing downwards, upwards or sideways in the
organisation, can be blocked or become distorted.

The informal channel or grapevine channels messages (usually informal

messages or rumours) in any direction – up, down, laterally and across
channels.
Because the world is a ‘global village’, it is likely that our daily communication
in any of the above contexts (except for the intrapersonal) will also involve
intercultural communication.

1.4.7 Intercultural communication

Culture refers to the lifestyle of a group, and includes the values, beliefs,
artefacts and ways of behaving and communicating of that group. Culture is
acquired or learnt – no one is born with a particular culture.

Intercultural communication refers to communication between people who

belong to different cultures and who thus have different values, beliefs,
behaviours and ways of communicating. Because shared or common meaning
is essential for communication to occur successfully, people from different
cultures need to establish some common ground and cultivate an open,
positive attitude towards one another.

SUMMARY

Communication is a two-way process that results in a shared meaning or

common understanding between a sender and an audience. A model of
communication can be used as a theoretical representation of the
communication process. The sender encodes the message and conveys it
by means of a medium. The message is then decoded by the audience.
Feedback is the audience’s response to the message and can take various
forms. Communication takes place in various contexts: intrapersonal,
interpersonal, small-group, public, mass, organisational, or
intercultural, each of which affects the nature of the communication.

1.5 COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

We have seen how communication should work in theory. This section
examines what can go wrong in the communication process so that instead of
understanding, there is misunderstanding or a communication breakdown.
The causes of these misunderstandings are referred to as barriers. A

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

communication barrier is defined as any factor that hampers or prevents the

smooth flow of the message from the sender to the audience.

The interpersonal model, illustrated in Figure 1.5, shows how barriers might
originate with both the sender and the audience. The sender, for example,
might be uncomfortable with the subject matter and convey the message in
such a roundabout way that the audience is confused. Or, the audience might
not like or agree with the subject matter, and may, therefore, pay little
attention to the message.

Barriers can affect all four communication skills: speaking, reading, listening
and writing. Five categories of barrier are identified:

■ perceptual barriers
■ language barriers
■ physical barriers ■
physiological barriers
■ psychological barriers.

These categories are artificial and there are often overlaps between them.

1.5.1 Perceptual barriers

Perception is the process of selecting and organising information gained
through the senses in such a way that the information makes sense. It is a
way of interpreting information or giving meaning to the world around you.
You are bombarded by sensory stimuli all day, but your perception – because
it is selective – filters out certain stimuli and allows other stimuli to register
and so make sense to you.

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

Because perception is selective, two people may witness the same event
(experience the same sensory stimuli) but their perception of that event will
differ. In fact, perception is unique to each individual – no two people perceive
or interpret a communication transaction in exactly the same way. This is
because each of us has had different life experiences, which in turn affect the
way we ‘see’ the world.

It is inevitable that people’s perceptions differ, and you should, therefore, take
the necessary steps to prevent these differing perceptions from causing a
communication barrier. Before initiating any communication, put yourself in
the shoes of the audience (or see things from the other person’s position). If
you believe that your perception is automatically the same as your audience’s,
you are unlikely to be a successful communicator.

Perceptual breakdowns may occur because of one of the following factors:

■ cultural background
■ past experience
■ selection

■ needs
■ education.

1.5.1.1 Cultural background

People of a particular culture have shared values and beliefs, shared rules of
conduct and a shared symbolic code, such as language. This shared knowledge
binds the people together and gives them a sense of belonging. In a social
interaction they know, for example, who should greet first, what form the
greeting should take, what topics may be discussed, whether to make eye
contact and so on.

A person from another culture will quite likely have a different understanding
of what is acceptable in the same interaction. This is because no two cultures
are alike in terms of their cultural practices, but differ to a lesser or greater
extent.

The development of modern technology and information systems, the

movement of the world’s populations and the rise of the global economy have
increased the likelihood that you may often come across cultural practices
that might seem unusual, mysterious or even odd.

If members of a particular cultural group recognise and respect others’

cultural practices, miscommunication is unlikely to occur. However, what
often happens is that people perceive the practices of others in terms of their

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

own cultural practices. The result is a judgement of the other people and their
culture. Regrettably, the judgement is usually negative.

This is an ethnocentric reaction, resulting from ethnocentrism, the tendency

of people to view their own cultures as being normal, and supreme in terms
of priority and worth. Although it is important that people value and are
proud of their cultural heritage, they should at the same time recognise and
accept diversity, and guard against a tendency to see their culture as being
superior to all other cultures.

Another barrier to communication is the tendency to see members of other

cultures as being alike. This assumption is called cultural stereotyping, and
results from a failure to recognise the individuality of people within a culture.
Hollywood movies, for example, for many years created the stereotype that
Americans were always heroes, whereas villains – the bad guys – had their
origins in whatever nation was politically out of favour at the time. During
the Cold War, for example, villains were regularly of Russian or Eastern
European origin.
1.5.1.2 Past experience
Perception is learnt through experience. Because no two people have identical
experiences, people will perceive the same situation in different ways. For
example, someone’s unpleasant past experience with a dog may make him or
her always perceive dogs as ferocious, untrustworthy creatures.

1.5.1.3 Selection
You select that which you want to attend to or are interested in, usually what
you either expect or are familiar with. For example, if you are keen on fishing,
you are likely to notice a small display of fishing equipment in the window of
a hardware shop that other shoppers will not notice. Therefore your
assessment of that shop would be based on what you have selected and would
be different to the perception of a soccer supporter.

1.5.1.4 Needs
You are also influenced by your physical and psychological needs. Abraham
Maslow, a psychologist, put forward the theory in 1943 that people are
motivated by universal human needs, shown in Figure 1.6. When lower-level
needs are left

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

unsatisfied, it is very difficult to motivate people by appealing to higher-level needs.

SELF-
ACTUALISATION
NEEDS
Reaching one's potentia l

SELF-ESTEEM NEEDS
High self-evaluation, self-respect,
self-esteem, esteem of others

SOCIAL NEEDS
Friendship, affectional relationships, interpersonal
acceptance

SAFETY NEEDS
Security, stability, protection, structure, order, law

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
food, water, air

Figure 1.6 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s theory teaches us that if a person is very hungry (physiological need

not met), it is difficult to motivate that person by appealing to the need for
accomplishment or achievement (self-actualisation need). In such a case, the
person is apt to pay more attention to food, than, say, to the accomplishment
of a task.
A good communicator strives to meet the needs of the audience so that
unfulfilled needs do not become barriers.

1.5.1.5 Education
Education and intelligence play a major part in moulding people’s
perceptions. For example, a doctor, a mechanic, a police officer and a
newspaper reporter would all perceive the same car accident from different
points of view.

1.5.2 Language barriers

Language and the way we use it often results in barriers. This happens in
various ways:

■ Meaning : If the meaning understood by the audience differs from the

meaning intended by the sender, miscommunication results. For example,
the instruction to a Grade 1 learner: ‘Sit here for the present’ could be

15
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

understood by the child as ‘Sit here and you will receive a gift’, whereas
the teacher meant ‘Sit here for now’. Furthermore, dictionary definitions
give the impression that words have precise meanings. However,
particularly with abstract words such as trust or forgiveness, the meanings
for different people differ, depending on their experiences of the concept.
For one person, the experience of trust might include the honouring of
promises, whereas another might associate trust with betrayal. This
means that, for any one individual, the understanding of the meaning of
the word trust will include a range of associations drawn from that person’s
reality.
■ Jargon : When communicators use jargon – the specialised language of a
particular field or profession – they will probably cause a barrier. For
example, golfers speak of birdies and eagles and IT experts about cloud
technology. These terms have different meanings to people who have no
knowledge of the jargon. The only time it is acceptable to use jargon is
when communicating with others from the same field who are familiar
with the terms.
■ Difficult words : Using words that are too complex for the intended audience
causes a barrier. For example: Insert the coins in the coin slot and wait for
the machine to dispense your drink is not an appropriate choice of words
for the six-year-old standing in front of a vending machine.
■ Insensitive use of language : The use of language that discriminates against
others, for example on gender or racial grounds, leads to misunderstanding
and even resentment or anger. For example, addressing a bank manager
– who happens to be a female – as my girlie demeans her status as both a
woman and a professional.
■ Pronunciation : Incorrect pronunciation confuses the audience, who might
hear a different word to the one intended, or be unable to recognise a word
at all. Even if the word is recognisable, the audience might be distracted
by the mispronunciation.
For example, the English language does not contain the click sounds that
are a feature of Nguni languages. English speakers, therefore, when
speaking, for example, isiXhosa, often produce sounds that barely
resemble the clicks they are attempting to utter. isiXhosa, on the other
hand, does not have the ‘ee’ sound as in sheep. Therefore, an isiXhosa
speaker might pronounce the word as ship.
■ Incorrect grammar: As with poor pronunciation, communicators’
application of grammar rules can confuse or distract the audience. For
example, what is meant by: Many tourists visit Arlington National
Cemetery, where veterans and military personnel are buried from 9:00 to

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

15:00? Most readers will decode the message to mean that the visits (not
the burials) take place at the specified time, but will be distracted by the
grammar of the sentence. This conveys the meaning that it is the burials
that take place between 9:00 and 15:00.
■ Long sentences: When speaking and writing, some communicators use long
sentences that are very difficult to decode and usually result, in the case
of written messages, in the audience having to go back to the beginning of
the sentence to start again, and in spoken messages, the result is often
total confusion, as the option of revisiting the beginning of the sentence is
not available. This sentence contains 63 words! It needs to be broken into
three or four shorter sentences.
■ Spelling or punctuation errors : Errors of spelling or punctuation in a
written document are distracting. To see the difference that punctuation
can make to the meaning of a sentence, consider the following example,
punctuated in two ways:
Woman, without her man, is nothing.
Woman: without her, man is nothing.

1.5.3 Physical barriers

Physical barriers are factors or elements in the external environment that
hamper communication. Examples are:

■ people talking in the corridor outside your office

■ the construction noise on a nearby building site
■ the stuffy atmosphere in a classroom
■ hard, uncomfortable seats
■ unbearable heat on a summer’s day
■ an untidy document covered with ink smudges
■ lettering so small that a magnifying glass is needed to read
it ■ a speaker’s untidy appearance or irritating mannerisms.
1.5.4 Physiological barriers
Physiological barriers are experienced internally, in other words, within the
body of the sender or audience. Examples are a bad headache, which makes
it difficult to concentrate, and hunger or sleepiness, both of which make
communication almost impossible. Think of how difficult it is to concentrate
in the last lecture of the day, when the day’s activities have taken their toll,
or during a long day when you have had little or nothing to eat.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

1.5.5 Psychological barriers

Psychological barriers are experienced in the mind. Boredom or a bad attitude
to the message hinders communication, as does embarrassment about the
subject matter. Stress and pressure are also psychological barriers. Think
how difficult it is to concentrate when you are worrying about finances or
getting your assignments completed on time.

Communication barriers can arise from any part of the communication

process. Awareness of these barriers will help to improve communication. The
chapters that follow focus on ways to read and listen effectively, and on ways
to communicate effectively when speaking and writing, so that barriers are
avoided.

SUMMARY

A communication barrier is any factor that hampers the achievement of

understanding between a sender and an audience. Because of the
complexity of the communication process, many possible barriers or
breakdowns can arise. These are classified as: perceptual, language,
physical, physiological and psychological. A good communicator
anticipates and tries to prevent the occurrence of barriers.

1.6 VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Meanings can be expressed in two different codes – verbal and non-verbal.

Although they are discussed separately, you should remember that the two
usually occur together.

The audience of a message considers both the verbal and the non-verbal
aspects of a message in the decoding process. The two codes should
complement each other. If a sender conveys one meaning verbally, but
another non-verbally, it is called a mixed message (see the picture below).
This leaves the audience confused about which message was intended, and is
likely to cause misunderstanding.

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

… AND NOW GO RIGHT …

Verbal communication is any communication involving words. Verbal communication

thus includes spoken words (eg interviews, radio broadcasts, conversations)
and written words (eg letters, books, posters, class notes). The code used in
verbal communication is language.

But what is language?

Language is a code that conveys meaning symbolically. The symbols are

essentially artificial, abstract and arbitrary. The words have no physical or
natural resemblance to the objects to which they refer.

To illustrate this, consider the words dangerous curves ahead on a road sign.
There is nothing on a physical or real level in those words that represents or
imitates danger. A road sign with a picture of a curved arrow, on the other
hand, represents or imitates the reality in a physical way. The picture is a
non-verbal code.

Dangerous curves ahead

Language is a powerful code. It allows us to manipulate our surroundings,

influence other people, create new realities and think in complex ways that
are not possible in a non-verbal code.

To succeed in communication in the business and professional spheres, we

need to know how to use language effectively. In the chapters on oral
communication and on writing, the role of language will again be discussed.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

1.7 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

As discussed in the section on barriers, communication sometimes breaks

down. This often happens because the words in the message are interpreted
differently by the participants in the communication situation. As a result,
communicators rely on non-verbal codes to fine-tune the messages they send.

In written messages, communicators rely on the use of headings,

subheadings, paragraphing, different fonts and pictures to clarify meaning.
In spoken messages, body language and tone of voice, for example, are used.

Because the non-verbal part of spoken communication plays such an

important role in the creation of meaning, and because the use of non-verbal
codes varies across cultures, non-verbal communication is discussed in more
detail in the sections that follow.

1.7.1 The functions of non-verbal codes

The function of non-verbal communication refers to the part that non-verbal
communication plays in the communication process as a whole. Non-verbal
codes are used, or function, in three ways: expressing meaning, modifying
verbal messages and regulating the flow of interaction, all of which are
culturally determined.

1.7.1.1 Expressing meaning

Non-verbal messages convey the feelings of the sender and the audience to
each other. They can, for example, show liking (or dislike), acknowledge
status and show respect.

1.7.1.2 Modifying verbal messages

Certain non-verbal messages convey meaning on their own – for example, a
smile – while others function in conjunction with verbal messages. When they
are seen in conjunction with the verbal message, the meaning of the verbal
message could be modified or changed. The ways in which non-verbal
messages modify verbal messages are outlined below:

■ Complementing . In this case the non-verbal message adds to, or elaborates

on, the verbal message. An example is someone who presses a hand to his
diaphragm and says, ‘Yeow, this heartburn is bad!’
■ Accenting . This refers to non-verbal messages that underline or reinforce
the verbal message. An example is a manager who thumps her hand on the
table as she says, ‘That’s enough – they’ve had enough credit!’

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

■ Repeating . This occurs when a non-verbal message is used to repeat the

verbal message to ensure that the audience interprets it correctly. The non-
verbal message, therefore, always follows the verbal message. If, for
example, you ask your father for permission to borrow his car and he
unexpectedly answers ‘Yes’, your expression of disbelief may prompt him
to repeat the message by nodding his head.
■ Substituting . Sometimes a verbal response is avoided altogether and a non-
verbal response is used as a substitute. If you are talking on the phone
when a colleague walks in, you can indicate by pointing to a chair that he
or she should sit down. In this case no words are necessary.
■ Contradicting . When a sender conveys a message verbally, he or she may
be unaware that the real meaning (that inner feeling he or she was hoping
to hide) is in fact being conveyed non-verbally. In this case the verbal and
non-verbal messages contradict each other. This is also referred to as
leaking, as the true message is leaked to the receiver. If, for example, you
wish to consult a colleague on a personal matter and you ask if she has
time, she may respond with ‘Sure! I’m listening’, but she then glances at
her watch and steps backwards. A non-verbal message that contradicts the
verbal message has been sent. It becomes very difficult for the audience to
interpret or understand the sender’s message when such a contradictory
or mixed message is sent. In most cases, however, the non-verbal message
is more believable to the audience!

1.7.1.3 Regulating the flow of interaction

Non-verbal communication functions as an efficient way of regulating verbal
interaction. When people converse, they use non-verbal messages – such as
leaning forward or pausing – to indicate that they want to start speaking, or
that they have finished talking. If you did not use non-verbal regulators in
interaction, you would need to announce that you have finished talking, as is
necessary on two-way radio.

The way conversational turns are passed between communicators varies

across cultures. If this is not understood, some might struggle to obtain a
share of the conversational ‘talk-time’, yet at the same time be perceived as
being unwilling to contribute.

In all three functions, reference has been made to the verbal message because
non-verbal communication must always be seen as part of the whole
interaction.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

1.7.2 Non-verbal codes

In this section, the various non-verbal codes are discussed separately.
However, it is important that non-verbal symbols are not seen in isolation
from one another. When interpreting a sender’s non-verbal communication,
the audience must bear in mind that numerous non-verbal codes are used
simultaneously to send the message. This means that the non-verbal symbols
occur in a ‘cluster’. So, for example, the tone of voice, the facial expression and
body posture must be regarded as a whole or a cluster.
The use of non-verbal codes is also culturally determined. Therefore, be
sensitive to the cultural practices of your audience and ensure that your non-
verbal behaviour is appropriate.

Non-verbal codes include:

■ proxemics
■ clothing and personal adornment

■ gaze
■ facial expression

■ kinesics
■ voice.

1.7.2.1 Proxemics
Proxemics refers to the use of space to communicate. For example, the fence
around the campus indicates where the campus begins, or the way you place
your belongings on the desk around you in a lecture indicates to others what
part of the desk you regard as yours. By using space in this way you indicate
territoriality.

Personal space, or the imaginary bubble of space around each person, is an

important non-verbal consideration in communicating. The personal space
considered appropriate for a particular audience and in a particular
interaction varies across cultures. Unintentional misuse of this space –
moving too close to or too far from the audience – can lead to
misunderstanding.

1.7.2.2 Clothing and personal adornment

Although physical appearance makes a strong visual first impression in any
face-to-face communication, the physical appearance of a communicator’s
body (eg height, skin and hair colour) has very little communication value. It
is clothing and personal adornment that carry social meanings and

22
 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

communicate status, group affiliation and personality. An example is the

wearing of T-shirts in the colours of the South African flag by South African
supporters at international sporting events.

What is considered appropriate dress for specific occasions also differs across
cultures, and should be borne in mind to avoid giving offence. Communicators
must know if and when, for example, the head should be covered, or shoes
removed.

1.7.2.3 Gaze
Your eyesight is one of the most important ways of obtaining information for
the brain to process or interpret. But your eyes themselves are also important
messengers because of what they reveal or communicate about you.
The use of gaze differs across cultures. In many African and Asian cultures,
downcast eyes in certain situations indicate respect for the sender of the
message, and making eye contact would be considered disrespectful. The
opposite is the case in other, primarily Western, cultures, where maintaining
eye contact, for example, during a conversation conveys the message that you
are listening.

1.7.2.4 Facial expression

Although gaze is an important non-verbal code, more information is obtained
by considering the entire face. Facial expression may well be the most
important non-verbal code, because many inferences about personality,
attitudes, reactions and emotions can be made from it.

Six emotions are conveyed almost universally through facial expression. They
are: happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger and disgust. These six emotions
are usually expressed in the same way irrespective of culture, although
culture will determine when it is appropriate to express them. If, for example,
an English child is taught never to show distress in public, the expression of
distress in public will be inhibited.

On the whole it is not possible to control facial expression completely, or to

hide all emotion. Very often, even when someone hopes to hide an emotion,
there is ‘leakage’ which momentarily communicates true emotion.

1.7.2.5 Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body movements such as gestures, posture, and head,
trunk and limb movements.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Body movements convey a range of meanings. A presenter spreading his arms

conveys the message: ‘Trust me; I have nothing to hide’. A member of the
audience with hunched shoulders conveys tension.

The use and intensity of gestures varies across cultures. A communicator from
a culture that tends to use moderately expressive gestures might mistake the
more expressive gestures of a communicator from, for example, a Latin or
Arab culture to mean excitability or distress, when that is not the case at all.

1.7.2.6 Voice
As it sounds words, the voice conveys meaning, and should not be confused
with the words themselves. Vocal qualities can be used to convey, for example,
sincerity or sarcasm. Very often, how the words are uttered has more impact
than the words themselves – one need only consider a glib politician or a
charismatic preacher to realise how important the voice is.
A good communicator pays attention to the following vocal qualities:

■ pitch

■ inflection

■ tone

■ projection
■ pace.

( These are discussed in Chapter 6, page 93.)

If you become aware of the six non-verbal codes discussed above, you will
become a more effective communicator. Remember to pay as much attention
to your own non-verbal expression as you do to the interpretation of others’
non-verbal codes.

Remember, finally, that non-verbal and verbal messages must be expressed

and interpreted in relation to each other if you wish to avoid confusion.

SUMMARY

Verbal communication is communication using words (written or

spoken). Non-verbal communication is communication without words.
Non-verbal codes are used for three functions: to express meaning, to
modify verbal messages and to regulate the flow of interaction. The non-
verbal codes used are proxemics, clothing and personal adornment, gaze
and facial expression, kinesics, and voice.

24
 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

This chapter forms the theoretical foundation on which the rest of the book is
based. Whatever you learn in the other chapters will be an extension or
application of the process of communication described here. You should thus
be able to apply what you have learnt about communication theory to any
other section of the book, be it listening during a meeting, presenting a
speech, or writing a report.

Try also to apply what you have learnt about communication to your
interaction in class with your lecturers and classmates, as well as to your
social and family interactions.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Define the following terms:

a sender e audience
b encode f decode
c message g feedback
d medium h environment.
2 Who – the sender or the audience – should take the primary responsibility
for the success of any communication?
3 Why is it important to consider the needs of the audience before conveying
your message?
4 Explain the difference between a verbal and a non-verbal code.
5 Why is feedback important?
6 What is meant by the term ‘barrier’? 7 Name the five categories of
barriers.
8 Identify any three factors that influence perception.
9 What is ‘ethnocentrism?’
10 When is ethnocentrism a healthy attitude?
11 Explain the difference between a physical and a physiological barrier.
12 What is meant by ‘cultural stereotyping’?
13 Give an example of a psychological barrier.
14 Name three functions of non-verbal codes.
15 Name any three non-verbal codes.

APPLICATION

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

1 Read the messages below, published in a newspaper, and answer the

questions that follow.
A B
The Tech Times Brought to you
by the
Don’t be a drip, turn off that tap H20 dept
Box 457
Save water, save lives Madibastad
6001
For more info on how to save water, visit
www.wateraffairs.gov.za

Clare Maher
1.1
consulting psychiatrist,
For
now practising at
181 St Andrew’s Centre, Tshwane.

Phone 082 682 7041 or email

cmaher@standrews.med
both A and B, identify the following:
a the sender of the message b
the intended audience for the message
c the message conveyed
d the medium used for each message
e two different codes used in the message and an
example of each f a possible medium for conveying
feedback to the message g a possible example of
delayed feedback to the message h the communication
context represented in the message.

1.2 What communication context was represented as you considered your

answers to the questions in 1.1?
2 On at least three to four different occasions during the next week, ask the
person with whom you are communicating if you can restate the content
of his or her message. If your understanding was not clear, how do you
think you could improve your understanding and interpretation of
messages? Make a note of your experiences on each of the occasions.

26
 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

3 In groups of three, discuss your experiences of message understanding

and interpretation arising from the activity in question 2, above.
4 In pairs, take turns to convey a message non-verbally. Each partner
should state what message was conveyed.
5 Discuss which media you would use in each of the following situations.
Provide two reasons for your choice.
a You have found a watch at a popular student hang-out near campus.
The watch is a brand many young people wear. You want to return it
to its owner.
b A construction supervisor has to convey safety regulations to her
team of semi-skilled construction workers.
c A holiday job for the December holidays has been advertised in the
newspaper. You want to apply for the job.
d A student previously did a Communication course at another
institution. He wants to apply to the Head of Department for
exemption from Business Communication.
e The Global University has decided to change teaching days for the
next term to make up for time lost through public holidays. The
university needs to inform students and lecturers.
f Five student friends living in the same town want to get together over
the weekend.
g A group of eight friends regularly play touch rugby together after
work. A member of the group would like to organise a game for the
weekend.
h A community health worker wants to inform the community about a
new mobile clinic.
5.1 Choose any five of the situations (a) to (h) above and briefly state the
message to be conveyed.
6 In groups of three, reflect on and list barriers to communication that you
personally have experienced at your educational institution. Discuss
ways of overcoming these barriers.

7 Case study

Read the case study below and then answer the questions that follow:
Mary Solani is a 25-year-old manager in a fast food restaurant. She is responsible for
supervising all kitchen staff. The staff range in age from 18 to 55 years and are English-,
SeSotho-, Sepedi- and Afrikaans-speaking. Mary herself speaks isiXhosa at home. Recently,
a Portuguese immigrant also joined the staff.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Food safety is one of Mary’s most important responsibilities. She has to make sure that staff
hygiene is appropriate, that hands are washed regularly and that food preparation surfaces
are kept clean and germ-free. The restaurant is very popular, the kitchen gets very hot and
staff are often rushed off their feet. It is important that the hygiene rules are adhered to at
all times.

Mary conducts staff training sessions in hygiene, but because of high staff turnover, training
is often rushed. Because of this, Mary has signs prominently displayed in the kitchen,
reading: WASH HANDS REGULARLY, KEEP RAW FOOD IN THE REFRIGERATOR and WIPE
DOWN SURFACES.

On Saturday afternoon, Mary arrives at the restaurant. As is usual by the end of the week,
she is tired. Furthermore, because she has extensive family responsibilities at home, she is
worried and depressed. To her horror, she has run out of clean uniforms. The one she is
wearing has food stains down the front. As she walks into the kitchen carrying two bags of
groceries, all eyes are on her uniform. Mary’s eyes, however, are on a large basin of raw fish.
The basin has probably been standing on the counter since the lunchtime shift.

Mary throws up her hands. Despite all her efforts, the message about hygiene is not getting
through.

7.1 Describe the intended audience for Mary’s message about kitchen
hygiene. What particular challenges can you identify for Mary
regarding this audience?
7.2 What media does Mary use to convey her message about hygiene?
7.3 From the information in the case study, does Mary view
communication as a one-way or a two-way process? Give reasons for
your answer.
7.4 When Mary arrives at the restaurant on Saturday afternoon, what
message is conveyed non-verbally by her uniform?
7.5 Explain with reference to perception why the kitchen staff noticed
Mary’s uniform, rather than the bag of groceries she was carrying.
7.6 Identify and discuss another perceptual factor that might cause a
barrier to understanding the message about kitchen hygiene.
7.7 Identify and discuss any other three barriers to effective
communication between Mary and the kitchen staff.
7.8 In groups, discuss ways in which Mary could overcome the barriers
identified in 7.7, despite the shortage of time available for training,
so that her message about kitchen hygiene is effectively
communicated.

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 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

Adapted from: Case study 1 – Barry and Communication Barriers. nd. [Online]. Available from: http://www.
extension.iastate.edu/foodsafety/toolkit/communication/CommunicationCaseStudy1.pdf [Accessed 20 April
2013].
8 Case study

Read the case study below and then answer the questions that follow:
When Mary Solani became Operations Manager of Baylink Company, she decided that she
wanted to get ideas from junior employees, including all factory employees, for improving
the company. After discussing the idea with senior managers, it was agreed that several
specially designed suggestion boxes would be placed in various areas around the company
so that ideas for improvement would flow upwards.

The following message was sent to all employees:

Baylink Company
Memorandum
To: All Employees
From: Mary Solani
Operations Manager
Date: 3 March 20__
Subject: Suggestion Boxes
All of you no doubt will notice the special suggestion boxes that have been placed strategically
around the building. This is an innovative campaign the senior managers and I have started to
solicit ideas for improvement from the employees. I want each of you to think of ways in which
we can transform our operational procedures in line with current benchmarks for industry best
practice. Write them on the form provided, and drop them into the box, which will be emptied
once a week and the ideas reviewed, appraised and evaluated. Those that appear to warrant
further study will be passed on to the appropriate department. With your help, this can be a
better place to work for all!
Mary anxiously awaited the first batch of suggestions. After the first week, the Human Resources
Manager brought them in. There were two: one was an obscure note to Mary and the other
suggested that the suggestion box be scrapped.

8.1 Refer to the message and identify the

following: a the sender of the message b
the intended audience for the message
c the code(s) used in the message and an example of
each d the communication context represented in the
message.

29
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

8.2 The system did not work out the way Mary had hoped. The staff
clearly did not perceive the suggestion box idea in the positive way
Mary had expected.
8.2.1 Explain, with reference to any one factor affecting perception,
why the staff saw the suggestion box idea differently from
Mary.
8.3 Identify and discuss a language barrier that Mary might have
unintentionally created for the intended audience.
8.4 Identify the communication channels used in the case study.
8.4.1 Discuss which additional channel should be used to improve
communication.
8.5 Mary’s suggestion box system was intended as a means of obtaining
feedback from staff, yet it failed.
8.5.1 Explain why the system put in place for: a
the employees to give feedback b
management to deal with feedback was
unsuitable.
8.5.2 If you had been an employee, how would you have liked to
receive feedback on suggestions?
9 You are a South African living in London. The community where you live
is becoming increasingly South African, and reflects the cultural diversity
of South Africa. You decide to open your own business, called ‘South
Africa Shop’. Among other items, you intend to stock a range of basic food
products, both fresh and frozen/tinned/packaged, and including spices
and condiments, that homesick South Africans will flock to buy.
9.1 In groups of three or four, brainstorm a list of food items (and the
brand, if applicable) that you regard as particularly or even uniquely
South African, and that you would want to obtain if you were living
in another country.
9.2 Compare your list with other groups’ lists.
9.3 What have you learnt from this activity?
10 In groups of three or four (members should preferably be from the same
cultural background), list requirements for a large family wedding, in
terms of the following:
a dress for bride and groom and any attendants, if
applicable b the food that should be served c guests to
be invited

30
 Chapter 1 Communication Theory

d celebrations after the ceremony, if applicable e

speeches – by whom and how many f any
special rituals both before and after the wedding.
10.1 Compare your list with other groups’ lists.
10.2 What have you learnt from this activity?
11 Discuss any evidence you have noticed in advertisements (bring examples
to class if possible) of attempts by organisations to recognise and affirm
the cultural diversity of South Africa.
12 Discuss any evidence you have noticed in advertisements of cultural
stereotyping.
13 Discuss situations in which communicators’ non-verbal behaviour has
contradicted their verbal behaviour, leading to miscommunication.
14 Look around the classroom. Discuss the non-verbal ways in which your
fellow students have ‘marked their territory’.
15 Work in groups. Allocate a different non-verbal code to each group.
The group should study and discuss the code they have been allocated and
devise a way to present and illustrate the code to the class without telling
the audience what the code is. The audience then guesses which code each
group has presented.

31
 Chapter 2

Small-group Communication

OBJECTIVES

Much of our everyday interaction is likely to take place in a small-group

environment. In this environment, we engage in shared tasks and pool
our knowledge and abilities to accomplish these tasks. Because we
conduct so many of our activities in groups – whether face to face or
mediated through technology – we need to know how they function and
how we can be good at working in them.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ define what is meant by the concept ‘small group’

■ understand the process involved in successful group formation
■ distinguish between the different styles of leadership
■ determine the impact that different leadership styles have on a
group’s effectiveness
■ understand and implement the steps involved in group problem-
solving ■ identify appropriate strategies for dealing with conflict.

2.1 DEFINITION

Small-group communication refers to the interaction among three to nine

people who are working together to achieve an interdependent goal (Galanes
& Adams, 2007).

A small group is characterised by the following elements:

■ There must be face-to-face interaction among the group members.

■ There must be few enough members so that there is effective intragroup
communication. If the group is too big, this becomes difficult.
■ There must be some connection and mutual awareness among the
members. People waiting together at a bus stop would not be a small group,
 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

because the behaviour of any one person is not significant for all the other
members.
■ There must be some connection by means of organising rules such as an
understanding that two people do not speak at the same time or that the
comments or questions of one member are responded to by the others
rather than ignored.
2.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SMALL GROUPS

2.2.1 Advantages
Groups provide:

■ additional workforce by subdividing responsibilities – six people can get

more done than two
■ additional brainpower to generate ideas and present new perspectives in
problem-solving and decision-making
■ a feeling of acceptance among members who are united in their wish to see
a solution work, because each played a part in the agreed-upon solution.

2.2.2 Disadvantages
The possible disadvantages of working in groups are:

■ Group decision-making or problem-solving can be more time-consuming

than when one person is involved.
■ Groups are only as strong or as effective as the individuals in the group.
■ Groups often substitute talk for action.
■ Cliques (a small number of people who deliberately distance themselves
from the others) often develop within groups.
■ Groups easily become too large to be effective.
■ The feeling of personal responsibility is sometimes lost in a group.

2.3 HOW GROUPS ARE FORMED

There are four phases in the development of a group:

■ Forming . In the initial stages the group members have to determine exactly
what their task is and how they plan to set about achieving it. They are
also sizing each other up and establishing patterns of communication (one-
way or two-way).

33
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ Storming . Having exchanged information, the group now has to reach

agreement on their objectives and strategy, and this can often lead to a fair
amount of conflict – which, if the group survives, produces insight into
members’ priorities and perceptions. Sometimes groups do not survive this
stage.
■ Norming . The members of a group now start acting collaboratively. Group
cohesion (sticking together) starts to develop while members determine
their procedures and basic rules.
■ Performing . The group now becomes more goal-oriented and members are
assigned roles and functions, increasing their effectiveness through
specialisation.
2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL GROUPS

The following elements characterise small groups:

■ Groups have goals, which can be defined as something that the group hopes
to achieve. A group may be striving to reach targets such as sales results,
or it may be trying to work out a suitable policy for the achievement of
employment equity in the organisation. It is important that these goals are
realistic and attainable, otherwise the group may disintegrate.
Note: We must not confuse goals with tasks: the goal is the end product (eg a 15 per cent
sales increase) and the task is the activity by means of which the goal can be achieved (eg a
new marketing strategy).
■ Most groups have norms, or standards, that define acceptable behaviour in
the group. These tend to be conduct-related, as in a meeting where only
one person speaks at a time. Sometimes these rules are explicitly stated
when all members are told they have to attend departmental meetings. At
other times these rules may only be implicit, for example when members
usually bring cake to tea when they have a birthday. Very often norms are
covert (hidden) and only become a focal point when they are violated.
■ Members have positions in a group. These positions refer to the parts that
members play in a group in terms of responsibilities or rights, for example
the secretary is responsible for the planning of a meeting. Positions may
be formalised and specialised, such as that of a chairperson or a treasurer,
or they may be informal and not strongly differentiated, as in the case of a
committee member without a portfolio.
■ Members fulfil key role requirements in a group. Roles
refer to the
behaviour associated with the position. Position and title are linked, as in
the case of a chairperson, whereas role represents what the title holder is

34
 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

expected to do (eg the chairperson is a facilitator at a meeting, making sure

that speakers get a fair turn during discussions).

2.5 SMALL-GROUP MEMBER ROLES

Members need to be aware of these in order to become more effective

participants in a group. The following roles emerge as the group carries out
its tasks.

2.5.1 Group task roles

These roles reflect the work a group must do to accomplish its goal. People
fulfilling these roles are inclined to:
■ help the group to focus specifically on completing its tasks
■ like a structured approach to decision-making
■ speed the group to a conclusion by summarising the progress thus far
■ cut short differences of opinion that threaten to be disruptive by calling for
a vote
■ be very conscious of time passing.

2.5.2 Group maintenance roles

These roles reflect the group behaviour that keeps the group working together
smoothly. People in these roles:
■ maintain good relationships within the group (this is regarded as being as
important as achieving the goal)
■ offer personal support to ensure harmony and satisfied, productive
members ■ are quick to see and attempt to resolve conflict.

2.5.3 Individual roles

The roles played by members as individuals:
■ are counterproductive
■ prevent the group from achieving its goal
■ are concerned with their own needs rather than the needs of the group.

Group task and maintenance roles are productive and positive, and assist the
group in achieving its goal. Individual roles, on the other hand, are
dysfunctional. We all fill each of these roles at some stage.

35
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

2.5.4 Leadership roles

One of the most significant roles in a small group is that of leadership.
Leadership can be defined as the process of using communication to influence
the behaviour and attitudes of others to meet the group goals. Hence, the role
of the leader is vital to the well-being and effectiveness of the group. Even in
leaderless groups where all the members are equal, leadership functions must
still be served.

2.5.4.1 Styles of leadership

Very often the quality of work produced by groups depends on the style of
leadership of the group leader.
■ Authoritarian
This style of leadership is characterised by dominance by one person and
acceptance of that dominance by the others. These leaders:
■ command and expect compliance
■ determine the group policies
■ assume responsibility for the group
■ reward and punish members
■ allow minimal intragroup communication
■ are strongly task-oriented
■ have firm opinions on how to achieve the group’s goals.
The group tends to accept the leader’s decision rather than make its own.
This style is effective when:
■ the group has little information or experience, provided that the leader
is an expert in the work of the group
■ a decision is needed urgently, or in an emergency.
This style presents a problem in that often the members find that working
under an authoritarian leader is not personally satisfying; therefore, the
group may lose some of its resources, since no creative input from members
is encouraged.
However, in terms of output, this style is very efficient.
■ Bureaucratic
This style of leadership is characterised by regard for the rulebook. These
leaders:
■ follow rules and procedures to the letter
■ ensure that team members follow the rules and procedures.

36
 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

This is an appropriate style for work involving risks to safety, such as the
handling of heavy machinery, or where large sums of money are involved,
for example, the control of an organisation’s finances. In all other
situations, group members are likely to become frustrated and
demotivated. This is because initiative, originality and creativity are
stifled.
The bureaucratic style of leadership is often adopted by those who lack
competence or confidence.
■ Democratic
The democratic style of leadership is characterised by the participation of
all group members in decision-making. These leaders:
■ are people-oriented
■ consult with members on proposed actions and decisions
■ provide direction, but the group develops and progresses the way it
wishes
■ encourage members to determine their own goals and procedures
■ listen effectively (see Chapter 4, section 4.4, page 65)
■ offer reinforcement and suggestions for alternative courses of action,
but allow the group to make its own decisions.
This style is particularly effective for meetings where an understanding of
the task at hand, knowledge of the participants and their strengths, and
the ability to delegate accordingly are fundamental to successful outcomes.
Careful planning is required and the leader needs to draw up an agenda
(see Chapter 16 , section 16.7.2, page 384) to keep discussions focused.
This style works best when:
■ time is not a problem
■ members have the knowledge and skills to make worthwhile and
practicable suggestions
■ members, ideally, are equal in status, education and experience.
The democratic style is highly valued because it rates high in terms of
member satisfaction and utilisation of the group’s resources. Often the
work produced is very creative.

■ Transformational
A person with this leadership style inspires his or her team with a shared
vision of the future. Transformational leaders:
■ care about the personal development of group members

37
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ provide learning opportunities for group members

■ create readiness for change in thinking
■ encourage the use of imagination
■ inspire and motivate group members to succeed
■ set high moral standards
■ share success with others.
Transformational leaders are highly valued. They go further than
democratic leaders in that they have a vision for the future, understand
and value change, and provide opportunities for personal growth for group
members. As a result, transformational leaders run very effective groups
and foster good relationships with group members. Members, in turn, are
likely to work harder for a transformational leader than for other types of
leader.
■ Laissez-faire (let-it-happen or ‘hands-off’)
A leader who adopts a laissez-faire style takes no initiative in directing the
group or suggesting alternative courses of action. The group develops and
progresses on its own, even making mistakes.
This style works best in self-help groups, since members want to help one
another, as in the case of a group of reformed drug addicts.
If individual members are highly competent and well-motivated, this style
can work, because the members drive themselves. However, in terms of
output it is often the case that this group is not particularly productive.

2.5.5 Leadership checklist

If you are acting in a leadership capacity, such as chairing a meeting, ask
yourself the following questions.

■ Do you come well prepared, having drawn up an agenda and circulated it

beforehand?
■ Do you communicate a clear grasp of the task facing the group?
■ Do you facilitate discussion by encouraging all group members to participate?
■ Do you encourage open dialogue and not impose your own ideas on the group?

■ Do you place the group needs over your own personal concerns?
■ Do you show respect for others during your interactions with them?
■ Do you share in the group’s successes as well as its failures?

The following webpages have more information about leadership:

38
 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_04.htm
http://www.changingminds.org/discilplines/leadership/theories/leadership_th
eories. htm

SUMMARY

Working in small groups increases output, both in quality and quantity,

and members feel committed to solutions that they have generated.
However, group activities can be time-consuming and ineffectual,
especially if the group is too big: the sense of personal commitment then
also diminishes. Small groups pass through various stages of formation
before they start functioning effectively. These groups have goals that
they achieve by performing tasks. Members may have positions and
fulfil either task, maintenance or individual roles. The most significant
role is that of leader. The style of leadership adopted has a direct bearing
on the group’s output.
2.6 GROUP PROBLEM-SOLVING

In organisations, groups are also known as task groups or work teams. Their
interaction is largely centred on the accomplishment of a task or the solving
of a problem. Very often this takes place in the form of a meeting. The group
then focuses on finding the best solution to a particular problem and
developing a strategy for implementing the plan.

Groups can approach problem-solving in one of two ways: conventionally or

creatively.

2.6.1 Conventional problem-solving

Conventional problem-solving involves a systematic set of steps that can be
illustrated by looking at an example:

Continue ➝
2.6.2 Creative problem-solving techniques
The creative approach can be used only if the problem has already been
identified. The sole focus is then on solutions, not identifying the problem or

39
Communication: A Hands-on Approach
On its own, each solution could solve the problem, but there could be vast differences in
how effective each is likely to be.

Step four: Therefore, the group must examine each solution according to each criterion.
There will be considerable discussion while the group establishes how well each solution
satisfies each criterion. If no solution satisfies the criteria, the one closest to satisfying the
criteria is selected, or the group must move back to the previous step and begin to identify
more possible solutions.

It may also be possible that even though a solution meets most of the criteria, there could
be consequences
A university needsthat would make
to ensure it astudents
that its bad choice. Increasing
receive the number
high-quality of classes that
education.
the lecturers have to teach, for example, would seem to satisfy the three criteria being used.
Steplecturers
But one: Themay
taskbecome
group dissatisfied,
needs to determine what
so the group is preventing
would the students
have to return from
to the second
having
step andareconsider
high-quality education: is the problem one of large classes, or inadequate
its criteria.
facilities, or a shortage of full-time lecturers?
If the group agrees that a solution meets the criteria reasonably well and does not foresee
Stepother
any two:difficulties,
Large classesthenhave been
the last identified
step as the cause of the problem. Before the
can be implemented.
group can consider possible solutions, they must establish criteria that any solution
Step five:
should The group
satisfy to be offers as its solution
acceptable the one
to the group. (A that best meets
criterion its criteria.
is a norm or standard against
which you test all possible solutions.)

In the case of how to deal with large classes, the relevant criteria to consider when
looking at solutions are: the cost, the length of time for implementation and
attractiveness to the students. A solution that is costly, requires a great deal of time to
implement and is likely to be unattractive to students is a poor one. A solution that is
relatively inexpensive, easily implemented and attractive to students would be
preferable.

Step three: Once the group has agreed on the criteria, it is ready to introduce possible
solutions. Some such solutions could involve:

■ reducing the number of students admitted

■ increasing the number of classes that lecturers have to teach
■ increasing fees to be able to hire more lecturers
■ reducing the number of clerical staff to be able to afford more academic staff.
establishing criteria. There are two creative techniques: brainstorming and
the nominal group technique.

2.6.2.1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a process of generating ideas as rapidly as possible, without
considering their strengths and weaknesses. Evaluation hampers creativity:
the process slows down, limiting the number of ideas and, most importantly,
participants become discouraged when their ideas are ‘shot down’. The basic
principle is that the best solution is more likely to surface in a large number
of solutions, therefore as wide a choice of solutions as possible is needed.

How does brainstorming work?

■ The members think of as many ideas as they can for solving the problem.

40
 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

■ Nothing should be withheld – ‘the wilder, the better’.

■ One member records all the ideas.
■ Brainstorming ceases when the flow of ideas dries up and no one has
anything more to offer. This is the end of the creative part of the process.
■ The second stage involves evaluating the suggestions and deciding on the
best idea.

2.6.2.2 Nominal group technique

Nominal group technique is an adaptation of brainstorming; however, the
group is one in name only because the members function individually. They
may be asked to generate different and imaginative solutions to problems, but
to list these on paper. No one knows what anyone else has suggested until
everyone has finished. This method is preferable to brainstorming because:

■ people are still inclined to be evaluative in brainstorming

■ some people claim to have the same ideas as other members
■ people are often inhibited by those with a higher status.

The following webpages have more information on problem-solving

strategies: http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/a/problem-
solving.htm http://www.businessballs.com/problemsolving.htm
http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/sk/problem-solving-skills.htm

SUMMARY

Conventional problem-solving involves an ordered sequence of steps in

which a group may have to repeat some steps until the members have
identified a solution that best meets their criteria. Creative problem-
solving involves generating as many solutions as possible without
initially evaluating them, assuming that the best solution will emerge
from as wide a choice as possible.

2.7 CONFORMITY WITHIN A GROUP

There can be tremendously powerful pressure on members in groups to

conform.

41
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Solomon Asch conducted a well-known study of small-group pressure

(Zeuschner, 1992: 198). He hired a group of students to give wrong answers
to simple questions in the presence of an outsider who had not been briefed.
Three lines labelled A, B and C were drawn on a board, as well as a fourth
line, X (see Figure 2.1).

B X

Figure 2.1 Asch’s experiment

When he asked the hired students which line – A, B or C – was equal in length
to X, one by one they all answered A. The outsider then gave A as the correct
answer as well. When a second outsider was brought in, the hired students
then each gave their answers as C and once again the new person conformed,
even though C was obviously the wrong answer. But when in the third round
the students were all asked to write their answers down, the outsiders gave
the correct answer, B.

This strong desire towards conformity within a group is known as groupthink.

The characteristics of groupthink are as follows:

■ The group limits its discussions to a small number of alternative solutions

only and does not take all possibilities into account.
■ Once the group has made a decision, it is reluctant to re-examine it, even in
the face of danger – for example, many industrial incidents, such as
Chernobyl, Three Mile Island and Exxon Valdez, have been attributed to
this factor. The group spends too little time discussing why certain
alternatives were rejected.
■ The group is very selective about information it considers seriously – any
facts or opinions that are contrary to what the group believes in are
ignored. The group members accept blindly anything that appeals to them
without evaluating it.

Groupthink happens more frequently in groups that have been functioning

for lengthy periods, especially if they have been functioning well. In these
circumstances the members tend to become less critical.

42
 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

■ Has the issue or problem been correctly identified by the group?

■ Has the group selected the decision-making process most likely to lead to the best
outcome?
■ Has the group obtained all the relevant information?
■ Has the credibility of the information necessary to make the decision been assessed?

■ Have counter-arguments been considered – in other words, has the issue been
explored from all angles?
■ Has pressure been put on fellow group members to share a particular point of view?

■ Has the group considered more than one possible solution and then weighed up the
merits of each?
■ Do members consider a good decision more important than group cohesion and
agreement?

2.7.1 Group problem-solving checklist

When your group meets to solve a problem or make a decision, ask yourself
the following questions:
2.8 CONFLICT WITHIN A GROUP

Conflict is an important aspect of a group’s successful functioning because it

helps in avoiding the pressures of conformity. It also helps with the
evaluation of ideas, so that the group makes the best possible decisions.

2.8.1 Definition
Conflict is a clash between individuals arising out of a difference in thought
processes, attitudes, understanding, interests, requirements and even
sometimes perceptions. It is both natural and inevitable in interpersonal
relationships. However, because there is conflict, it does not necessarily mean
that a relationship is doomed. It is a mistake to think that all conflict is bad
and should be avoided. Constructively handled, conflict is positive; unresolved
conflict is negative. Thus, what makes conflict positive or negative is the way
in which it is handled.

Negative conflict:
■ leads to increased negative regard for one’s opponent
■ depletes energy that could have been better spent in other areas

43
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ leads to individuals closing themselves off from each other, preventing

meaningful communication
■ sometimes drags others into the dispute as supporters.

Positive conflict:
■ forces a problem out into the open so that people have to examine it and
work towards a solution
■ enables both parties to state their goals and perhaps achieve
them ■ prevents hostilities and resentments from festering.

When dealing with conflict in groups, it is useful to think of the strategies

available as a function of how concerned the participants are with meeting
their own and other people’s needs.

2.8.2 Strategies for dealing with conflict

People in conflict situations typically attempt to manage the conflict using
one of five possible strategies. It is useful to consider each strategy as a
function of how concerned the participants are with meeting their own and
other people’s needs.

2.8.2.1 Confrontation
The confrontational approach is based on power. One side demands apologies
from the other and the redress of perceived wrongs. Authority is used to defeat
the other side. This style is adopted by people with a high concern for their
own needs and a low concern for others’ needs. One party wins and is satisfied
with the outcome. However, the other party, who has been defeated through
unfair means – the abuse of power – is dissatisfied and angry. For this reason,
the confrontational approach is termed a win–lose approach. When this
approach is used, it is likely that the conflict will surface again, because the
problem has not been satisfactorily resolved.

2.8.2.2 Avoidance
People who follow the avoidance approach refuse to acknowledge that a
problem exists, while reducing the amount of interaction with the other
person as much as possible. It results from a low concern for both one’s own
and others’ needs. Everybody loses, because the conflict has not been
acknowledged, let alone resolved. The avoidance approach is therefore termed
a lose–lose approach.

44
 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

2.8.2.3 Accommodation
Accommodation entails apologising and giving in to the other person,
regardless of who is right or wrong. It reflects a low concern for one’s own
needs and a high concern for the needs of others. Because the other person is
allowed to win at one’s own expense, the accommodation style is termed a
lose–win strategy.
These three styles are negative because they tend to:

■ reinforce conflict and create more ill-feeling ■

prolong conflict and keep it just below the
surface ■ encourage further aggression in
others.
2.8.2.4 Compromise
Compromise entails each side making concessions, bargaining with each
other until a compromise is reached. This often seems a reasonable approach,
but there is the danger that the agreed-upon compromise will be ‘the worst of
all worlds’, leading to long-term dissatisfaction (win–win, but a strong
possibility of lose–lose). In other words, if the compromise suits both parties,
this becomes a win–win strategy. However, it is more likely that both parties,
having made concessions, will not be satisfied with the result. In this case,
compromise becomes a lose–lose strategy.

2.8.2.5 Collaboration
In the collaborative approach, the conflict is treated as a problem that the two
parties need to solve together. Both parties can emerge as winners if the
conflict is handled carefully by:
■ both parties sitting on one side of the table, solving the problem together
■ both sides focusing on the problem rather than on proving who is right or
wrong
■ both parties striving towards a common goal.

Because both parties have worked together towards finding and agreeing
upon a solution, both are satisfied with the outcome. This is why collaboration
is termed a win–win strategy.
The collaborative process creates an atmosphere of trust between the parties.
This augurs well for future relationships within an organisation.

2.8.3 Conflict management checklist

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

In cases where there is expressed disagreement in your group, ask yourself

the following questions:

■ Do you demonstrate a willingness to listen to the viewpoints of others, even when

they are very different from your own?
■ Do you express your own disagreement objectively?
■ Do you disagree with ideas rather than people?
■ Do you base your disagreement on evidence and reasoning, rather than on feelings
and emotions?
■ Do you react to disagreement positively rather than defensively?
■ Do you regard disagreement as an opportunity to work together with, rather than
against, the other party?
■ Do you regard disagreement as an opportunity to strengthen relationships?
■ Do you seek a solution to the disagreement that will satisfy both parties?

The following webpages offer further information on dealing with conflict:

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_81.htm
http://www.managementstudyguide.com/index.html
http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eq8_conflict_resolution.htm

SUMMARY

There is strong pressure on members of a group to conform. This is known

as groupthink. It has serious implications for decision-making, because
members lose their critical awareness. Conflict within a group is
important in preventing groupthink and, if managed properly, can lead
to a win–win result. Negative conflict that is badly managed leads to
win–lose or lose–lose outcomes. Conflict is best resolved collaboratively.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Define a small group.

2 What are (a) the advantages and (b) the disadvantages of working in
small groups?
3 Explain the four stages most groups experience while they are in the
process of formation.
4 Differentiate between a goal and a task.
5 Differentiate between a position and a role.

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 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

6 Discuss a few norms that we encounter in our daily interactions with one
another. 7 Define leadership.
8 Name five styles of leadership and briefly describe the characteristics of
each.
9 Name three problem-solving techniques.
10 Define conflict.
11 Draw a mind map showing the five conflict management strategies and
the main characteristics of each.
12 Choose the answer that best completes the following statement from the
options given below:
A process of using communication to influence the behaviour and attitudes of
others to meet the goals of the group is termed:
a groupthink
b leadership
c role
d confrontation.
13 Which is true of small groups? a They comprise three to nine
people. b Members are interdependent. c Group members work
toward a common goal.
d All of the above.
14 Which of the following statements is true?
a Groups exist solely for problem solving.
b Effective leaders know more than the other members of the
group. c Groupthink is a useful and effective method of
decision-making.
d Conflict within groups should be positively managed.
15 Choose the answer that best describes a group task role from the options
given below:
a concerned with own needs b
offer support to ensure harmony
c focus on completing group
tasks d attempt to resolve
conflict.

APPLICATION

1 Read the case study below and then answer the questions that follow:

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Ithuba is a non-profit company set up to offer various community programmes. Included

among these programmes are skills-training courses, sports coaching for children from low-
income families and funding for small businesses. The objective of the programme is
ultimately to enrich community life.

A team has been set up to organise funding for a new programme that will teach computer
skills to small businesspeople. The team meets every second Tuesday for a report-back
meeting on progress made. It is expected that if, for any reason, a team member is unable
to attend, he or she will tender apologies to the other members. Between meetings, all
communication about the new programme is channelled to the team leader, Sipho Mankayi.

After an initially good start, group cohesion starts to break down. The group members are
sharply divided over the source of funding. Some believe that the funding should come from
organised business, which has a debt to the informal sector. Others believe that this is a form
of charity and is unhealthy. The new course should fund itself.

Sipho, who is in favour of the course funding itself, realises that he will have to take some
sort of action to manage the conflict, or the group will fall apart.
1.1 Identify the goal of Ithuba.
1.2 Suggest a possible task that Ithuba might carry out in support of its
goal.
1.3 Identify one norm from the case study.
1.4 Explain why Sipho rejects confrontation as a strategy to use in this
situation.
1.5 Explain why compromise might probably succeed in managing the
conflict.
1.6 Discuss the characteristics of groupthink.
1.7 Explain why the group in the case study is unlikely, at this stage, to
become guilty of groupthink.
1.8 The team needs to work out a system for selecting suitable
candidates for the new course.
1.8.1 Name and describe a suitable problem-solving method that
could be used.
1.8.2 Give one reason why you chose the particular problem-solving
method referred to above.
1.9 At a recent meeting, the interaction went as follows:
Sipho: Let’s get down to business. Could I have your suggestions for
a merit award system for top-performing candidates on the course?
Nomava: Good idea, Sipho. Some sort of motivation is always good.
Dickie: Oh please! They’re not school kids! Why treat them as though
they are?

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 Chapter 2 Small-group Communication

1.9.1 Identify the roles played by each of the three speakers.

1.9.2 Briefly characterise these roles.
1.10 Sipho favours the democratic style of leading his team. What benefits
does this leadership style have for:
1.10.1 the team members?
1.10.2 the quality of their output?
1.11 Under what circumstances would this style not be suitable?
2. Work in groups of five.
2.1 Choose a problem that needs to be resolved (or the class
brainstorms a problem):
a gatecrashers at student functions, specifically your class parties
b a lack of cohesiveness in your work group as a result of
social/cultural/ gender/age differences
c a need/strategy for informal mentorship for under-prepared
students. The university budget does not make provision for this.
2.2 Now appoint a leader for the group.
2.3 Using the conventional problem-solving method, set about
identifying a solution to the problem. The time limit is 10 minutes.
2.4 At the end of the activity and using a scale of 5 (very effective) to
1 (very poor), rate the effectiveness of the group in terms of how
the members contributed and the results that were achieved.
Each member rates the group individually and then the members
compare and discuss their ratings.
2.5 Each member should consider whether the solution reached is
superior (or not) to what they could have worked out on their own.
Why do you think this is so?
2.6 Identify and discuss any communication barriers that might have
affected communication among the group members.
2.7 Write your own response to the exercise. What did you learn from
it about working in groups? What did you learn about your own
effectiveness as a group member?

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 Chapter 3

Reading and Note-taking

OBJECTIVES

In the normal business day, people encounter a variety of texts that they
need to read in order to obtain information being communicated to them.
The reader who has superior reading skills is, therefore, at an advantage
in accessing this information in the shortest possible time.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ apply various approaches to reading according to your purpose

■ retrieve information effectively by scanning

■ use skimming techniques in surveying, previewing and reviewing

■ apply study-reading skills to material that must be studied intensively

■ choose the appropriate reading technique for a given task

■ reduce a text to a meaningful set of notes

■ demonstrate your ability to summarise the main points of a text in your

own words and generate a connected, grammatical prose passage
■ apply your knowledge of reading and note-taking to all aspects of this
book.

3.1 APPROACHES TO READING

3.1.1 Reading within a context

Reading involves interacting with a text. Where you encounter the text is the
context in which you read it. Context can be divided into the context of the
passage and the context of the reader:

■ The context of the passage refers to the circumstances in which the reading
occurs. When we encounter a passage at leisure, in the Sunday Times
 Chapter 3 Reading and Note-taking

Magazine, it is very different from encountering the same passage in a

language exam. Context, then, affects the type of reading that follows.
■ The context of the reader refers to the personal characteristics that each
individual reader brings to the text. These characteristics are unique to
each individual and can include the following:
❏ language knowledge and ability

❏ prior knowledge of the topic

❏ life experiences

❏ reasons for reading.

The reader, therefore, brings a wealth of knowledge to the text being read. It
is the interplay of the reader’s characteristics in a particular reading context
that makes reading a process.

3.1.2 Reading as a process

Reading is a process that involves focusing on the meaning created by the
combination of words. Words in isolation have very limited meaning but the
possibilities of meaning grow as words are combined. When reading,
therefore, the focus is not on the letters or on single words, but on groups of
words that form a recognisable phrase such as Once upon a time. Once
familiar phrases have been identified, the reader, depending on his or her
individual characteristics, can make an educated guess about what is to
follow.

3.1.3 Purposes in reading

The purpose in picking up a dictionary could be to check the origins of a word.
You might pick up a magazine to relax or a textbook to prepare for exams.
Whatever the text and purpose, you would have certain expectations of the
text. Anticipating, or having expectations, when you read is an essential
aspect of reading.

The following is a list of reading purposes with the type of reading appropriate
to that purpose.

■ To relax – for example, on holiday one could read a novel for the enjoyment
of the story. The appropriate type of reading would be speed-reading,
because you do not need to remember what you have read.
■ To find information – for example, a specific number in a telephone
directory. This type of reading is called scanning.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ To preview – for example, when deciding whether to read something in

detail, you would try to obtain an overview of the article. This type of
reading is called skim-reading.
■ To study – for example, when you need to understand difficult concepts or
remember details for an examination. This is study-reading. It also
involves critical reading with alertness to whose opinions are presented,
vocabulary choices and possible bias of the writer.
Scanning, skimming and study-reading are examined in more detail in
section 3.2.
3.1.4 The writer’s purpose
It is important to remember that the writer also has a purpose in writing, and
the perceptive reader should try to identify that purpose. To do this, you, the
reader, need to be sensitive to the use of:

■ factual, objective language,

and ■ descriptive, subjective
language.

You can then determine whether the primary purpose in, for example,
business writing is to:

■ inform ■
persuade, or
■ promote goodwill.

Outside of the business arena, writers could have other purposes in writing,
such as to:

■ entertain
■ express a feeling, or
■ satisfy a need.

See section 5.2, page 75 for further information on purpose.

3.1.5 Speed in reading

Sometimes you are slowed down by unfamiliarity with the language or a slow
reading speed. This can result in:

■ understanding being lost

■ frustration for the reader.

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 Chapter 3 Reading and Note-taking

To avoid both of these problems, the solution is practice and more practice. A
number of websites offer techniques for speed-reading and increased
comprehension. Some methods are suggested in section 3.1.6.

3.1.6 Ways to improve reading

Reading is improved by more reading. Here are a few guidelines to assist you
in improving your own reading ability and speed:

■ Find texts or articles that interest you, whether sport, current affairs, fashion or short
stories, and read regularly.
■ Ensure that the reading material is accessible to you. At a glance, there should be no
more than five difficult words, otherwise understanding and reading will slow down.

■ Make reading a habit. For example, try to read the sports page or other pages of
interest every day, or have a light novel to read at bedtime, but read daily. This will
build reading speed.
■ Vary your reading material. To become an accomplished reader you need to
encounter different writing styles and a wider vocabulary, which will not happen
by only reading about, for example, sport.
■ Interact with the text. Be aware of what you already know about the topic before you
begin and anticipate what you expect to learn or read about.
■ Get clues from the text. Look at the text layout, headings, font size and pictures.

■ Deduce vocabulary meaning from the context. Look at the overall meaning of
sentences or paragraphs and from there work out the meaning of challenging words
or phrases that are important in conveying the meaning.
■ Be alert to writers’ use of vocabulary and what is implied, style of writing and
possible intentions or biases.

3.2 TYPES OF READING

In an academic situation, there are three types or styles of reading that need
to be examined: scanning, skimming and study-reading. These can be applied
to electronic or online texts and to the traditional paper-based texts. Which
style you use depends on your purpose in reading a particular text.

3.2.1 Scanning
Scanning is the fastest reading technique. It is used to locate specific
information within a webpage or text. It is done by having a clear idea of the
information needed, then letting the eyes glance quickly over the webpage or

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

text until the particular detail is found. It does not involve an understanding
of the whole passage.

Use scanning to look for a particular name, a keyword, or a number or

amount, for example, a contact detail on a webpage or a word in a dictionary.

Here are a few tips on how to scan effectively:

■ Note numerical or alphabetical clues.

■ Hold an image of the item you are looking for in your mind.
■ Note spatial arrangements of columns, headings and white space.
■ Note bolded or underlined links to further information.
■ Be aware of contrasts in the visual material such as capital letters in the
middle of a sentence or numbers that stand out in a written text.
Scanning is usually used in conjunction with other reading activities such as
skimming. The reader of this textbook, for example, could scan the contents
page for information on barriers and then skim the particular section to see
how relevant the information is.

3.2.2 Skimming
This is a very fast type of reading – not every word is read. The general
purpose is to get an overall view of the webpage or text. So, look at the
headings and possible links to see what the site offers and how it has been
organised. Look through the text quickly and, in addition to finding the main
idea, try to identify how the material has been organised, and get an idea of
the tone, purpose and intention of the writer.

You should use the skim-read technique when you want:

■ To preview – for example, when you are trying to get an idea of the content
of an article, you might note the heading, or headings, to predict what the
text is about and read the opening and closing paragraphs briefly.
■ To survey – for example, when you are trying to understand the overall
framework of material you need to study carefully, you might read the
headings and subheadings, introduction and summaries as well as boxed,
bold or italicised print.
■ To review – for example, when you are revising work that you have already
studied, your main focus is on remembering the main points and testing
whether you can fill in the details from there.

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 Chapter 3 Reading and Note-taking

3.2.3 Study-reading (also referred to as critical reading or

interactive reading)
This is intensive reading. It is usually done slowly and carefully, and involves
reading in order to understand, to remember and to be critical.

Effective study-reading requires that you interact with the text rather than
simply read without thinking.

Here are some strategies for interactive reading:

■ Know your purpose for reading, for example to find information for your
research essay, and keep your topic in mind.
■ Highlight relevant information and write down your own thoughts on the
topic.
With an electronic text, for example a .pdf document, you can add ‘sticky
notes’ or comments, which are saved with the document and so are
accessible later.
■ Select keywords or phrases in sentences and paragraphs – that is, the most
important words, the ones that convey essential information.
■ Find the sentence that best tells the reader what the paragraph is about,
in other words the topic sentence. See section 7.5, page 115 for more
information on topic sentences.
■ Find the main idea in longer passages. For example, the main idea of a
longer passage may be stated in the introductory paragraph, a paragraph
somewhere in the middle, or the final paragraph.
■ Make notes, either as you read or when you have finished, showing the
relationship of the different parts to one another.
■ Identify linking words or connectors, because these can show the
development of ideas or introduce contrasting points. Examples are ‘first
…’, ‘secondly …’, ‘on the other hand’, ‘but’, or ‘to sum up’. The alert reader
makes full use of linking words both in understanding the reading and in
note-taking.
■ Ask questions as you read and try to answer these questions as you progress
through the text.
■ Paraphrase key passages to ensure you have understood them correctly. In
other words, write the key information in your own words.
■ Take note of the text genre, because each genre has a different style and
purpose.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ Consider what is inferred or implied by the text but might not be stated
explicitly. This might indicate the writer’s tone or bias towards the topic.

3.2.4 Online reading

Online reading is a daily routine for most people and is often required in the
workplace. This could involve:

■ reading emails
■ browsing websites
■ doing research.

Research online can involve sifting through many different sites and
previewing many journal articles before reading for particular information. A
reading challenge for online research is the dense text of online articles and
the many links and advertisements on websites. However, many websites are
laid out to minimise eyestrain by presenting text in columns. This suits the
reading eye span of most people, who can absorb 8 to 30 characters readily.
However, it sometimes means scrolling up and down in order to read the
columns.
Keep your purpose in mind when opening a website. The layout of many
websites helps readers to scan for details and to skim headings, bold font, use
of colour, graphics and pictures to decide whether they want to read further.
In addition, the convention of underlining links and printing them in blue
helps readers to locate further information. The links can then be followed,
but be wary of distractions.

SUMMARY

Readers bring a wealth of knowledge to the reading process and need to

use this while interacting with the text. This interaction can occur at a
mental level, by questioning, and at a physical level, by marking the text.
Readers should also be aware of their purposes in reading, as well as the
writer’s purpose in writing. To read efficiently, readers should select the
appropriate type of reading and use a variety of types according to their
purpose. In addition, reading, whether of electronic or print texts, can be
improved by constant practice and application.

An important skill linked to reading is the ability to take notes, both in

lectures and while reading.

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 Chapter 3 Reading and Note-taking

3.3 NOTE-TAKING

Note-taking means writing a personal version of someone else’s ideas,

whether it be a lecturer or an author, with a specific purpose in mind. Since
it is impossible and not very interesting to produce an exact replica of the
original, the notes you take are by definition a summary.

A set of notes can serve a range of functions. Notes might, for example:

■ serve as a record of the main points of a lecture for revision and

examinations
■ be added to other information
■ serve as the basis for an essay
■ be used to prepare a summary for another audience, such as your boss.

3.3.1 Notes from reading

As students, you are required to read and show your understanding of current
research. Usually this feeds into your own essay or assignment writing. So, it
is important to get a written record of the main points of a text. Adopt the
following method:

■ Skim-read first to get a general idea of what the text is about and its
structure.
■ Then read in detail – read the first paragraph, identify the topic sentence
or controlling idea and make a note of it, either by underlining, if it is your
own text, or by writing it out.
■ Do the same for the ensuing paragraphs.
■ Read through your topic sentences to see if they contain all the essential
information of the original. If not, add in the extra detail.

Your notes at this stage would include some of the author’s original words. If
you want to use these ideas, you cannot use the author’s words unless you
place them in inverted commas and acknowledge the source. If you
incorporate the phrases from the original in your essays without
acknowledging your source, you can be accused of plagiarism, which is a
capital offence in higher education institutions and you will be shot at dawn!
Even more seriously, you will be given zero marks. You may write the author’s
ideas in your own words, or paraphrase the original, but you still need to show
where the ideas came from by acknowledging the original author or authors.

See section 13.5, page 304 for further information on acknowledging sources.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

To make the information you have read your own and to reflect the structure
and organisation of the original, it is preferable to use one of the following
forms of notes.

3.3.1.1 Mind maps or spider diagrams

A mind map (see Figure 3.1) looks like a bicycle wheel, with the main idea in
the centre and the different aspects of the central idea radiating from the
centre as spokes. These spokes can branch out to show supporting points or
details. A mind map can be used when making notes drawn from reading or
when brainstorming and planning an essay.

Once the initial main points have been identified, it is possible to:

■ show the connections or relationships between different ideas by adding

arrows
■ add further information, possibly reading from other sources
■ synthesise a number of different sources of information and use the mind
map to produce an original piece of writing, as is required in, for example,
essay writing.

For another example of a mind map, see page 216.

interact with text group words

Speed meaningful phrases

Process
practise

for overview Reading

Relax – speed-reading
Skim
find key words
to preview Scan Study
mark with pencil
question
for detail use cues

Figure 3.1 Mind map of the reading process

3.3.1.2 Skeleton outlines

A skeleton outline (see Figure 3.2) takes the form of a list, usually of one-word
points or concepts, with supporting points indented under each main point.

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 Chapter 3 Reading and Note-taking

Reading
speed
purpose
Types
scanning
for detail
skimming
for overview
study-reading
Figure 3.2 Skeleton outline of reading types

Listing is also a useful brainstorming technique to use when you are

preparing to write an essay.

■ Give your list a title that will evoke events, impressions and ideas.
■ List words and phrases as quickly as possible.

This enables you to get ideas down without worrying about organisation or
order. You can then look at what has emerged and see where you can develop
ideas further in your essay.
3.3.1.3 Circular or linear flow charts
A flow chart (see Figure 3.3) can indicate relations between different elements
in a text and show how an argument is developed. The ordering of the
different elements is therefore critical. Circular flow charts can trace the
argument back to the introduction.

Reading Note-taking Summarising Drafting

Essay
an
topic
essay
Figure 3.3 Flow chart of the essay-writing process

3.3.1.4 Tables

A table is useful to show a comparison between two or more ideas. It is then

easier to focus on the similarities or differences between the items being
compared. A table can often be used as a tool to summarise or to focus the
reader’s attention on important information (see Figure 1.3 on page 5).

Many of these note-taking formats can also be applied in summary writing,

which is a form of note-taking.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

3.4 SUMMARIES

Although a heading can be referred to as the briefest form of summary, the

term usually refers to a prose reduction of an original text. It should be in
You attended a two-day workshop on Blogging Your Business giving practical tips on how to
maximise the potential of social media. Your boss now wants a summary of what you have
learnt and how blogging can benefit business. She also wants your personal
recommendation about the workshop offered. You now have a focus for your summary and
can select the relevant information.
your own words, in complete sentences, and, as a general rule, one-third of
the length of the original.

Summarising can require straightforward reduction, or it can involve

selecting information with a particular audience and purpose in mind.

Consider the following example.

Before presenting your summary to your audience, consult Chapter 5.

In any summary-writing, the student would need to use the strategies
mentioned earlier in section 3.2, especially those listed under section 3.2.3
(study-reading).
Use a pencil to work directly on the text to be summarised in order to
underline keywords or ideas and delete unnecessary phrases.

3.4.1 Strategies for summarising

■ Read the passage thoroughly to understand the message.
■ Check the requirements of the summary.

❏ Is it for another audience with specific needs?

❏ Is it for a lecturer who wants a more concise message?
❏ Is it for personal study?

■ Identify keywords and topic sentences.

■ Write the main points in point form in your own words.
■ Read the original again and check that all the main points have been
included.
■ Choose the most appropriate format for your final version.

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 Chapter 3 Reading and Note-taking

3.4.2 Formats or types of summaries

Choose a format from the list below, according to the purpose and
requirements of the summary:
■ heading – can be as short as one word or a phrase
■ point form – content words; articles and prepositions are omitted; in a
numbered or bulleted order
■ prose – full sentences in a paragraph form, sometimes for a secondary
audience
■ abstract – prose condensation of academic writing, about 50
words ■ all forms of note-taking mentioned previously.

Although summarising may seem a burden initially, it is a useful skill to

reveal the extent or depth of a reader’s understanding. Done regularly,
summarising can play a crucial role in the successful outcome of each
student’s studies.

SUMMARY

Note-taking occurs in lectures and in personal reading and study. The

format of the notes should correspond with the material and the purpose
in reading. Summary-writing can take a variety of forms, depending on
the audience and purpose. Both skills are indispensable for study in
higher education. Reading, note-taking and summary-writing also form
building blocks for research and academic writing.
For further information about reading and note-taking skills, consult the
following webpages:
http://www.yorku.ca/tutorial/prewriting/readings.html (Note: focuses on
critical reading for academic purposes) http://www.studygs.net/crtread.htm
(Note: contains a useful template for summarising articles)
http://www.uefap.com/reading/readfram.htm (Note: as well as reading skills,
this contains useful exercises on summarising and note-taking) http://www-
public.jcu.edu.au/learningskills/resources/lsonline/learning/effective/
index.htm (Note: an interactive website with some speed-reading guidelines)
http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/reading.html (General
guidelines on strategies to improve reading and links to improve note-taking)
http://www.yorku.ca/tutorial/prewriting/organizing.html (Note: links note-
taking with listening in an academic context)

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Which is the fastest type of reading?

2 Which type of reading would you use:
a to choose a novel for a holiday?
b to find a name in the telephone directory?
3 In groups, discuss the merits of reading quickly versus reading
accurately.
4 What tool can be used to respond on .pdf documents?
5 Which form of note-taking a allows for making connections between
points?
b can illustrate comparisons effectively?
6 Supply the correct term for each of the following:
a A sentence that contains the main idea.
b What you can ask yourself while reading to monitor your
comprehension c An example of a linking word or connector.

APPLICATION

1 Refer to Chapter 1, Communication Theory, pages 1–28.

1.1 Scan to find how many communication barriers there are.
1.2 List four items you would note if you wanted to skim-read the
chapter.
1.3 Study section 1.5.1 Perceptual barriers (page 11). Summarise this in
the form of a mind map with ‘perception’ in the middle and five
branches radiating out with notes added.
2 The text entitled ‘Writing a Good Business Blog’ is your information
source for the questions set below. The text has been printed at the end
of the questions.
2.1 Scan the text for the following: a the number of reasons for posting
often b the author of the article.
2.2 Skim the text to find:
a the biggest strength of blogs
b why blogs are organised in reverse chronological order c two
reasons why you should post regular blogs.
2.3 Refer to the first two paragraphs and explain how a blog is different
to a webpage.

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 Chapter 3 Reading and Note-taking

2.4 Refer to the section entitled Writing and explain the challenge
involved in writing an effective blog.
2.5 Refer to the sections entitled Writing and Posting new material often.
Which aspects, discussed in Writing, are evident in Posting new
material often?
2.6 Refer to the section entitled Gathering feedback through dialogue.
a What are the limitations of the traditional methods of getting
customer feedback? b What two advantages do blogs offer as a
means of getting customer feedback?
2.7 Discuss, by referring to details in the text, whether the writer is
objective about business blogs.
2.8 Discuss some possible shortcomings of using blogs as a source of
customer feedback.
2.9 From your understanding of the text, suggest a synonym for a
dialogue (Writing section) b levity (Writing section)
c quest (Posting religiously has its benefits section)
d vein (last paragraph).

Writing a Good Business Blog

By Susannah Gardner

Early blogs focused on technology and the ubiquitous ‘this-is-my-life’ commentary; an

intermediate wave of blogs focused on news and politics; more recently, the hottest blogs are
business blogs. Why do businesses want to participate in a medium that is commonly perceived
to be the stomping ground of narcissists, egomaniacs, and children?

Your company may already have a website. You may even have some great mechanisms in place
for sharing company news or handling customer support. What makes what you're already doing
different from a blog? Three words: writing, updating, and dialogue.

Writing
The biggest strength of blogs is in establishing dialogue with readers. For that dialogue to be
successful, you need a blogger whose style, personality, and knowledge meet the needs of the
audience.

Keep the writing in your blog short, to the point, and useful. You don‘t need to finely craft every
word; in fact, levity and a casual, friendly style can serve you well.

Blog writing is all about openness, honesty, and information. Blog writing isn't formal, so keep the
tone conversational and personal. A blog is not the place for business jargon or marketing
propaganda.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Posting new material often

Most blogs are organised reverse-chronologically for a reason — it‘s so you can‘t miss the latest
post. The blogging format lives and dies on current information.

Current doesn‘t mean every couple of weeks. Current means posting often, even multiple times
daily if you can swing it. Many bloggers post several times a day; most post at least a few times a
week.

Posting religiously has its benefits as well:

■ Your readers return more often, because they know they‘re likely to find new information.
■ Your blog is more likely to show up more frequently in search engine results lists as well.
Quantity is definitely your friend in this medium.
Don‘t let your quality slip in your quest to post regularly. You may drive readers away.

Continue ➝
Gathering feedback through dialogue
Every company can benefit from knowing what its customers want, what they like about its
products and services, and what they don‘t like. Getting that feedback can be a nightmare,
though. Focus groups are costly and time consuming, and can be conducted only in areas
where you can physically locate a group of appropriate people. Surveys are also time intensive,
nothing to blink at cost-wise, and are hard to get people to return to.

Blogs can help you gather feedback from your customers more cheaply and faster than almost
any other technique. By tracking the feedback you get on your own blog and reading what is
said about you on other blogs, you always have a current picture of just how your company is
doing in the public‘s perception.

A blog can also gather responses over time and provide a way to see changes in attitude and
perception. If you are doing things right with your blog, your customers will jump at the chance
to tell you what they like and what they hate about your company, products, and services.
These people know what they are talking about; they may even know individual products
better than you do.

So why not use your blog to tap into this rich vein of knowledge? Your organization can benefit
at almost every level from knowing whether it's giving customers what they want. A blog is a
nonthreatening, nonintrusive, and interactive way to get that information from your
customers. Even better, they‘ll appreciate the opportunity to give it to you!

Source: Gardner, S. 2013. Writing a good business blog. [Online]. Available from: http://www.
dummies.com/how-to/content/writing-a-good-business-blog.html [Accessed 10 May 2013].

64
 Chapter 4

Listening

OBJECTIVES

Effective listening is possibly the most important communication skill.

This is because good listening skills are needed in order to function
effectively both socially and in the workplace. Yet there is a tremendous
lack of skill and training in this area. Accusations such as ‘I’m talking to
you; why are you not listening?’ are frequently made because people
become upset or discouraged if we do not listen to them.

One of the challenges to effective listening is the difference between

speech speed, hearing speed and comprehension speed. People can listen
three to four times faster than the average person can speak. Listeners’
minds therefore have time to wander and think of something else, like
the afternoon’s soccer practice. Poor listening is the result.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ understand the important role listening plays in the communication

process
■ distinguish between hearing and listening
■ understand the processes involved in listening
■ understand the different listening techniques and when to use them
■ apply different listening
strategies ■ control the listening
situation.

4.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING

Most people were never taught to listen. This is evident in research, which
shows that people listen at only about 25 per cent of their potential (Bone,
1988: 5). People are not trained in effective listening skills because it is
assumed that as listening is natural, it does not need to be learnt.
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Effective listening is an invaluable skill, which can be learnt and improved.

As most of a student’s time is taken up by listening to lectures, instructions,
discussions and presentations, good listening is important for taking notes
and remembering. Workers are involved in many activities that require
listening, such as meetings, decision-making and problem-solving. Good
listeners are productive workers who are valued by organisations, because
they are good at problem-solving and remembering, and have good
interpersonal skills.

Most of our time is spent listening. Think of a normal day and how your
communicative time is spent. You will find that many hours are spent
listening to people around you and on television and radio. A study of 680
undergraduate students reported by Janusik and Wolvin (2009) shows that
despite the increasing use of technology and decreasing face-to-face
interaction, undergraduate students spend on average more time listening
than engaging in any other activity (see Figure 4.1).

Activity %
Writing 9
Reading 8
Speaking 20
Listening 24
Television 8
Radio 2
CDs/tapes 4
Telephone 7
Email 5
Internet 13
Figure 4.1 Student communicative activities

4.2 THE HEARING–LISTENING DISTINCTION

Hearing and listening are not the same and should not be confused.

The ability to hear, which most people were born with, is only one part of the
listening process. Hearing is passive, and entails sound waves stimulating
the sensory receptors of the ear.

Listening, on the other hand, is an active process, which requires a purposeful

and systematic response to messages.

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 Chapter 4 Listening

4.3 THE STAGES OF THE LISTENING PROCESS

From Message Source to Listener

External interference

Internal interference

Hearing
(Sound waves )

Attention
(Selective attending to sounds )

Understanding
(Interpreting & evaluating meaning )

Remembering
(Storage of meaning )

Responding
(Feedback to source )

Figure 4.2 The five stages of the listening process

The sender has a message that is communicated to the receiver – the listener.
This can be affected by interference, either external or internal.

■ External interference. This refers to noise or distractions external to the

listener that may detract from the message. Examples of external
interference are physical barriers such as a stuffy lecture hall, a
lawnmower being used outside, a strong wind or other people speaking.
■ Internal interference . This refers to physiological or psychological barriers
that may detract from the message. Examples of internal interference are
anxiety about an assignment that is due soon, depression about a failed
test, or a lack of knowledge of the subject matter (see section 1.5, page 10
for a discussion of the barriers that might affect listening).

There are five stages in the actual listening process:

■ hearing

■ attention

■ understanding
■ remembering
■ responding.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

4.3.1 Hearing (stage one)

The first stage of the listening process occurs when sound waves are received.
At this point, there is no conscious perception of what is being heard.

4.3.2 Attention (stage two)

In the second stage the listener begins to focus on what is being said and how
it is said. The brain selects only a few stimuli out of the mass of stimuli
presented.

4.3.3 Understanding (stage three)

In the third stage the message content is analysed and interpreted so that
understanding can take place. The message meaning is analysed and the
verbal and non-verbal codes are interpreted. However, the meaning attached
to the message differs from one listener to the next, because each listener is
unique and perceives and understands differently.

Understanding is the essence of active listening. It determines the response

the listener will make.

4.3.4 Remembering (stage four)

The fourth stage occurs when the message is stored for later recall. This is a
student’s ultimate goal.

4.3.5 Responding (stage five)

The final stage occurs when the listener responds to the speaker. This
response shows the listener’s understanding of, and feelings about, the
message. The speaker sees whether the message was understood as intended,
or whether it should be restated or clarified.

SUMMARY

Listening is an important yet neglected communication skill. Like the

other communication skills, listening can be learnt and improved.
Listening is an active mental process that can be distinguished from
hearing, the passive reception of sound. The listening process consists of
five stages: hearing, attention, understanding, remembering and
responding.

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 Chapter 4 Listening

4.4 DELIBERATE AND EMPATHIC LISTENING

Effective listeners are aware of and use two main listening types – deliberate
and empathic listening. Deliberate listening focuses on information or facts.
Empathic listening focuses on feelings or emotions. Often, listeners use a
combination of both types of listening.

4.4.1 Deliberate listening

Deliberate listening involves an active process where you seek to understand
and analyse information. You would, for example, listen deliberately in a
lecture or meeting, or when receiving instructions.

You can become a more effective deliberate listener if you employ the
following strategies.

4.4.1.1 Mental listening strategies

■ Recall what you know about the topic or items to be discussed before a
lecture or talk is to commence. It is a good idea to read material needed
for the lecture/ talk in advance. Perhaps your lecturer provides a content
outline that you can download and read before the lecture.
■ Use the time-lag between speech and comprehension speed to analyse what
the speaker is saying. (People think four times faster than anyone can
speak.) This analysis can be done if you: v listen for the main ideas v focus
only on important facts v separate fact from opinion v become aware of
any biases of the speaker and your feelings about these.
■ Make mental summaries to ensure that you are following the thread of the
lecture or discussion.
■ Ask yourself questions such as ‘What is the main point?’ or ‘What are the
objectives of this lecture?’ to anticipate or predict what the speaker is
leading up to.
■ Remain objective and open-minded: v Focus on

what the speaker is saying. v Do not allow

your emotions to become involved.

v Avoid jumping to conclusions.

■ Use contextual clues to guess the meaning of unknown words.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

4.4.1.2 Active listening strategies

■ Take notes, either written or electronic. You should take notes not only to
help you recall later, but also to focus your attention on the lecture, talk
or meeting.
■ Ask questions to: v check your
understanding of the main ideas
v obtain clarification v challenge a point
the speaker has made v gain a deeper
understanding of the issues.
■ Focus on what is being said, not the way it is being said. Avoid focusing on
the particular mannerisms or the accent of the speaker.

4.4.1.3 Strategies for connecting with the speaker

■ Maintain eye contact with the speaker, or, if this is culturally
inappropriate, choose another means to indicate attention. In this way, you
will show your interest and create a positive climate.
■ Avoid talking, looking away or fidgeting, because this distracts and
undermines the speaker.

4.4.2 Empathic listening

Empathic listening involves listening in order to understand the feelings of
the speaker. The word empathic has as its root the word empathy, which
means to place yourself in another person’s shoes or to see the world as that
person sees it. This kind of listening is non-judgemental and does not require
an interpretation of the message. The listener seeks to understand another
person’s situation as he or she sees it. Empathic listening is used, for example,
to listen to a friend speak about a problem or a co-worker speak about stress.

Although empathic listening is usually associated with feelings of hurt or

distress, listeners are also called upon to empathise with feelings of joy and
happiness. You can improve your empathic listening if you employ the
following strategies:

■ Use the non-verbal codes appropriate to your cultural background. These

can affect what and how much a speaker says. For example, you might:
v nod or shake your head where appropriate v maintain eye contact to
show interest v let your facial expression complement the feelings

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 Chapter 4 Listening

conveyed, such as a sympathetic expression for a story about a major

disappointment
v maintain a close personal distance v lean towards the person to signal
your interest v use a gesture, such as a touch on the elbow or shoulder,
when appropriate.

■ Do not interrupt the speaker mid-sentence. Responses can take the form of
‘Go on’ or ‘I see’.
■ Do not allow yourself to be distracted. This suggests the message is not of
interest or is unimportant.
■ Reflect the hurt person’s feelings back at him or her. You could do this by
saying ‘As I understand it, you are feeling …’. Seeing these feelings
reflected in you helps the speaker to think about them and reduce them.
■ Do not look at the person’s situation from your frame of reference. Try not
to seek parallels between your life and the person’s life.
■ Do not give advice unless asked to do so.

■ Paraphrase what the person has said to find out whether your
interpretation is accurate: ‘Do you mean that …?’.
■ Summarise the key ideas of the discussion as you understand them.

■ Ask questions if you need clarification.

■ Do not analyse or evaluate the message.

4.5 CONTROLLING THE LISTENING SITUATION

Active listeners do not take a back seat and give up control of the situation. If
a friend or colleague, for example, telephones for your help on a work problem
and you have an important deadline to meet, say something like: ‘I won’t be
able to listen now because I have a deadline to meet, but phone me back at
12:00 and I’ll be able to help you then.’

Stop a long-winded speaker at an appropriate point and briefly summarise

what he or she has said. Then, to encourage the speaker to move on to the
next point, ask a question such as ‘What happened next?’ By doing this, you
show the speaker that you have listened. The speaker then feels that his or
her ideas or feelings are valued.

4.6 CHECKLIST FOR LISTENING

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

To check that you are listening effectively, ask yourself these questions:

O Am I focusing on what is being said?

O Am I employing deliberate or empathic listening strategies, or both?
O Am I using the appropriate strategies needed?
O Am I controlling the listening situation?

SUMMARY

Interpersonal communication becomes effective and rewarding if you are

aware of the different types of listening – deliberate and empathic.
Deliberate listening is concerned with content, while empathic listening
is concerned with feelings. A variety of techniques can be used in both
types of listening. In deliberate listening the focus is on determining
main ideas. Empathic listening focuses on reflection of the speaker’s
feelings. The listener would also control the listening situation.

For more information about listening skills, consult the following webpages:

http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/ActiveListening.htm (Note: an
overview of active listening with links to other communication issues such as
presentations, meetings and negotiations)
http://www.studygs.net/listening.htm (Note: an interactive website with an
easy-to-read layout)
http://changingminds.org/techniques/listening/types_listening.htm (Note:
types of listening are discussed, with a glossary explaining terms used)
http://home.snu.edu/~HCULBERT/listen.htm (Note: tips to become a more
effective listener in lectures) http://www.listen.org/IJL_TF (International
Journal of Listening. Note: findings on the latest studies on listening are
given. You have to subscribe to the journal to access the articles.) For
listening practice, go to:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/listening/ (Note: plenty of listening

exercises at different levels, but to play this audio you need ‘player’ software.
You also need to sign up and obtain a BBC ID.)

http://www.esl-lab.com/index.htm (Note: this multimedia site is designed to

help English learners improve their listening comprehension through a
variety of audio and video everyday conversations and listening for academic
purposes exercises. You need to install ‘player’ software.)

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 Chapter 4 Listening

http://www.esolcourses.com/content/topics/famouspeople/nelson-
mandela/nelsonmandela-video-quiz.html (Note: this site has a listening
exercise on Nelson Mandela)
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Is hearing the same as listening? Explain your answer briefly.

2 What are the five stages of listening?
3 At which stage does ‘decoding’ occur?
4 At which stage does ‘feedback’ occur?
5 Explain the difference between empathic and deliberate listening.
6 Name two techniques that you would employ in deliberate listening.
7 Name two non-verbal indications of effective empathic listening.
8 Name two barriers that may prevent you from listening effectively.

APPLICATION

1 What types of listening would you use in each of the following situations?
Give a reason for your answer in each situation:
1.1 A friend tells you of a taxi accident that she was involved in over the
weekend.
1.2 A member of your staff requests a week’s leave, because his child is
having an operation.
1.3 You are listening to a speaker at an HIV/Aids awareness programme.
1.4 Your friend tells you that he has passed all his courses. 2 Answer
True or False:
2.1 Empathic listening involves studying what is being said.
2.2 A listener should allow a communicator to speak for as long as he or
she likes.
2.3 We should paraphrase the speaker’s difficult statement.
2.4 Empathic listening is difficult because we often do not really want to
see things from the point of view of another.
3 Read the case study below and then give Nosipho two strategies she can
use to improve her listening.
Nosipho Puti is a new student at Worldwide University. She has found that in some lectures
she begins by listening well, but after a while her mind wanders. Then she realises that she

73
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

has missed chunks of information. In another subject, she thought that she had covered all
the work in a different course and assumed that the content would be the same. In a test
she was shocked to discover that the questions focused on different content altogether.

4 Discuss two listening strategies you would use in the following situations:
4.1 A classmate is finding it difficult to make friends at your institution.
He talks to you about the loneliness he is experiencing.
4.2 You are attending an SRC meeting and the main item on the agenda
is financial aid for students.
5 You tell a friend about a problem you are experiencing. While you are
talking she is busy texting on her cellphone.
5.1 Discuss how you feel about your friend’s listening.
5.2 Discuss how technology is affecting our listening ability.
6 Work with a partner. Choose a subject about which you both have strong
feelings – such as corruption, crime, equal rights for men and women,
sustainable energy sources or any other suitable topic. The first speaker
begins the discussion and talks for about one minute. The second speaker
may present his or her ideas only after first restating the ideas of the first
speaker to his or her satisfaction. This means that you are trying to
understand the points made by the speaker from his or her point of view.
7 Choose three different occasions in the last 24 hours when you listened,
for example, to a parent, a friend and your supervisor at your part-time
job. Then draw a mind map to illustrate the type(s) of listening and the
particular strategies you used to listen effectively in each situation.

74
 Chapter 5

Audience and Purpose

OBJECTIVES

Effective communicators understand that messages should be

audiencecentred. They know, also, that without a clearly defined
communicative purpose, their messages might lack focus. Planning is
therefore integral to successful communication.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ adapt messages to suit a variety of audiences

■ identify a writer’s intended audience
■ determine your purpose before composing a message
■ identify a writer’s intended purpose
■ distinguish between objective and subjective language.

5.1 AUDIENCE

The term audience refers to the receiver(s) of a message. To ensure that your
message reaches and is understood by your intended audience, you need to
understand your audience and their needs. You will then be able to tailor your
message to meet those needs.

Begin by asking yourself ‘Who is my audience?’ In other words, what are the
relevant characteristics of the audience? To answer this question, consider
the factors listed below. These factors will not all apply to all audiences.
Choose those that apply to your particular audience and situation and use
them to help you to describe your audience. The list is not exhaustive; perhaps
you will think of other factors that apply in your communication situation.

5.1.1 Level of knowledge of the topic

Some audiences might know very little about your topic, whereas others might
be experts. The latter might know even more than you do.
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

If your audience has a low level of knowledge of your topic, adapt your
message by defining all terms and providing full explanations. It would also
be helpful to use examples that are familiar to your audience in order to
illustrate difficult concepts.
5.1.2 Level of education
Are the members of your audience graduates or do they, for example, have a
Grade 7 certificate only?

Use shorter sentences and simple words for less educated audiences.

5.1.3 Status
The status of your audience influences your message. Consider whether your
audience has the power to make a decision, based on your message. Consider,
also, the audience’s status in the community.

Another way of looking at status is to ask what the audience’s relationship

with you is.

Use a more formal style for those with whom you have a formal relationship.

5.1.4 Social variables

Social variables can profoundly influence the way you design and structure
your message. Social variables to consider are:

■ age
■ gender
■ nationality/culture
■ mother tongue
■ social/political/religious beliefs.

A message would have to be composed very differently and different media

would be used, for example, for techno-savvy 18–24-year-olds as opposed to
the over-55s.

5.1.5 Size
How many people is your message going to reach?

Speaking to an audience of 200 as opposed to a small group of ten people has

implications for the way you formulate your message. A speaker has to plan
how to make 200 people feel as though each is being addressed personally.

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 Chapter 5 Audience and Purpose

This is simple in a group of ten, but other problems arise, such as how to keep
all ten involved in the presentation.

Writing to one person, compared with sending an email message to many

people, will affect the style of writing chosen. Style is likely to be formal in a
message sent to a large number of people, many of whom are not known to
the writer.

What thinking about these factors shows is that it is important to ‘put yourself
Writing task: Writing a booklet that gives information on how to apply for a first-year
study bursary Audience analysis:

Who: Grade 12 students, aged approximately 17–20, although some might be mature
students and therefore older. The audience is from a variety of cultural groups, and both
■
urbanWho
and rural
is mybackgrounds
audience? are represented. Some are first-language speakers of English,
■
but many
Whatspeak
doesEnglish as an additional
my audience language.
already know about the subject?
■ What does my audience need to know about the subject?
Already know: The students probably know that various study bursaries are available.
■ What will interest or appeal to my audience?
They will have heard about this at school, or from friends or family.
■ What might provoke a negative reaction in my audience?
■ How can I present the information in a way that will assist my audience to
understand it? Should I, for example, divide my message into sections, and should I
use pictures?
■ What should the audience do with the information? This is a ‘check-up’ question
that should direct you to anything that might have been overlooked in your answers
to the previous questions. It also directs you to the next issue to be considered –
your communicative purpose, which is discussed in section 5.2 , below.

in the shoes of the receiver’ – to be sensitive to the way your audience will
perceive and respond to your message, in terms of their own needs. It is also
helpful to consult your knowledge about barriers (see section 1.5 on page 10
ff.). By doing so, you can identify and eliminate potential problems.

Once you have drawn up a profile of your audience, you will have a good idea
of its characteristics. Now ask yourself further questions relevant to your
audience and subject matter to help you to tailor your message to the needs
of your audience. Here is a sample list of audience analysis questions.

Carrying out an audience analysis is the first step in message planning. For
short messages, the audience analysis might consist of a few points jotted on

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

a notepad, whereas for more complex messages, a detailed analysis might be

produced, as in the example below.

Need to know: The students need to know how to find out what bursaries are available.
They also need to know how to complete an application form so that it will create a
favourable impression. Most importantly, they will need some guidance about writing the
essay that is usually a requirement of the application. Also needed is information about
what to expect – and what to do – in an interview, should they be asked to attend one.

Interest or appeal: To enable students to relate to the information in the booklet, it would
be helpful to create an imaginary student to use as an example. Readers could then follow
the student’s progress through the various stages of applying for a bursary.

Negatives: Students might react negatively because of the large volume of information
offered.

Presentation: Present the material in sections, using numbering or bullets, and boxed
examples where appropriate. The text could also be broken up by means of pictures,
illustrating some of the points made. Language should be clear and easy to read, because
many readers may not speak English as their mother tongue.
Continue ➝
For more information about audience, refer to the following webpages:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_ameraudience.html (Note:
useful advice, with examples, on how to cater for specific audiences)
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/audmod/ (Note: guidelines for
considering the audience in academic and non-academic writing. Purpose (see
below) is also considered).

5.2 PURPOSE

Having a clearly defined purpose – the result that you want from your
message – ensures that your message has a clear focus and that you do not
wander off the point.

Business writers have a range of purposes in mind when they communicate.

Examples might be a wish to provide or ask for information, or to advise,
warn, or motivate the audience regarding a particular course of action. These
various purposes may be loosely grouped as follows:

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 Chapter 5 Audience and Purpose

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■ To give information – for example, that a seminar on business
communication skills is to be held on 2 February 20__.
■ To request information – for example, about the seminar on business
communication skills to be held on 2 February 20__.
■ To persuade – for example, that your XYZ product can fulfil customers’
needs. ■ To promote goodwill – for example, by creating a positive image of
yourself and your organisation.

Usually, writers have a combination of purposes in communicating, with one

primary or main purpose and one or more secondary purposes. In the example
below, the purpose is to provide information in a friendly and approachable
way, thereby creating goodwill between sender – the bank – and audience –
potential clients. The primary purpose might then be achieved – the audience
will be persuaded to make use of the bank’s services.

For more information about purpose, refer to the following webpages:

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/purpose/ (Note: guidelines for
considering purpose and audience)
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/548/1/ (Note: begins with a
discussion of purpose and then moves on to audience and other elements
necessary to effective message formulation. Useful links to related topics are
included.)

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

The following message is intended for an audience whose members want

precise The Alltop Plexus III Smartphone information about the product.■
Operating system: Wiggle Dual 4.0
■ 5 megapixel camera
■ 10.0 cm screen
■ Price: R2 499,00

5.2.1 Objective and subjective language

Your purpose in communicating has an impact on the language you choose for
your message. If your purpose is mainly to give or ask for information, use
objective (factual) language, taking into account what your audience needs to
know. (See also the section on clarity specifics in section 7.2.1, page 104.)

The following message is intended for an audience whose members want

precise information about the product:
If your purpose is mainly persuasive, you might use subjective (emotive)
language ( the language of opinion) in addition to objective language.
The message below is intended to persuade the audience that the device is
superior to competing devices. Further information – such as the offer of ‘free
apps’ and details about picture resolution and available colours, which
audiences might find persuasive – is provided. In addition, subjective

The Alltop Plexus III Smartphone – organic design with big-screen entertainment

O Wiggle Dual 4.0 operating system – the very latest

O 5 megapixel camera for superb picture resolution
O Large, bright 10.0 cm screen display
O A choice of 10 FREE apps
O Available in white, silver, black or red
O Only R2 499,00
language such as ‘latest’ and ‘superb’ is used.

However, facts are very powerful persuaders. Subjective language, therefore,

should be used sparingly in business messages, other than in advertising or
promotional messages.

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 Chapter 5 Audience and Purpose

SUMMARY

Successful communication is planned, starting with the process of

audience and purpose analysis. The writer/speaker must draw up an
audience profile and then tailor the message to suit that particular
audience. The message must also have a clearly defined purpose, to
ensure a clear focus. The purpose of the message influences the choice of
either objective or subjective language, although most business messages
contain mainly objective language.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Why is it important to analyse your audience before you compose your

message?
2 List the questions you would answer when you analyse your audience.
3 What do you consider to be the most important question a communicator
could ask when preparing an audience analysis? Give a reason for your
answer.
4 What are the three main purposes in business communication?
5 Explain the difference between subjective and objective language.

APPLICATION

1 You are in the market for a smartphone or tablet (or any other device that
interests you). Using the list of audience analysis questions on page 74,
describe yourself as the audience for a message about the device you are
interested in buying. Prepare your analysis in a list format, or consider
using a mind map or spider diagram (see section 3.3.1.1 on page 54).
2 In groups of three, share experiences of when your communicative efforts
were unsuccessful – in other words, when you did not get the result that
you wanted. Discuss how an understanding of audience and purpose could
have helped you to convey your message more effectively, and therefore
successfully.
3 You work in the Human Resources Department of Overalls for Africa, a
manufacturer of industrial clothing. To promote healthy living among

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employees, you plan to distribute a pamphlet on the benefits of exercise.

The following employees will receive the pamphlet:
❏ 110 skilled and semi-skilled factory workers, aged from 18 to 65 years.
Most have a Grade 10 certificate
❏ 10 administrative/office staff aged 25 to 35 years, six male and four
female. They all have a Grade 12 certificate and a one-year diploma
❏ Five management staff, three female and two male, all in their late
forties/early fifties. All are graduates.
3.1 Using the audience analysis questions on page 74, draft a detailed
audience analysis for each of the three audiences.
3.2 Based on your analyses in 3.1, is your plan to distribute the same
pamphlet to all employees likely to result in effective communication
of the message about exercise? Give reasons for your answer.
4 One of your responsibilities in the Human Resources Department of
Overalls for Africa is training. Training in listening skills is to be offered
for the following reasons:
❏ Poor listening has been identified as a reason for the above-average rate
of accidents on the factory floor and for unnecessary breakage of
equipment.
❏ Poor listening by management has been identified as a factor
contributing to low morale on the factory floor. Employees have
reported that they feel that their concerns are not given attention.
As a result, they do not feel valued.
4.1 In groups, prepare the detailed audience and purpose analysis you
would draft before preparing the messages (a) and (b) below. Your
purpose analysis should include an identification and discussion of
the primary purpose and any other secondary purposes of each
message:
a a notice about after-hours listening skills training sessions for
factory workers. The notice will be placed on the factory
noticeboards
b an email to the managers about an after-hours listening skills
workshop.
4.2 Discuss whether the time and effort spent on the audience and
purpose analyses in 4.1 have resulted in any insights that you might
have overlooked if you had not undertaken these activities.

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4.3 Still in your role in the Human Resources Department of Overalls for
Africa, prepare the audience and purpose analysis for an
advertisement to be placed in the national newspapers, inviting
applications for the position of personal assistant to the chief
executive officer. 5 Examine the following advertisement:

Arts And Culture Week

Calling all Grade 11 and 12 students …
Do you want to be a dancer, or is music your bag?
Are you the next George Pemba or do you see yourself on the stage?
There’s life beyond technology, so come see for yourself at the Fantasia Province Arts and
Culture Week, 8 –12 July 20__ .

Attend performances in dance, music and theatre Watch

artists create paintings and sculptures

Attend workshops on painting, singing and dance

Take part in street theatre Interested?

Contact Vuyo on 041 504 3116 or 083 987 4506 for more information.
A joint initiative of the Fantasia Department of Arts and Culture and the Fantasia
Department of Education.
5.1 Draw up the audience analysis that was probably prepared before
this message was written.
5.2 Do you notice any gaps in the information in the message?
5.3 Which audience analysis question was not adequately considered?
5.4 What is (are) the purpose(s) of the advertisement?
6 Work in groups of four or five students.
6.1 Prepare advertisements for a new soft drink. (You will need sheets of
flipchart paper and coloured pens or crayons for this.) The lecturer
allocates a target audience to each group. These could be children
aged 8 –12, teenagers, mothers of young children and health/fitness
enthusiasts. When the advertisements are complete, the class should
guess the target audience for each advertisement.
6.2 Discuss the effect of having different target audiences on the way the
product was advertised. Consider aspects such as choice of content,
use of colour, use of pictures and type of language used.

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7 Draw two columns and label the left-hand one objective language and the
right-hand one subjective language.
7.1 Working very quickly and without thinking too much, place each of
the following phrases in the appropriate column, depending on
whether it is objective or subjective. a designer clothing b a heavy
load c a crowded classroom d a mass of 80 kg e sunny skies f a three-
hour exam g a long exam paper h bad skin i pimply skin j 1 000
people k a fascinating presentation l techno-savvy students.
7.2 Compare your answers with a partner. Have you changed your mind
about any of your answers? Is the difference between objective and
subjective language always straightforward? What are the
implications for communication?
8 In groups, discuss the following student issue:
Should tests be replaced with assignments? (Or any other issue the class
would like to discuss.)

One student acts as scribe and records the views of the group. When the
discussion is complete, group members discuss which ideas are objective
and which are subjective. On the basis of this discussion, the group
retains/adapts/ discards points made.
When the groups are satisfied with their arguments, a spokesperson for each
group presents the group view to the class.

The class then decides which group presented the most convincing argument,
and why. Consider how the use of objective or subjective language influenced
the effectiveness of the messages.

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Oral Communication

OBJECTIVES

Oral presentations play an important part in the working lives of many

people. As a student you may be called on to present a research project.
In the working world you may have to give a report-back on a workshop
or talk you attended or present a new idea, design or product to others.
Yet speaking in public rates among the greatest fears many people have.

Public speaking was the most commonly selected fear among 62 per cent
of college students (Dwyer & Davidson, 2012). People suffer a paralysing
anxiety that prevents them from presenting their message effectively. As
a result, some people avoid public speaking, which negatively affects
their progress, either academically or in the workplace. Others join
debating societies, toastmasters’ clubs or drama classes in an effort to
improve their public speaking and reduce their anxiety. Fortunately,
speaking in public is not a gift, but a skill that can be learnt.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ understand the value of oral communication

■ understand the importance of planning your presentations

■ improve the delivery of your presentations and your ability to answer

questions
■ understand how to prepare for a paired
presentation ■ assess your own and others’
presentations.

6.1 THE PLANNING STAGE

An oral presentation must be planned if it is to succeed. Aspects to be

considered are:

■ analysing the audience

Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ determining the purpose

■ preparing the topic

■ organising the presentation

■ preparing visual aids and the
venue ■ rehearsing the
presentation.

Imagine that you have to make an oral presentation to your Communication

class. The topic you have chosen is self-esteem.

6.1.1 Analysing the audience

Begin by gathering information about your audience – your peers – so that
your message can be tailored to their needs. Your class might consist of
students of different ages, genders, cultures and experiences. Think about
how these different profiles might affect their understanding and enjoyment
of your presentation.

Secondly, think about whether your audience has any background knowledge
of the subject. What do they need to know? If you focus on what the audience
needs to know, you will not wander off the topic. (See section 5.1, page 72 for
a detailed discussion of audience.)

6.1.2 Determining the purpose

Next, consider your purpose. First, you might want to tell your audience about
how self-esteem and self-concept are linked. Next, you might like to inform
them about how self-esteem develops. You might also like to inform them
about strategies to use to improve self-esteem. These strategies must be
presented in clear steps so that your audience can remember them. (See
section 5.2, page 75 for a detailed discussion of purpose.)

6.1.3 Preparing the topic

Preparing the topic involves researching and gathering the information
needed for your presentation. Select your resources appropriately,
remembering that your audience of students is likely to want a chatty, fun
presentation rather than an academic lecture.

■ Brainstorm ideas on self-esteem and select what is relevant. (See sections

3.3.1.1 and 3.3.1.2 on pages 54–55 for methods of noting down your ideas.
)

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■ Consult relevant textbooks, journals, search engines and newspapers (as

well as using your own ideas on the subject).
■ Record where you found your information.

■ Keep in mind the questions that members of the audience might want
answered.
■ Store the information you gather in a safe place (either in a computer file
or in a notebook) so that you are able to find it easily.
6.1.4 Organising the presentation
After you have gathered all the information, you need to structure it to ensure
that the ideas are logically presented.

6.1.4.1 The introduction

The introduction is your opportunity to attract your audience’s attention. To
do so, make sure that your introduction gives the audience a reason for
listening.

■ You can introduce your presentation in a variety of ways. Consider

beginning with:
In a recent survey, it was revealed that 70 per cent of the students at our institution have
poor self-esteem.

❏ a startling statement

❏ an appropriate anecdote (a brief story)

I remember being strongly influenced by …

How many of you wish that you had high self-esteem?

❏ a rhetorical question
I want each one of you to think of three words that you would use to describe yourself.

❏ an audience activity

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■ Refer to the audience and the occasion, which might be a conference on

My aim today is to ensure that each one of you appreciates the value and importance of
self-esteem.
adult basic education or a seminar conducted at work.
■ Give background information, if needed, and explain key terms that the
audience might not understand. Explain, for example, what is meant by self-
esteem. ■ Tell your audience what the objective of your presentation is.

Improved self-esteem will give you the confidence to go after that job you know you can
do.

■ Tell your audience how they can benefit from listening to your
presentation.
■ Tell your audience how long the presentation will take and also whether
they will be invited to ask questions.
■ Give the structure of your presentation so that the audience knows what
to expect.
First, I will show how self-concept – the way we see ourselves – and self-esteem – how we
feel about ourselves – are linked. Then I will focus on how self-esteem develops.
Finally, I will look at some easy-to-follow steps for improving self-esteem.

6.1.4.2 The body

The body of your presentation contains the major points of your talk, probably
only three or four main ideas in a five-minute student presentation.
Remember that it is better to give a few, well-supported ideas than an endless
list of details.

■ Support each main point with suitable evidence or details such as:

❏ factual information

❏ statistics

❏ brief or extended examples

❏ narratives that involve the audience in a story

❏ quotations

❏ comparisons – using a familiar concept to explain a more

complicated one.

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In your presentation on self-esteem, you could use the example of an imaginary student
called Harry, who has low self-esteem. His experiences could be used to make the concepts
discussed in your presentation concrete.
Supporting materials should be chosen carefully and developed so that

they are easily interpreted and understood.

■ Organise your main and supporting points by using one of the following
organisational patterns:
❏ order of importance – for example, from the least to the most important
factor influencing self-esteem
❏ chronological order – for example, a sequence of events in the order in
which they occurred
❏ cause and effect – for example, Harry’s poor self-esteem and its effect on
his life
❏ problem and solution – for example, Harry’s lack of self-esteem and

the process he follows to improve his self-confidence.

■ Ensure that points are linked by using markers such as in addition to,
furthermore, in contrast to and unlike.
The next strategy for improving self-esteem that I would like to discuss is…

6.1.4.3 The conclusion

The conclusion summarises the main points of your presentation.
■ Conclude by saying in conclusion or to sum up the main ideas.
■ Summarise the main points. This allows the audience to hear the main
points three times – in the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
■ In addition, consider:
❏ quoting a recognised source to add more credibility to your ideas
❏ leaving your audience with a direct challenge to do as you
suggest ❏ inviting your audience to visualise a future without
your proposal.

Only ideas mentioned in the body of your presentation should be referred to

in the conclusion. Adding new points confuses your audience.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Linking marker In conclusion, we’ve looked at how the self-concept and self-esteem are
linked. While the self-concept refers to the sort of
person you think you are, self-esteem refers to the way
you feel about that person.
Summary of main points Our self-esteem develops mainly during childhood, but continues
into adulthood. It’s shaped by many experiences, such
as how our successes and failures are treated by those
who are close to us. I hope the ten easy-to-follow steps
I’ve shown you will help you to improve your self-
esteem. Perhaps the two most significant of these steps
are, firstly, to identify and fulfil your needs and,
secondly, to decide what you
Challenge to act can and cannot control. Now I’d like to challenge you to follow these steps. In
Stephen Covey’s*
Appropriate quotation words: ‘We have the initiative and the responsibility provides inspiration to
make things happen.’

* Your visual aid will provide the book title, the date of publication and the
page reference for this quotation.
Writing the presentation out in full and memorising it will make your
presentation sound unnatural – the written word is very different from the
spoken one. Moreover, as soon as you use a word not in your text, you will be
thrown into confusion. Instead, use note cards, or PowerPoint handouts,
which will allow you to speak naturally and to maintain eye contact with the
audience at the same time.
6.1.4.4 Preparing note cards and PowerPoint handouts
Prepare your notes on a set of small cards. These cards should fit easily into
the palm of your hand and should preferably be made of stiff board.
■ Prepare one card for each main point of your presentation.
■ Write down a key phrase for the main point and for each of the supporting
points, in a logical order.
■ Prepare a card for the introduction and one for the conclusion.
■ Number your cards so that it is easy to keep them in the correct
order. ■ Use large lettering so that you can read each card at a glance.

If you are using PowerPoint, you have the option of using your slides as notes
and handouts.
■ Print out PowerPoint slides as handouts with one, two, three, four, six or
nine slides on a page. Hand them out to the audience so that they can follow
your presentation and make their own notes on the lined space on the
handout. They can also use the notes for future reference.
■ Use your PowerPoint printout to make notes for yourself.

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Here is a sample of a note card that you could use in your presentation on
self-esteem:
Self-esteem
1. Develops during childhood
2. Continues into adulthood
3. Shaped by many experiences
4. Treatment of successes and failures by others
6.1.5 Preparing visual aids
Using visual aids will make your presentation more interesting for the
audience. These should be prepared before the event. Take care that the
visual aids are appropriate and easy to see and read. If possible, visit the
venue before your presentation to set up the visual aids rather than relying
on someone else to do this for you.
Be careful not to use too many visual aids. This is a mistake often made by
inexperienced presenters, who overburden themselves and their audiences
with cluttered presentations. A visual aid is an aid and should support and
reinforce your presentation, not dominate it.

Examples of visual aids that can be used are:

■ flipcharts
■ overhead projector transparencies and visualisers
■ whiteboards or chalkboards
■ videos and DVDs
■ PowerPoint
presentations ■ Prezi
presentations

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■ interactive whiteboards.

To use these visual aids successfully, follow the guidelines given below.

6.1.5.1 Flipcharts
■ Position your flipchart where everyone can see it.
■ Stand to one side, rather than in front of it.
■ Make sure that you have good-quality pens. You do not want them to run
dry in the middle of your presentation.
■ Print in a straight line when writing on the flipchart, using large, neat
lettering. ■ Write up key points only. Too much information distracts the
audience.
■ Reveal the main points as you discuss them, if you have pre-written on the
flipchart.
6.1.5.2 Overhead projector transparencies and visualisers
As with flipcharts, transparencies should not be overloaded with information.
■ Write only headings and key points.
■ Write or type neatly on the transparency.
■ Letters and numbers should be sufficiently large to ensure easy reading.
■ Cover the transparency and reveal each point as it is discussed.
■ Use a laser light, if one is available, to point to the screen.
■ Face your audience while you discuss the points on the transparency.
■ Switch the projector off after you have discussed the information on your
transparency.
Transparencies are being replaced by visualisers or document cameras. These
are cameras or webcams mounted over an original page/object. The page is
then projected via a projector in real time. You can also write on a page and
your writing will be projected in real time.
■ Connect your visualiser to a data projector, whiteboard or television.
■ Zoom in to concentrate on a particular aspect, or cover the page and reveal
each point as it is discussed.

6.1.5.3 Whiteboards or chalkboards

■ Ensure that you have whiteboard markers or chalk.
■ Try to write in a straight line. (Tip: move your body along as you write.)

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6.1.5.4 Videos and DVDs

For videos:

■ Set the video up before the presentation, and make sure that you know how
to operate it.
■ Show short clips to support or illustrate your message.
■ Advance the tape to the required sequence before your
presentation. ■ Press play.

For DVDs:
■ Set up the DVD and player before the presentation.
■ Check your equipment to see if you can set up the video section you wish
to present in advance, because some laptops can do this.

6.1.5.5 PowerPoint presentations

■ Set the laptop up before the event.
■ Follow the same guidelines as for transparencies.

❏ Do not overload slides with information – no more than 11 lines per

slide.
❏ Use bulleted points.
❏ Place a full stop only after the last bulleted point.
❏ Reveal points one at a time.
❏ Use a pointer to point to the screen.
❏ Try not to be too gimmicky with transitions and animations.
❏ Print out a copy for making notes and in case of equipment failure.
❏ Make sure the font is large (a point size of 36 to 44 for title fonts and
26 to 32 for other text) – large enough to be seen and so that the
background does not distract the audience.
Here is an example of an effective slide.

The slide example below is not effective:

6.1.5.6 Prezi presentations
■ Sign up on Prezi.com if you prefer a less linear style of presentation.

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■ Follow the guide on Prezi.com on how to use this cloud-based presentation

Self-esteem
Presented by Linda Williams

Definitions
Self-concept is the way in which you see yourself. It is a mental
picture of yourself. It describes what sort of person you think
you are. It helps you to organise and control how you behave.
It develops when you compare yourself with others. Lastly, it
develops when you interpret and evaluate your own
behaviour. Self-esteem is the way you feel about yourself. It is
Too much information based on multiple experiences in your life. It develops mainly
in your childhood. It is related to how significant others in your
The audience tends to read life respond to your successes and failures. It also continues
rather than listen into your adulthood. Self-concept and self-esteem are linked.

Self-esteem
Presented by Linda Williams

Main points to be presented Definitions

• Self-concept: the way in which you see yourself
• Self-esteem: the way you feel about yourself

Development of Self-esteem
Multiple experiences during:
1. Childhood
2. Adulthood
software.

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■ Use the Zooming User interface to create presentations that allow you to
zoom in and out of your presentations.
■ Use in a venue that has Internet access.

Bear in mind that Prezi presentations have been known to cause motion
sickness if they are too gimmicky!

6.1.5.7 Interactive whiteboards

■ Set up the computer and data projector before the event.
■ Ensure that you have the required software and suitable pens.
■ Set up whatever you want projected onto the whiteboard (for example, DVD
or video, multimedia files or Internet links) beforehand.
■ Ensure that the projector beam is mounted so that the audience does not
stare directly into the light.
■ Stand with your back to the projector beam.
■ Use a stick or laser pointer to point to the screen.

Finally, ensure that all the information supports your presentation and is not
purely for effect.

Experienced presenters always have a backup plan in case a technical

problem affects the planned use of a visual aid. If you plan to use a data
projector, for example, prepare transparencies as well in case your computer
shuts down. If you plan to use transparencies, make sure that you have chalk
so that you can use the chalkboard should the need arise.

Prepare handouts for your audience if the information in your presentation is

very detailed. Give these out:

■ at the beginning, if you want the audience to refer to the handout while you
are speaking
■ at the end, if you would prefer the audience not to read the handout during
the presentation. (See section 6.1.4.4, page 87 for a discussion of preparing
note cards and PowerPoint handouts.)

6.1.6 Preparing the venue

Prepare the venue or check that it is prepared before the time. This saves the
embarrassment that might arise if there are too few seats or if the seating
arrangements are not appropriate for your presentation. You might, for
example, have planned a workshop-style presentation, and be dismayed to
find rows of fixed seats.

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6.1.7 Rehearsing the presentation

An essential part of giving an oral presentation is the rehearsal. Rehearsing
the presentation reduces the anxiety associated with speaking in public.
Rehearse on your own in front of a mirror or video camera, or in front of a
friend. This provides feedback on your performance and also enables you to
time the length of your presentation.

SUMMARY

Oral presentations are a part of most people’s working lives. In order to

reduce the anxiety associated with speaking in public and to make your
presentation effective, it is important to plan carefully. The planning
stage consists of analysing the audience; determining the purpose;
preparing the topic; organising the presentation; preparing visual aids
and the venue; and rehearsing the presentation.

6.2 THE DELIVERY STAGE

Having completed thorough planning for your presentation, you are ready to
concentrate on the next stage – the delivery of the presentation. In this stage,
aspects to be considered are:

■ preparing yourself
■ delivering the presentation
■ answering questions and, finally,
■ evaluating or reflecting on your performance.

6.2.1 Preparing yourself

Prepare both your physical appearance and your mental state.

6.2.1.1 Physical preparation

■ Wear clothes that are appropriate for the occasion. If it is a formal occasion,
for example, formal (but comfortable) clothes should be worn. Avoid
anything that will cause distractions, such as noisy bangles or a hairstyle
that hangs in your eyes.

6.2.1.2 Mental preparation

■ Try not to think any negative thoughts – remind yourself that you have
prepared well. Remain calm as you mentally review the purpose of your
speech.

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■ Run through your notes quickly.

■ Try some relaxation or breathing exercises in order to relax your body and
to control your breathing.
■ Remember that it is natural to be nervous. Use the energy provided by the
adrenalin rush to perform at your best.
6.2.2 Delivering the presentation
During the delivery of your presentation, consider the following aspects: voice,
eye contact, gestures and posture.

6.2.2.1 Voice
Aim to speak naturally, but audibly. To do this:

■ Pay attention to pitch (how high or low your voice sounds) and volume (be
sure that everyone in the room can hear you). A low pitch sounds pleasant
and sincere and is easy to listen to.
■ Pay attention to inflection (the rise and fall of your voice). South Africans
tend to let their voices rise at the end of sentences, which creates a
questioning, uncertain impression and should be avoided.
■ Pay attention to tone. Most audiences dislike a patronising speaker who
talks down to them. Your tone will help create an open and friendly
climate.
■ Project your voice so that it carries right to the back of the room.
■ Speak at a pace that allows the audience to take in the information. If you
speak too slowly, your audience will lose interest. Your pace should not,
however, be too fast, which often happens when people are nervous.
■ Avoid quick, shallow breaths, because you will take in less air and have
less control over your breath. Breathe in so that you can feel your
abdominal muscles pushing out. When you breathe out, they should push
out too. This helps to get your breath under control.
■ Use pauses to let a point sink in or an increase in volume to stress an
important idea.
■ Try to limit the use of qualifiers such as ‘okay’, or non-words such as ‘er ...
er’, although it is natural to include the occasional one.

Should you need to use a microphone, practise using it before your

presentation.

■ Adjust a stand microphone to your height – before the event, if possible.

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■ Keep your mouth slightly to one side of the microphone to prevent

breathing or blowing into it. Your mouth should not be too close to it.
■ Aim your voice towards the centre of the microphone.
■ Move back when you increase volume or if you want to make a particular
point enthusiastically.
■ Clip lapel microphones to your clothing just below your mouth – on your
tie, shirt collar or pocket. Lapel microphones allow for a hands-free
presentation.
■ Speak over the lapel microphone.
■ Be careful of gestures close to your chest, because these will drown out your
voice.

6.2.2.2 Eye contact

Eye contact with your audience is vital for establishing a relationship with
them.
■ Look at the audience as a whole. Try to make eye contact with as many
people as you can. Inexperienced speakers tend to focus on one or two
friendly faces in the audience, to the exclusion of everyone else.
■ Look at an audience member for no longer than 5–10 seconds. Longer than
that can make people feel uncomfortable.

6.2.2.3 Gestures
Use gestures to convey your belief in and involvement with your topic.

■ Use natural gestures – neither too elaborate nor too timid.

■ Avoid distracting mannerisms, such as frequently touching your face.

6.2.2.4 Posture
Good posture conveys confidence.

■ Stand tall – imagine that someone is tugging at a wire attached to the top
of your head. If you fold your arms, stand with your hand on your hip or
lean against furniture, a negative impression will be conveyed.
■ Stand on both legs with your feet slightly apart, holding your note cards
comfortably in front of you.
■ Use the floor space – in fact, you will have to if you are using a visual aid
such as a flipchart. However, remember that there is a significant
difference between occasionally moving, perhaps towards your audience as
you emphasise a point, and restlessly prowling up and down.

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■ Face your audience – your facial expression helps convey your message,
and remember that sound waves travel in straight lines!
■ Stand in front of the lectern, if there is one, rather than behind it. This
allows closer contact with your audience and enables you to move freely.
You will also not be tempted to cling to or lean on the lectern.

6.2.2.5 Facial expression

■ Smile to warm people to you and to establish rapport.
■ Ensure that your facial expression varies to complement your message.

6.2.3 Answering questions

Feedback from the audience will result in a two-way flow of information, so
set aside time for questions. When members of your audience ask questions,
it shows that they have been listening. Their questions will probably reflect a
need for clarification, elaboration or repetition.

■ Be relaxed and natural during question time.

■ Concentrate and answer the question as best you can.
■ Say so, if you don’t know the answer. If you pretend to know the answer,
you will probably be found out!
■ Make eye contact with the person while he or she is asking the question.
■ Look at the audience as a whole when you respond.
■ Write down the questions if there is more than one question.
■ Encourage the audience to ask questions or make comments if they seem
to have no questions. For example, you could say: ‘Tell us of a positive event
that shaped your self-concept.’

6.2.4 Paired presentations

Sometimes students and employees in the workplace are required to give joint
presentations. Because a joint presentation is a team presentation, it is
important that you and your partner get together to allocate responsibilities.
Each should know what the other will be presenting and how. Be sure also to
rehearse together, so that you can check that your presentation forms a
coherent whole.
When preparing for a presentation in pairs, you should:

■ divide the presentation so that each partner has roughly the same air time
■ avoid giving each partner small sections, because this creates a bitty effect.
An approach would be for one person to do the introduction, a section of

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the body and the conclusion. The partner then does the balance of the
presentation.

6.2.4.1 Preparing the introduction

Follow the guidelines for introductions on page 84, but include the following:

■ an introduction of yourself and your partner

■ an indication of how the parts of the presentation have been divided
between the two presenters. This can be done when giving the outline of
the presentation.

6.2.4.2 Preparing the body

Follow the guidelines for preparing the body of a presentation on page 85.
However, when you reach the end of your section of the body, briefly
summarise what you have covered. Then indicate what your partner will be
discussing.

Summary of (facing audience) We’ve seen that there’s a clear link between content the self-
concept and self-esteem.
Furthermore, self-esteem develops and is shaped over many
Linking marker years. Added to this, the level of self-esteem we have has Indication of an
impact on our success or failure. So, to help you onto content of next the road to success,
Ayanda will show you strategies for section improving your self-esteem (turning to
partner).

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The partner should then refer to the previous presenter's section, followed by
overview of his or her section.

Reference to (smiling at partner) Thank you, Nthabiseng, for clarifying

content of partner’s
the connection between positive self-esteem and
section
success for us.

Rhetorical question (turning to audience) So what can those of us who

draws audience have poor self-esteem do so that we can experience
into next section
success?

Let me show you ten, easy-to-follow steps towards

Outline of content improving your self-esteem. By the end of my
presentation, I hope you’ll all appreciate that you can
Objective take control of developing positive self-esteem.

I’ll be using Clarence, a student with low self-esteem,

to illustrate the steps. First, let’s take a look at how
Clarence …

At the end, she or he should briefly summarise the content before indicating what
an
comes next. In this way, the sections are linked and coherence is maintained.
In effect, each partner’s presentation becomes a mini-presentation, but the
two are connected by means of links to become a coherent whole.

The following are essential for a professional paired presentation.

■ Time yourself so that you do not take up any of your partner’s time.
■ Plan how you will use your visual aids – both should have comfortable
access to the aids. While one partner is speaking, the other should take
care not to block the audience’s view.
If you are using a poster as a visual aid, consider discussing the elements
on the poster as your partner points to each one in turn. This must be
rehearsed so that it runs smoothly.
■ Remain alert and interested during your partner’s section of the
presentation. Do not distract the audience by slouching or engaging in
other unacceptable non-verbal behaviour. Remember that even when you
are not speaking, you are still part of the presentation.

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■ Decide in advance who will be in charge at question time. That person then
takes the questions and answers them, or directs them to her or his
partner, depending on who covered the area under discussion.
6.2.5 Evaluating (or reflecting on) the presentation
After the presentation, reflect on your own performance. Remember that each
oral presentation is part of a learning process, enabling you to improve your
speaking skills.

In the case of a student presentation, like the one on self-esteem, your lecturer
will give you feedback on your performance. It is also useful to ask your
classmates what they think of your presentation.

■ Do not criticise yourself during the presentation.

■ Assess how you did after the presentation. Think about what worked and
what was less effective. Make action plans for the next time you speak, such
as ‘Next time I do a presentation, I will make more eye contact with the
audience.’ ■ Make notes as a reminder for future presentations.

Finally: enjoy your presentation. After all the planning and preparation that
goes into a presentation, you should look forward to and enjoy the moment
when you take the floor. This sense of enjoyment is conveyed to the audience
and is the final ingredient in a successful presentation.

For more information about oral presentations, consult the following

webpage:

http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/SpeakingToAnAudience.htm

For help with how to use an interactive whiteboard, consult the following
webpage:
http://www.cambridge.org/gb/elt/students/satellite_page/item2701632/How-
to-usean-Interactive-Whiteboard/?site_locale=en_GB

For help with viewing or creating Prezi Presentations, consult the following
website: http://Prezi.com/

A video available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0k3giXi8eM

demonstrates and explains the potential of using Prezi to accompany a
business presentation.

SUMMARY

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The second stage of an oral presentation is the delivery stage. This stage
starts with preparing yourself, the actual delivery and answering
questions. It ends when you conduct a self-evaluation. When preparing,
focus on your physical appearance and mental state. During the delivery
of your presentation, pay attention to voice, eye contact, gestures and
posture. Lastly, reflect on or assess your performance. An important
ingredient in a presentation is the speaker’s sense of enjoyment.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Why is it important to analyse your audience for a presentation?

2 Name four sources that could be consulted for ideas about your
presentation subject.
3 Name two methods that could be used to attract your audience’s attention
in your introduction.
4 Why should the body of your presentation not be an endless list of details?
5 Name four organising patterns that could be used to order your main and
supporting points in the body of your presentation.
6 What is the purpose of the conclusion?
7 Give two examples of visual aids that could be used in a presentation.
8 Full sentences should be written on visual aids. True or False?
9 List four aspects to be considered during the delivery stage of the
presentation. 10 Give one reason why answering questions after the
presentation is important.
11 Identify two reasons for rehearsing your presentation, preferably in front
of a friend.
12 Why is it important for presenters of a paired presentation to rehearse
together?

APPLICATION

Prepare a five-minute presentation on any aspect relating to your course of

study or the business world in general. Your audience is your peers. Include
at least one visual aid in your presentation.

1 Prepare an audience analysis for this presentation. Hint: think about

what you need to keep in mind about this particular audience so that your
message is successfully conveyed.

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2 What would your primary purpose be for this presentation?

3 When organising your presentation, do the following:
a Write down the main message of your presentation.
b Now write down three main points you wish to explore in your
presentation.
c Write the introduction, body and conclusion for your presentation
using the elements discussed in this chapter.
d Write a note card for your introduction. This note card and the ones
below could be written on blank cards or produced as PowerPoint
handouts.
e Write a note card for each of the main points of the body of your
presentation.
f Write a note card for your conclusion.
4 After your presentation, ask your peers to evaluate your presentation.
The brief guide below could be used to direct their feedback. Your peers
could use the comments section to give constructive criticism or to
highlight positive aspects of the presentation.

Oral Presentation Feedback Guide

Name: Y P N Comments
Introduction
o Introduced the topic, objective and content
outline
o Indicated audience benefit/indicated time
o Created a sense of anticipation
Body
o Chose an interesting topic
o Showed good topic knowledge with
supporting detail
o Structured the presentation logically
o Used an appropriate register and language
o Used the visual aid(s) confidently
o Adhered to the time limit
Conclusion
o Summed up the main points
o Provided a thought-provoking ending
Visual Aid

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o Supported content/key phrases/neat/

visible/correct spelling and grammar
Voice
o Sounded natural with variation of pitch and
pace
o Projected voice well/fully audible
Non-verbal
o Made effective eye contact
o Used appropriate gestures/posture relaxed
but alert
Question Time
o Handled questions confidently/good topic
knowledge
KEY: Y = Yes P = Partially N = Needs work
5 Now it is your turn. Evaluate on a scale of 5 (very effective) to 1 (very
poor) how well your audience listened to your presentation.
a Think of specific examples of effective or poor listening in support of
your evaluation.
b What could you do in future to ensure that your audience listens
better?
6 After listening to a peer’s presentation, evaluate on a scale of 5 (very
effective) to 1 (very poor) how well you listened to the presentation. a Why
do you think you listened well (or poorly)?
b What could the speaker do next time to achieve a better listening
response?
c What could you do next time to improve your listening?

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Written Communication

OBJECTIVES

In this chapter, the focus turns from spoken to written communication.

As you work through the chapter, you will learn to recognise and apply
the principles and techniques that form the foundation of effective
written messages. Once you have mastered these principles and
techniques, you will be able to apply your knowledge in the chapters that
follow to a range of written media, such as email, blogs, academic essays
and reports. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ choose the appropriate level of formality for a given message, in

accordance with audience and purpose
■ formulate a business message that is clear
■ formulate a business message that is concise
■ formulate a business message that reflects a pleasant and positive tone
■ write paragraphs that reflect unity, coherence and cohesion
■ generate messages with a professional appearance
■ understand the value of planning, drafting, revising and editing
messages.

7.1 REGISTER OR LEVEL OF FORMALITY

One of the decisions you have to make for each message is how formal or
informal the message should ‘sound’. For example, a message that contains
slang when this is not suitable, or that is too formal for the particular
audience, purpose and situation, will not sound appropriate and is likely to
form a barrier.

The term ‘register’ refers to how formal or informal a message sounds.

Without realising it, you are probably already an expert at using different
registers. Instinctively, you adapt your register from, for example, the
 Chapter 7 Written Communication

informal register of slang characteristic of communication among friends to

Example A Example B

Dunno, bru! Still checking it out. I don’t know, Sir. I’m still looking for the
answer.

the formal academic register of essays and assignments, as the audience and
occasion require.

Because of your instinctive understanding of register, you know, without

having to think, that the more formal option, B, in the example box that
follows is the more appropriate way to answer a question put by the dean of
your faculty:
Written registers tend to be more formal than the spoken registers used, for
example, in an oral presentation or when speaking to friends. This is because
the audience is not present when the message is formulated. As a result, the
communication does not feel like a conversation. Moreover, as readers other
than the intended audience might also read the message, the sender must
sound professional.

Previously, business messages were written in a very formal, wordy register.

The effect was to create distance between the writer and the reader. Register
characterised by long sentences, long paragraphs and difficult words is today
considered old-fashioned. It is also difficult to understand and should be
avoided.

7.1.1. Formal register

Today, a simpler yet still formal register has evolved that better meets the
needs of modern business. This register has the following features:

■ complete sentences (which means that each sentence contains at least one
subject with its verb – see section 17.1, page 403)
■ short sentences, containing, on average, 15–18 words, and even fewer if the
message is complex
■ short paragraphs of, on average, four to five sentences

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■ a simple but formal vocabulary, without talking down to the reader

■ an impersonal approach, which means that first and second-person
pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘we’ and ‘you’ are avoided.

After discussions with staff, management has decided to introduce an end-of-year function.
This will provide an opportunity for staff to meet and enjoy themselves in an informal
setting. Staff morale should thus improve.
However, in the highly competitive environment of the 21st century, very
often the only difference between similar organisations lies in the level of
service they offer. Concern, therefore, for the client or customer must be
reflected in the way business is conducted, including the way messages are
written.
7.1.2 Consultative register
The formal register described in section 7.1.1 can be adapted to narrow the
gap between writer and reader, which creates a friendlier, more personal and
consultative impression.
This is done by using:

■ first and second person pronouns such as ‘we’ and ‘you’

After talking to our staff, we’ve decided to hold an end-of-year staff ‘do’. We’re hoping that
staff will be able to relax and enjoy themselves in an informal setting.
We’re also hoping that a spin-off will be improved staff morale.

■ occasional contractions, such as ‘we’ve’ and ‘you’re’

■ the odd colloquial (conversational) word such as lab for laboratory.
However, complete sentences and short paragraphs are still used.

Figure 7.1, below, illustrates how registers shade into and overlap with each
other, showing that register ranges along a continuum (an unbroken line)
and cannot be

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put into boxes.

Formal Consultative
Formal Informal
increasingly formal

increasingly informal

Figure 7.1 The formality–informality continuum

Figure 7.2 shows how the gap between sender and audience widens or
narrows, depending on the level of formality of the message.

Formal Informal

Sender Sender

wider narrower

Audience Audience

Figure 7.2 The formality–distance correlation

Any register that uses a very informal vocabulary and incomplete sentences
belongs towards the informal end of the continuum and has no place in day-
to-day business writing, other than in notes between colleagues. The use of
‘txt-speak’ or emoticons has no place in business communication and is
appropriate for social use only.

SUMMARY

In line with the audience and purpose analysis and writing situation, an
appropriate register is selected to reflect the way the writer wants the
message to ‘sound’. In written business messages, either formal or
consultative register is used.

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As well as choosing the appropriate register for your message, you need also
to master certain stylistic techniques in order to develop an effective and
professional business writing style.

These techniques are discussed under the headings of clarity, conciseness and
tone.

7.2 CLARITY

Your message must be clear, leaving your reader in no doubt about your
intended meaning. By concentrating on clarity, you are showing respect for
your reader. The benefit for you is that your document is likely to be regarded
as credible (believable).

A number of techniques that enhance clarity are discussed in the subsections

below.

7.2.1 Specifics
It is your responsibility, not the reader’s, to ensure successful communication.
Therefore, make your message perfectly clear by being specific.
Choose details for inclusion in your message by asking yourself: ‘What does
my audience need to know?’ (See section 5.1, page 72 ff.) If your audience is
not provided with the specific details needed to achieve the result that you
want from your message, nothing will be achieved.

Vague Specific

Please send me Please could you deliver the following to our warehouse at 13
some wooden Newbury Road :
boards and some
1. 200 × 22 mm × 44 mm × 1 800 mm meranti boards
nails.
2. 30 dozen × 120 mm steel roofing nails
We would appreciate delivery before 12:00 on 27 May 20 __.
I will telephone you on 25 May 20__ to confirm the details.

7.2.2 Word choice

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Choose familiar, often-used words, rather than unfamiliar, impressive-

sounding (and often polysyllabic) words. Unfamiliar words make messages
more difficult to understand.

Less familiar, complicated word More familiar, simple word(s)

terminate end or stop

initiate begin or start

proliferate increase

accede to agree to

domicile house or address

Avoid jargon, that is:

Jargon Everyday term(s)

Hairdresser to client: You are suffering You’re starting to go bald.

from incipient alopecia areata.

■ language containing technical or specialised words known only in your field,

and which the audience does not understand
■ long, complicated sentences containing stock phrases or clichés known as
business jargon.

Using jargon confuses your reader instead of aiding understanding.

However, technical terms may be used when your audience shares your
knowledge of these terms.

7.2.3 Precise verbs

Vague verb Precise verb

Please make arrangements for the Please arrange to collect the gas cylinder.
collection of the gas cylinder.

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Avoid nominalisation (forming a noun by adding to a verb, for example,

arrange – arrangement). Rather, use the verb, as it conveys a more precise
meaning.

7.2.4 Sentence length

Long, complicated sentences are difficult to understand. Therefore, use
shorter rather than longer sentences. An average sentence length of 15–18
words works well. However, care should be taken to vary sentence length and

Choppy Better

Choppy sentences do not flow smoothly. Choppy sentences are jerky and
The effect is one of jerkiness and abruptsounding, rather than smooth-
abruptness. Writers should try to vary their flowing. Writers should therefore try to
sentence structure. They should also vary vary their sentence structure. By doing this,
sentence length. This will create variety and by varying sentence length, they will
and interest. create variety and interest.

Non-parallel Parallel

He enjoys watching TV, reading magazines, He enjoys watching TV,

and he likes to play soccer. reading magazines and playing
soccer.
The manager was uncertain of whom to The manager was uncertain of whom to
invite, what to tell them and whether he invite, what to tell them and whether to
should offer them a meal. offer them a meal.

structure to avoid a choppy effect.

7.2.5 Parallel structures

When listing items in a sentence, show your reader that the items are
connected by using parallel structures. This means using the same
grammatical structure for each item in the list.
Using lists is a very helpful method of presenting information. When listing
items, be sure to:

■ introduce the list

■ check that each item on the list follows logically and grammatically from
the introduction

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■ use the same grammatical structure (parallel structure) for each item on
the list ■ number the items correctly, if you use numbering.

Non-parallel Parallel

A department head’s duties include: Department heads have to:

■ allocation of staff responsibilities ■ allocate staff responsibilities

■ to arrange timetables ■ arrange timetables

■ supervising subordinates. ■ supervise subordinates.

Related headings and section headings should also be parallel in structure.

This makes it easy for the reader to see the relationship between the sections.

For an example of parallel headings, refer to the headings in this chapter.

Ambiguous Clear

When mixing sulphuric acid with water, be When mixing sulphuric acid with water, be
sure always to add it last. sure always to add the sulphuric acid last.
(If you mix the liquids the other way round,
you could get hurt, as any chemistry
student will tell you.)

They are all parallel in structure.

7.2.6 Avoiding ambiguity

Be sure, also, that there is no ambiguity (double meaning) in your message.
Remember that you are aiming for clarity.

A danger area in written messages is the use of pronouns without a clear

referent. Take care to ensure that misunderstanding does not result from the
careless use of pronouns.
7.3 CONCISENESS

To be efficient, business writing should be direct and to the point. It should

make its point without using unnecessary words. The following are
techniques that will help you to write concisely.

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7.3.1 Conciseness of content

Aim for conciseness of content. Say only what you have to say. Your audience
analysis notes will guide you regarding what to include and what to omit.

Wordy Concise

I was reading the Post, my favourite I would like to apply for the position of
newspaper, yesterday while I was eating secretary, as advertised in the Tshwane
my breakfast and I saw that you are looking Post of 24 March 20__.
for a secretary. Well, I am a secretary and I
would like to apply for the job.

7.3.2 Conciseness of structure

Aim for conciseness of structure. Use a clause instead of a sentence, a phrase
instead of a clause, and a word instead of a phrase.

Wordy Concise

Sentences that are concise have more Concise sentences have more impact than
impact than sentences that are wordy. wordy sentences.

7.3.3 Avoidance of verbosity (using more words than necessary)

This can be achieved by eliminating wordiness and circumlocution (a lengthy,
roundabout way of saying something).

Wordy Concise
Wordy Concise
The grass is green in colour. The grass is green
The result at the end of the discussion was The final result was never in doubt.
Inever
live in
indoubt.
the town of Ladysmith in the I live in Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal.
province of KwaZulu-Natal.
Notice on cashier’s counter: CLOSED
Service temporarily suspended while
cashier is engaged in completing ancillary
till entries. (The language is pompous too.)

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You can also avoid verbosity by eliminating redundancies (unnecessary

words).

7.3.4 Active vs passive voice

To achieve both economy of word usage and the vigorous, confident style that
characterises good business writing, use the active rather than the passive
voice. The active voice is also known as the ‘people doing things’ sentence
structure. The difference between active voice and passive voice is shown

Active Passive

Ms Mbola (agent) will evaluate (action) the The applications (object moved to subject
applications. (object) position) will be evaluated (action) by Ms
Mbola. (agent)

below:

If you count the number of words, you will see that the active voice uses fewer
words than the passive. Moreover, using the active voice is a more efficient
means of conveying information because the agent and the action are
identified first.
There are, however, occasions when it is appropriate to use the passive voice:

■ to achieve the impersonal tone which is desirable in, for example, report-
writing and minute-writing
■ when the agent (or doer) of the action is unimportant
■ to be tactful when it comes to avoiding assigning blame.

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The results of the investigation, carried out over a period of three weeks, are tabulated in
Figure 3 below. (Extract from a report)

Our good, better, best advertisement was run early by mistake and look what happened.
(Extract from an advertisement)

The mistake that was made has resulted in the loss of three days’ production. (No blame
assigned)

For more information about active and passive voice, consult the following
webpage: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/539/1/

Conciseness should always be balanced against the need for clarity. Clarity
should never be sacrificed to conciseness.

7.4 TONE

Tone refers to the writer’s attitude towards the subject matter and the
audience. Tone can be friendly, aggressive, arrogant, pompous, impersonal,
neutral, and so on.

Remember that in oral communication tone is conveyed not only by the words
you use, but also by your voice and body language. In written communication,
you have to rely on the printed word only to achieve the tone you want.

In business, writers aim for a pleasant and friendly, or at least a neutral, tone
to generate goodwill between writer and reader. To achieve a pleasant and
friendly tone, a number of strategies can be considered.

7.4.1 Please and thank you

Using please and thank you when appropriate helps to create a pleasant tone
and generate goodwill among communicators.

Please could you have the order ready by 14:00 on 27 August? Thank
you for attending to this for me.
7.4.2 Denotation and connotation
Words have a denotation and a connotation. ‘Denotation’ refers to the
dictionary or literal meaning of the word. ‘Connotation’ refers to the meanings
associated with the word. These meanings differ for each individual,
depending on his or her experiences.

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The denotation and two possible connotations (there are, of course, many) for
dog are given below:

Denotation Connotation

Four-legged, flesh-eating canine Flea-ridden, smelly animal

OR
Faithful, devoted companion

It is important to choose words carefully so that unfortunate connotations do

not create the wrong impression. ‘Police officer’, for example, is a more
respectful term than ‘cop’.

7.4.3 Positive emphasis

Emphasise the favourable aspects of your communication and downplay the
negative aspects. A good communicator is able to see the positive side of a
situation, and present it from that point of view.

A useful strategy is to say what you can do rather than what you cannot.

Negative Positive

We don’t deliver on Mondays and We deliver on Tuesdays, Thursdays and

Wednesdays. Fridays.

No students will be admitted until Students will be admitted from the

February. beginning of February.

Your copies will not be available until next Your copies will be available on Monday.
week.

7.4.4 The ‘you principle’

Focus attention on the reader and his or her interests. Make your message
you-centred by phrasing sentences from the reader’s viewpoint and by
employing ‘you’ as the subject of the sentence when appropriate.
Never use you if the resultant message is accusatory.

Accusatory Better

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Writer viewpoint Reader viewpoint

We have attached an easy to-complete, For your convenience, an easy to-use, tear-
tear-off form at the end of this letter. off form is attached at the end of this
Simply complete the form and send it to us. letter. Simply complete the form and post
We undertake to deliver all orders within it to us. You will receive your order within
three working days. three working days.

You are mistaken to say that our guarantee Our guarantee covers the product for 90
has no time limit. days.

7.4.5 Use of non-sexist language

The South African Constitution provides for gender equality, yet some South
Africans struggle to make the attitude change that is necessary to transform
our society to one of true gender equality. The belief that men are the
standard and are in some way privileged over women is linguistically
reinforced by, for example, using ‘he’ when both genders are meant and by
using terms such as ‘mankind’, ‘manpower’, ‘manmade’ and ‘chairman’.
Imagine if your male boss was referred to as the ‘chairwoman’!

The use of sexist language – that is, language that demeans, ignores or
needlessly calls attention to either gender – is likely to offend many in your
audience, and they will not be receptive to your message if they feel angry or
upset. How then can you revise your use of language to ensure that it is
inclusive when referring to mixedgender groups? The example below gives

Here is an example of sexist language:

Any student handing in his assignment late will be penalised.

Ensuring your language is non-sexist can be achieved in a number of ways:

1 Avoid using a pronoun:
Any student handing in an assignment late will be penalised.
2 Use the plural:
If students hand in assignments late, they will be penalised.
guidance on how to write inclusively.

Continue ➝
3 Use she or he (and sometimes he or she):
If a student hands in an assignment late, she or he will be penalised.
Example 1 is the most skilful and example 3 the least skilful method of avoiding sexism.

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Discrimination should also not be shown against the male gender. Be on the
lookout for a tendency to assume that criminals, alcoholics, drug addicts and
so on are all men!

Sexist Better

An alcoholic’s wife and children suffer Alcoholics’ families suffer terribly. This is
terribly because he becomes totally because alcoholics tend to become
unreliable. unreliable.

Avoid terms that encode sexist attitudes:

mankind – the human race/humanity workman – worker

policeman – police officer housewife – homemaker

7.4.6 Use of non-discriminatory language

Stereotyping of any kind is unfair. Messages that show bias towards people
on the basis of their racial or religious backgrounds, or on the basis of their
abilities, disabilities, occupations or sexual orientation, are offensive;
attitudes must change to reflect the equality to which everyone is entitled.
The starting point is to ensure that language is non-discriminatory.

The following examples all contain evidence of unfair and hurtful or insulting

Although Conrad is confined to a wheelchair, he is a good receptionist. (Implies that

Conrad’s disability interferes with his job performance.)
Lesbian pair convicted of theft. (Is the couple’s sexual orientation relevant?)
She’s a blonde, so be sure to give her an easy question. (Implies that all blondes are
unintelligent.)
bias.

Here is a useful rule to follow.

■ When writing about other groups, substitute your own group for the group
you are discussing. If the resulting statement offends you, revise your
comment to eliminate bias.
Other essential strategies to ensure a suitable tone for your message have
already been discussed. The strategies are listed briefly below:

■ Avoid the use of jargon – it is bad manners to exclude your audience from
your communication by using language that they do not understand.

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Note that a suitable tone should never be sacrificed in favour of conciseness.

■ Use the passive voice when you want to avoid assigning blame.

Cold, distant tone Pleasant, friendly tone

We regret that company policy does not Thank you very much for inviting us to
permit us to make such contributions. participate in your auction. While our
company very much supports the spirit of
your fund-raising activities, we have found
that our contribution to the community
can have greater impact if it is made to the
Community Chest rather than to individual
organisations.

We do hope that your auction is successful,

and we will bring it to the attention of our
employees.

Look at the example below of a refusal to support a fund-raising auction:

For more information about writing style, refer to the following webpages:
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/c1_p2.html (Note: this
resource has advice on style, as well as the mechanics of writing, such as
grammar. Readers are also directed to other resources)
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCS_85.htm (Note: this page
offers guidelines for writing style. The Mind Tools home page at
http://www.mindtools. com/index.html directs readers to an extensive range
of other communicationrelated information)
http://jwatsontraining.com/?page_id=2100 (Note: a reader-friendly overview
of the difference between academic and business writing)

http://www.gonzaga.edu/academics/colleges+and+schools/School+of+Busines
s+ Administration/undergraduate/SBAWR/default.asp (Note: business
writing style guidelines)
SUMMARY

Effective business writing is crafted. Factors to consider are clarity and

conciseness, to ensure that messages will be easily understood. Attention

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must also be paid to tone, to ensure that messages are pleasant and
friendly. Good writers use a range of techniques such as being specific,
avoiding excessive wordiness and using the ‘you principle’ to ensure
clarity, conciseness and an appropriate tone.

7.5 PARAGRAPHING

Ostrom (1978: 1) defines paragraphing as ‘a way of making visible to the

reader the stages in the writer’s thinking’. Paragraphs also relieve the eye. A
block of printed text with no breaks looks forbidding. Breaks, on the other
hand, assure the reader that the text can be broken down into parts that can
be absorbed one at a time.

A well-constructed paragraph has the following characteristics:

■ unity (one main idea)

■ effective development of the main idea
■ coherence (linking between sentences).

A well-constructed text consists of paragraphs that display:

■ cohesion (linking between paragraphs).

7.5.1 Unity
A good paragraph reflects unity of thought. In other words, a paragraph
should contain only one main idea. This main or controlling idea is presented
in what is known as the topic sentence, which, in business writing, is often
the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence, then, presents the
idea (the limited subject matter) about which the paragraph is to be written.

A standard dictionary is a very useful tool. (The rest of the paragraph will develop this main
idea.)

7.5.2 Paragraph development

The controlling idea, presented in the topic sentence, must be fully developed
or explained. The explanation takes the form of supporting statements or
sentences. Some of these supporting statements will be more important than
others. However, they must all relate to the controlling idea expressed in the
topic sentence.

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The controlling idea can be developed in the following ways:

■ By giving details or reasons. The topic sentence is supported by supplying

A well-constructed paragraph is always planned. First, the writer decides on the main idea
to be expressed in the paragraph. This idea is then formulated in a topic sentence. Once the
writer is satisfied with the topic sentence, he or she then develops the main idea by means
of supporting sentences. These are arranged in the order that best supports the idea
expressed in the topic sentence. Finally, the writer checks that each sentence flows
smoothly into the next. Any sentence that disturbs the flow is removed or rewritten.
facts.

■ By giving illustrations or examples. The main idea is made concrete by

means of examples.

Communicators share meaning with one another by using codes. These codes can be divided
into verbal and non-verbal codes. Verbal codes, which can take both spoken and written
forms, are the hundreds of different languages that human beings use to communicate with
one another. Non-verbal codes refer, for example, to body language, pictures and graphics,
and sign language.
The discipline of hours of sustained study isn’t easy. Distractions, like the beat of favourite
music, friends’ voices raised in laughter, or the distant bounce of a ball somehow seem to
soften even the strongest resolve. Then you have to concentrate on the rewards: the
coveted cap and gown, the promise of a bright future and the smile of pride on a parent’s
face.

■ By dividing and classifying . The topic is divided into its constituent parts.

An academic education is different from a technical education. Students following an

academic route are equipped with theoretical knowledge. Students receiving technical
training begin with a theoretical foundation, but the emphasis is on the practical application
of skills. In an academic programme, students choose subjects from the range of subjects
offered to make up their degree courses. In a technical education, however, because of the
career focus, courses are designed, in consultation with industry, and combined in a career-
oriented programme. The student then registers for this programme.

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■ By comparing and contrasting . Concepts or items are compared.

■ By giving causes and effects . The reason(s) giving rise to the result(s) is
(are) given.
Many students find the freedom offered by student life difficult to cope with. They spend a
great deal of time exploring the sporting and social activities available at their institution,
and too little time exploring facilities such as the library. Too late, they realise the value of
regular, disciplined study. The result is disappointing academic progress.
Why does one so often find poor paragraphing in student essays? The reason is that many
student writers fail to realise that a well-constructed paragraph has one controlling idea.
They cram more than one idea into the same paragraph, with little thought given to how to
develop these ideas. In addition, they forget to ensure that thought flows smoothly from
one sentence to the next. No wonder, then, that the reader complains that communication
has broken down.

■ By answering the question posed in the topic sentence (mainly used in

academic writing). The answer can take the form of any of the methods
described above.

Paragraphs do not always follow a single method of development. Writers

sometimes prefer to use a combination of two or even three methods. The
paragraph above, for example, answers the question posed by the topic
sentence by giving details, and also by showing cause and effect.

7.5.3 Coherence
A paragraph is coherent when its sentences are arranged in such a way that
their relationship to one another and to the topic sentence is clear to the
reader.

Coherence can be achieved by adopting the strategies outlined below.

7.5.3.1 Sentence order

Arrange your sentences in the sequence that will best communicate your
message to the reader. Possibilities to consider are to use:

■ descending or ascending order of importance, or

■ time order.

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Order of importance
Students greet the end-of-year vacation with great enthusiasm. The first priority is usually
to catch up on sleep. Then they need to pick up the threads of their social life, often rather
neglected because of exam pressure. Finally, this is the ideal time to solve the perennial
student problem of a shortage of funds by landing a well-paid vacation job.
Note: Writers will prioritise differently, depending on their individual needs and perceptions.
Here is an example of a paragraph with sentences arranged in ascending
order of importance:
7.5.3.2 Transitional expressions
Use transitional expressions – link or signpost words that guide your reader
through the text by providing clear signals of what to expect.

Here are some examples of transitional expressions and the meanings

furthermore, moreover, also, in addition – a similar point comes next conversely,

on the other hand, however – a different or opposite view is next
conveyed.

In the paragraph that follows, transitional expressions are used to guide the

An efficient personal assistant is an asset to any boss. Typing, filing – in fact, all office
administration – is taken care of, liberating the boss to focus on decision-making and
problem-solving. In addition, the boss’s schedule is meticulously arranged, appointments
being slotted in where convenient. Finally, a good personal assistant can be relied on to act
as a sounding-board when required.
reader through the text.

A subcategory of transitional expressions is the use of enumerative words,

such as first, secondly and thirdly. These words are helpful as they tell the
reader the exact number of similar ideas in a paragraph.

7.5.3.3 Repetition of keywords

Keywords – usually nouns – are the words that convey the main subject
matter or content of the paragraph. The example paragraph below is about

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The steam train evokes nostalgia in many people. Often the nostalgia is better than the
experience of the steam train ever was. Steam trains were dirty, dangerous and generally
disagreeable.

the nostalgia evoked by steam trains. Nostalgia and steam train are therefore
the keywords of the paragraph, and are repeated.
Sometimes, a pronoun can be used in place of a keyword as in the example
below, but make sure that the referent of the pronoun is clear (see section

The manager arrived promptly at 16:30. She had caught the 12:15 flight from
Johannesburg.

7.2.6 on page 107).

7.5.3.4 Parallel structure

Use parallel structure, as in the example below (see section 7.2.5 on page 106).

When you have money, your friends love you. When you are broke, your friends avoid you.
When you collect debts, your friends don’t know you.

7.5.4 Cohesion
A paragraph functions as a unit within a larger piece of writing. The good
writer therefore uses transitions between paragraphs in order to ensure
cohesion; in other words, that thoughts flow smoothly from paragraph to

Embarking on a course of study at a university is an opportunity for personal growth in a

number of different dimensions. By taking advantage of the range of activities on offer,
students develop intellectually and socially and also in the sporting and cultural arenas.

The primary purpose of a tertiary education is intellectual development. Involvement in the

academic life of your institution through attending lectures and seminars, engaging in
debate and discussion with lecturers and peers, and undertaking self-study through use of
the library and online resources hones your intellectual skills. When you embark on a career,
the critical thinking faculties acquired during your studies enable you to adapt to a variety
of situations in the workplace and in your personal life.

Just as important as intellectual development is social growth. Meeting and interacting with
students from a range of backgrounds teaches valuable social skills and enriches your life.
This enrichment stems not only from the formation of new friendships but also from the
open-mindedness and understanding that grow from exposure to different cultures,
lifestyles and points of view. Moreover, the relaxed social settings in
paragraph.

Continue ➝

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Note: The links between paragraphs have been italicised. Now see if you can find the links
within each paragraph.
which these contacts take place provide a contrast with and a break from the discipline of
academic study.

A third dimension is the sporting/cultural dimension. Depending on your individual taste

and talent, you can participate in various sporting activities or you can decide to focus on
cultural activities by, for example, joining a choir or a debating society. These activities
provide further opportunities to meet and work with others, as well as leading to the
acquisition of group skills.

The three dimensions, being complementary, feed into and support one another. Wise
students attempt to include all three to obtain maximum benefit from their period of study.
The writing process can be divided into four stages.

■ The planning stage involves collecting material for the message.

■ The drafting stage involves composing the first version of the document.

■ The revising stage requires a critical assessment of the first draft, resulting in the making
of changes.

■ The editing stage requires the checking of the document for spelling, punctuation and
grammar errors.

Paragraphs are traditionally written in block format, as illustrated by most

of the paragraphs in this book. However, sometimes, for example in a report,
the paragraph is more readable if the supporting details are presented in
bulleted points. The bullets then replace enumerative or transitional
expressions such as first and next.

Here is an example of a paragraph where the supporting sentences, which are

arranged in time order, are presented using bulleted points.

For more information about paragraphing, consult the following webpage:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/01/
SUMMARY

Paragraphing is an important part of message construction. Each

paragraph should consist of one main idea, usually expressed in a topic
sentence. This main idea is then developed in the supporting sentences.
The writer can choose from a range of methods of paragraph
development, and should also choose an ordering principle, such as a
time order, for the supporting sentences. Transitions between supporting
sentences ensure coherence between sentences and enable the reader to
follow the writer’s train of thought. In addition, links should be used
between paragraphs to ensure that each flows smoothly into the next.

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7.6 PRESENTATION

Manufacturers are becoming increasingly expert at packaging products to

make them attractive to the consumer. In the same way that manufacturers
compete for a share of the market, you, the writer, are competing for your
audience’s attention.

Remember that you are competing with colour, pictures, social media and so
on for your share of the reader’s attention. Remember, too, that we live in an
age when reading skills are deteriorating. Therefore, you can assist your
reader by ensuring that your message is attractively packaged.

Writers have a range of techniques that they can use to ‘package’ messages
attractively, at the same time contributing to ease of reading:

■ using lists
■ using headings and subheadings
■ using a multiple decimal numbering system
■ underlining key points
■ choosing an effective typeface
■ using white space
■ reducing the eye span by presenting the message in columns or by using
wider margins
■ using colour
■ choosing appropriate quality paper – heavy, embossed paper for a formal
invitation, cheaper quality paper for inter-office memos
■ using graphic aids such as charts, tables and graphs to aid understanding
of the message.
Have a look at the use of decimal numbering, bullets, boxing, shading and
icons in this book to see how packaging aids communication.

7.7 THE WRITING PROCESS

Now that you have learnt about the value of audience and purpose analysis,
and studied the principles and techniques that underpin the drafting of
effective written messages, you are ready to begin composing business
messages of your own. This is the subject matter of the chapters that follow.
However, it would be unrealistic to expect a communicator to sit down and
write a perfect message at the first attempt.

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This section describes the writing process that all effective writers use.

7.7.1 Stage one: Planning

This first stage includes all the activities that writers engage in before they
actually begin drafting messages. Activities might include jotting down
audience analysis notes, identifying the purpose, and thinking about the
register. These activities lead to the drawing up of a list of information needed
for the message. Information gaps might become apparent and further
information then has to be collected.

Most writers find it helpful to produce an outline or a mind map of their

information. This helps to identify any information gaps. It also helps to
organise the information. (See Chapter 3, pages 54–56 for information on
mind mapping and outlining.)

7.7.2 Stage two: Drafting

Once you have collected your ideas, it is time to start drafting the message, in
other words, putting your thoughts into words. Depending on the length and
complexity of your document, you might produce several drafts before you are
satisfied. At this stage, focus on content. Do not worry about details such as
grammar and spelling. Ideally, for more complex documents, allow a day or
two’s break before proceeding to the next stage. This means that you will come
to stage three with fresh eyes.

7.7.3 Stage three: Revising

Read through your draft from the audience’s point of view. The checklist
below will help you to revise your message:
7.7.4 Stage four: Editing
The final stage is tackled only when you are satisfied that your message is
complete and phrased in the most effective way. Check grammar, punctuation
and spelling. Use your computer grammar check and spell check to help you
to do this. However, do not rely entirely on your computer. Keep a dictionary
and a thesaurus handy to double-check all the sections highlighted by your
computer. Remember that mistakes create barriers that interfere with
successful communication. If your document is a letter, email, memo or fax,
check for formatting errors. Then, when you are sure that everything is
correct, read your document once more before printing it or sending it off.

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Revision checklist
■ Will the audience understand the message?

■ Have all the details the audience needs to know been included?

■ How will the message make the audience feel?

■ Does the message have a clear focus?

■ Is the message likely to be effective?

■ Would organising the message differently make it more effective?

■ Would the message be more effective if I explained some of the points differently?

Make all the necessary changes.

Then look at the sentences one by one.

■ Is the register consistent and appropriate?

■ How could the ideas be stated more clearly?

■ Could I reduce the number of words?

■ Could sentences be rephrased for variety and interest?

■ Is the tone appropriate to my audience and message?

■ Is the paragraphing meaningful – one main idea per paragraph?

■ Could I use transitional words or numbering to show how the ideas are interconnected?

■ Is the layout attractive?

■ Does it aid understanding?

Use this approach for every message you write. Chapter 12, Academic
Writing, contains more information about the process of writing an academic
essay.

SUMMARY

It is important to pay attention to the presentation of a message, so that

the document looks attractive. Elements such as the choice of font and
numbering system all contribute to understanding. Finally, even the
most experienced writers go through the stages of planning, drafting,
revising and editing before a document is complete.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 What is meant by ‘register’?

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2 Differentiate between formal and consultative register by means of a

mind map. Begin with the term ‘register’ at the centre and then work
outwards. Your mind map should show the similarities and differences
between the two registers.
3 Match the writing techniques in Column A with the best example
selected from Column B. (Note that some of the examples are not
appropriate at all.)

Column A Column B

a specifics a Most of the workmen reported for duty.

b gender-inclusive language b At the end of the day, there needs to be

due consideration regarding what
needs to be decided by each and every
member.

c conciseness c Although crime of any kind cannot be

excused, we must remember that
criminals also have rights.

d parallel structure d Crowd attendance at the match between

the Rhinos and the
Buffaloes reached 32 000.

e the use of everyday words e I hereby exhort all members to ensure

that their attendance at meetings is
both timeous and regular.

Continue ➝
f the ‘you principle’ f To get the best out of your new Gobble
vacuum cleaner, please follow the list
of do’s and don’ts given below.

g Plug in the vacuum cleaner, select the

correct height setting and turn the
switch to the ‘on’ position.

h Please ensure that you attend meetings

on time.

4 What is the function of a topic sentence?

5 Name any three methods of paragraph development.

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6 Differentiate between ‘coherence’ and ‘cohesion’ in paragraphing.

7 Identify any five techniques a writer could use to ‘package’ a message.
8 Draw a flow chart to represent the writing process.

APPLICATION

1 Draw a line to represent the formality/informality continuum. Label the

one end ‘very formal’, and the other ‘very informal’ (see Figure 7.1 on
page 103).
1.1 Place the following written extracts in their approximate position
on the continuum. Give reasons for your answers.
a I hereby acknowledge receipt of your esteemed
letter of the 1st inst.
b cu 2moro lol c Thank you for your email,
which we received today. d Thnx 4 yr txt. e
We look forward to hearing from you.
f It’ll be great to hear from you.
2 Think of formal but simple English words for the italicised slang
expressions:
a That guy is a lekker ou.
b I’m taking my chick out tonight.
c My old lady tuned me she’s gonna donner me.
3 Provide slang expressions for the italicised words:
a The motor vehicle collided with a lamp
post. b My boyfriend says he loves me. c
Small children can be fun to play with.
4 Look up the meanings of denotation and connotation on page 111. Then,
by discussing the connotations of the italicised words in the list below,
explain why each was chosen as the name of the given product.
a Jaguar for a motor car
b Stallion for a truck c
Opium for a perfume.
5 You missed an appointment with:
■ your friend
■ your new doctor.

You feel so bad that you want to apologise in writing. Which of the following
would be appropriate, in terms of register, for:

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■ your friend?
■ your doctor?

Give reasons for your answers.

a I’m terribly sorry I couldn’t make it on Thursday.
b I would like to apologise for the inconvenience I must have caused
you by missing my appointment.
6 The message below was written by the CEO of Global Business
Systems. She passed it on to you, the public relations manager, with the
instruction that the message should be sent to all staff.
The message has been written quite formally, but you feel it should be
rewritten in a more consultative register before it can be sent to staff.
Rewrite the message.

Global Business Systems has recently appointed ABC Construction to convert the
company buildings to accommodate disabled customers and staff. Construction will
begin on 7 July and will include the following:
■ Lifts will be installed at both ends of the building.
■ Wheelchair ramps will be installed at both entrances to the building.
■ Each restroom in the building will be altered to include a cubicle designed to
accommodate a wheelchair.

Construction will be complete by the end of August or early in September.

7 A close colleague dropped this note on your desk:

Hey bru, why don’t we organise a bash and get all the guys from the office together?
We could even ask the old girl (a reference to your manager). You send out the
invites.
You agree that a get-together is a good idea and are willing to send out the
invitations. However, your friend’s register is hardly suitable for a note to
your manager.
Write the message inviting her to the function, which you will deliver to
your manager. Remember to keep sentences short.
8 Collect examples of messages written in varying registers and bring
them to class for analysis and discussion.
9 The following very vague message was sent to a customer.
In pairs, read the message, identifying areas of vagueness and suggesting
details that could be included.

Dear Madam

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FAULTY PRODUCT

Thank you for your letter informing us of your problem. We are sorry you have had difficulty
with one of our products.

We will gladly exchange the item. Simply come into our store and one of our staff will attend
to you.

However, you might like to consider another option. In a week or so, we are expecting stocks
of the new model, which has some attractive additional features, and yet costs very little extra.
We would be happy to exchange your model for a new model, plus the cash adjustment.

We look forward to being of service to you.

Yours faithfully

MANAGER

10 Write the following short messages, ensuring that you include all the
specific details your audience needs to know. Keep sentences short.
a To your friend in Durban, telling her that you will be in town to stay
with relatives and would like to spend a day with her
b To a fellow student, asking whether you could borrow a textbook –
you won’t keep it for long
c To a fellow student, giving details about a computer skills course
you think both of you should attend
d To a lecturer, explaining your absence from a test
e To your parents, asking for money to pay for a textbook that you
urgently need
Compare your answers with your neighbour’s.

11 Difficult words and expressions have been underlined in the following

sentences. Replace them with simpler words. a We require the goods by
Wednesday. b We concur with your suggestion that the software should
be replaced. c It transpired that the accident was caused by misty
conditions. d The company will increase your remuneration from next
month.
e I wish to acknowledge receipt of your payment.
12 The message below is difficult to decode because the writer has used
empty verbs and nominalisation, instead of using precise verbs (see page
106). Rewrite the message using precise verbs. The problem areas have
been underlined for you.

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After the engineer had made a study of the area, he gave a description of
the problems to the manager. The manager then made a recommendation
to bring in another consultant. Although this would not effect a reduction
in costs, he thought that it would provide a solution to the problem.

13 In groups, formulate the following lists, ensuring that items are parallel
in structure:
a A list of qualities needed to succeed as a student
Begin the list as follows: To succeed as a student, you need to
be: b A list of skills needed to succeed in business
Begin the list as follows: To succeed in business, you need the
following skills:
14 Write a job advertisement that includes a list of four requirements for
applicants, such as a certain qualification or particular skills. Make sure
that the items on the list are parallel in structure. Keep sentences short.
15 The message below is not very clear. Improve clarity by ensuring that
listed items are parallel in structure.
The team was due to meet in Pretoria on April 14, they were meeting in
Bloemfontein on May 10 and in Cape Town on 7 June. At the meetings,
the team planned to talk to politicians, economists and those from the
banking sector. The aim of the meetings was to find a way to effect a
reduction in crime and increase business confidence. They hoped that this
would lead to an increase in foreign investment and that more tourists
would visit the country.

16 The following is from a travel brochure about X-ville, a little-known town

in the Free State. Change the subheadings where necessary, so that they
are parallel in structure.
Discover X-ville

Welcome to X-ville, the jewel of the Free State. To ensure that your stay in our best-kept secret
is as enjoyable as possible, we’ve put together some useful details for you.

How to find us (Model the other subheadings on this one.)

Places of interest

Entertainment

A shopper’s paradise

Accommodation

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17 Collect examples of lists from the print media – especially job

advertisements. Are the lists always parallel in structure? Bring your
examples to class for discussion.
18 The message below is very wordy. Replace the underlined wordy
expressions with more concise (and simpler) ones.
We are of the opinion that student holidays are too long. Thus, the
question as to whether we should lengthen the academic year must be
debated. This will probably only be done at a later date. The reason why
is because, at this moment in time, we are occupying our minds with other
matters.

19 Some of the following messages have been written in the passive voice;
the rest are active. For discussion:

■ Which sentences should remain in the passive voice (either because the
‘doer’ is not important, or to avoid making an accusation)?
■ Which sentences should be left in the active voice?
■ Which sentences would be improved by a change from passive to
active?

a A new voicemail system will be installed by next week. b

Drugs were tested for their effectiveness by ABC
Laboratories. c Mr Mbana did not hand in the accounting
statement on time.
d Through text messaging, students were informed of their end-of-year
results.
e The first prize in the essay competition was won by Vuyani Ziwa.
20 In groups of four, choose one (or more) of the following messages, and then
write it as concisely (but specifically) as possible. Sentences should be
kept short.
a To your lecturer, asking for permission to postpone your oral
presentation to a later date. Give a reason for your request.
b To a student counsellor, asking for an appointment to discuss study
methods with her.
c To the members of your sports team, telling them that Saturday’s
match has been postponed until the following Saturday.
d To your colleagues at the office, giving them the details of the end-of-
year dinner.

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Exchange messages with other group members for feedback.

21 Be on the alert for wordy messages – in the print media, on the radio or
TV or in the social media. Write them down and bring them to class for
discussion.
22 Students are regularly confronted with messages such as the following
one. Rewrite the message, conveying the same information, but in a more
polite and positive way.
For discussion: Is negative, almost threatening language sometimes
necessary? How does the use of words such as not, never, allowed/not
allowed and permitted/not permitted make you feel?

XYZ LABORATORY RULES

Students may not use this laboratory unless they hold a valid student card. They may not
use the printer unless an amount of R30,00 has been paid into the faculty printing account.
Students may not in any way tamper with the equipment in the laboratory. Talking is not
permitted as other students are then not able to concentrate. Students may not stay longer
than two hours in the laboratory or other students will not have a chance to work on their
assignments. Food and drink are not permitted in the laboratory.

23 Working with a partner, imagine that you are a cellular service provider.
Write a short message to subscribers informing them that for a two-
month period subscriptions will be halved. Subscribers will also be able
to send 20 free SMS messages per month, and make peak-time calls for a
total of 20 minutes per month free of charge.

As well as making sure that your message is clear and concise,

incorporate the ‘you principle’ where appropriate.

24 Find examples of advertisements or promotional messages that

incorporate the use of the ‘you principle’ and bring them to class for
discussion.
25 In groups, read the message below and discuss any bias evident in the
extract.
Crowds gathered to mark the opening of the Ithuba Craft Centre. Among them were
professional people such as doctors, lawyers and accountants, accompanied by their wives.
Even teachers were represented.

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A choir of junior-school children, who were remarkably well-behaved, given the

circumstances, entertained the visitors. But as time wore on, the heat increased and the
children became restless. Appeals then had to be made to their mothers to take them
outside. One person even fainted but, fortunately, a lady doctor came forward and offered
to help.

At the end of the function, the men gathered in groups to discuss the exciting prospects
opened up by the new centre, while the women served the tea and then tidied up.

26 Rewrite the messages below to remove bias:

a Every employee has the right to examine his personal
file. b An alcoholic causes immense stress to his wife and
children.
c An engineer has a demanding job as he has to combine a high level of
technical expertise with superior writing skills.
d Staff are invited to bring their wives to the function.
e Although no witnesses have come forward, police suspect that two hit
men were responsible.
f All men are created equal.
g A nurse often finds that her husband is not very understanding of her
working hours.
27 Look out for examples of insensitive use of language in the media and in
the community, and bring them to class for discussion.
28 The sentences in the paragraph below have been jumbled up.
28.1 Identify the topic sentence and then rearrange the sentences into
a coherent order.
a Later on, people began to write on pieces of leather, which were
rolled into scrolls.
b In the earliest times, people carved or painted messages on
rocks.
c In the Middle Ages, heavy paper called parchment was used
for writing and books were laboriously copied by hand.
d With the invention of the printing press in the middle of the
15th century, the modern printing industry was born.
e Some form of written communication has been used
throughout the ages.

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28.2 What method of paragraph development was used?

28.3 How was coherence achieved?
29 The paragraph below lacks a topic sentence. Write a suitable topic
sentence.
________________________________________ . The first skill needed is the
ability to listen effectively. Without this skill, students will have difficulty in
gaining value from the classes they attend. Next, students need to cultivate
speaking skills, so that they can question issues of concern, and take part in
debates and discussions. Thirdly, if students are not to be overwhelmed by
increasing amounts of information, they need to develop reading strategies.
Last, but not least, is the ability to put what they have learnt into writing,
for this remains the basis for assessment.

29.1 Which method of paragraph development was used?

29.2 How was coherence achieved?
29.3 Could the sentences be ordered differently? If so, what would you
change, and why?
30 Write a paragraph of your own in which you explain why you chose your
course of study.
30.1 Begin with the following topic sentence: I chose to study
____________ for a number of reasons.
30.2 Now ‘package’ your paragraph by giving it a heading and using
numbers or bullets for the supporting sentences.
31 Write a short essay on any one of the following topics, in which you
compare and contrast:
a school life with life at a higher education
institution b your present job with your previous one
c the organisation for which you work now with the one for which you
worked before
d your current goals in life with those you had when you were a child e
your present taste in music/books/films with your taste when you
were younger
f or choose a topic of your own.
Your essay should have five paragraphs:

■ an introductory paragraph

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■ a further three paragraphs in which you discuss points of similarity or

difference, one main point per paragraph (about four or five sentences
per paragraph)
■ a concluding paragraph.
Make sure that your essay is both coherent and cohesive.

■ Now ‘package’ your essay by giving it a title and providing subheadings

for each of the paragraphs in the body of the essay. Make sure that the
subheadings are all parallel in structure.

32 Find a short paragraph in a magazine article that you believe is effective.

Paste it onto a sheet of paper and then write down why you think the
paragraph works. You should refer to: ■ the topic sentence ■ the method
of development ■ coherence.

Bring your paragraph to class for discussion.

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 Chapter 8

Business Correspondence

OBJECTIVES

The ability to draft messages efficiently and effectively is a valuable

workplace skill. Often, the impression gained of an organisation depends
wholly on the style, tone and quality of its written messages. In this
chapter, you will put the writing principles discussed in Chapters 5 and
7 into use as you learn how to format and structure business messages.
With practice, you should be able to formulate messages that meet the
needs of your readers, achieve your intended purpose, and create a
positive impression of you and your organisation.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ select the appropriate medium for your message – letter, email,

memorandum or facsimile (fax)
■ set out a letter, email, memorandum or fax using an appropriate format
■ write business messages that cater for the needs of your readers –
the audience
■ write a variety of business messages that fulfil their purpose(s)
■ draft messages by following an organisational
plan ■ redraft examples of ineffective messages.

8.1 LETTERS, EMAIL, MEMORANDUMS AND FACSIMILES (FAXES)

It is important that you choose the appropriate medium for your particular
audience, purpose and message. Whatever medium you choose, remember
that all four mediums allow for one-way communication only, because
feedback is delayed. A second chance to get the message right is seldom
available.

The four media, their characteristics and uses are discussed below.
 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

8.1.1 Letters
The business letter is one of the means used by an organisation to keep in
touch with its customers; sometimes it is the only means. Good-quality paper
and an attractive letterhead play their part in creating a favourable
impression, but they are less important than the message the letter carries,
the style of writing and the tone of the letter.

Letters, particularly longer or more important ones, are often drafted and
revised over a period of a day or two before being signed and sent off (see
Chapter 7: The Writing Process, page 122). This process ensures that the
document is well thought out and provides the appropriate content in an
appropriate tone.

Increasingly, letters are sent as email attachments to ensure speedy

transmittal to their intended audiences. Saving the letter as a .pdf file before
sending ensures alterations cannot be made. If a handwritten signature is
required, the letter can be scanned and sent as an attachment.

Letters are used for external communication – that is, for messages going
outside the organisation. However, they are also used occasionally for official
messages from the organisation to an employee, such as an announcement of
a promotion or raise in salary.

The appropriate register for a letter is either formal or consultative,

depending on the audience, purpose and subject matter (see sections 7.1.1
and 7.1.2, page 102 ff.).

8.1.2 Electronic mail

Today, email is the most widely used communication medium for business
correspondence. This is because of its low cost, speed and ability to convey
information to multiple audiences, together with the pressure for paperless
offices. A feature of email is that diagrams, drawings and other documents
can be scanned and sent as attachments. Photographs can also be sent as
attachments.

Because of its speed, emailing feels almost like a face-to-face conversation.

However, email lacks face-to-face cues and should therefore be regarded as a
one-way communication medium. This means that emails, as with letters,
should be drafted and revised so that the correct content and appropriate tone
are conveyed. Moreover, when emotions are involved, it is wiser to pick up
the telephone or to meet with the audience face to face.

Email is used for external and internal communication. For external

communication, it is used for communication with customers and clients, and

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with other organisations with which business is conducted. Customers

therefore form an impression of the organisation from the quality of the
emails they receive.

For this reason, many organisations design and create templates to be used
for external emails. Such templates include the necessary organisational
contact details, but may also include company logos and slogans, and design
elements such as the use of colour. The use of templates standardises the
appearance of company emails and helps to convey the image of the
organisation. See page 148 for an example of an email using a template.

For internal communication, email is almost exclusively used – as a

substitute for letters, memos (see below) and informal notes. It can also
substitute for telephone calls when the audience is not available and time
allows. In addition, as mentioned above, letters and memos can be sent via
email as attachments.

Emails are written in formal, consultative or colloquial (conversational)

register, depending on the audience, purpose and subject matter. As a general
rule, even for informal emails to close colleagues, write as you speak, not as
you chat. The use of slang is inappropriate, as is ‘txt-speak’ and the use of
abbreviations and emoticons – codes your audience might not understand.

The key to effective use of email, as with letters and other media, is
consideration for your audience. The guidelines below should help you to
make the most effective use of email.

Guidelines for using email

■ Keep messages short – your audience has to read on-screen or from a mobile device.
■ Keep to one topic – send another email if more than one topic is to be presented.
■ Use headings, numbering and bulleted points where appropriate – these aid
understanding.
■ Plan ahead – send emails in sufficient time to enable your audience to receive,
consider and respond to them. If the message is urgent, telephone or arrange to
meet face to face.
■ Do not send angry messages – calm down first (even if it takes a day or two).
Remember that emotions are best dealt with face to face.
■ Do not use capital letters. THEY GIVE THE IMPRESSION YOU ARE SHOUTING AND
THEY ARE DIFFICULT TO READ.
■ Assume nothing is private – your email might be forwarded to others.
■ Always read your emails three times before sending them:
❏ first for content
❏ second for tone

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❏ third for grammar, punctuation and spelling.

8.1.3 Memorandums (memos)

A memorandum, commonly known as a memo, conveys a message sent
through the internal post of an organisation. It is used mainly to convey
information or instructions. Because the memorandum is internal, the style
is not as formal as that of a business letter.

Memos are frequently used for the following purposes:

■ to communicate instructions or information to different people, for example

the announcement of a workshop or course
■ to put on record the information, policies or decisions reached at a meeting
or conference
■ to keep people informed of events in the company
■ to request information, assistance or input from a co-worker or co-workers.

Memos are written in a formal or consultative register (see sections 7.1.1 and
7.1.2, page 102 ff.), depending on the audience, purpose and subject matter.

As noted above, in the modern business office, emails are generally used in
preference to memos. Where organisations still use memos for internal
communication, they are usually distributed as email attachments, rather
than through the internal post.

8.1.4 Facsimiles
The facsimile (fax) is not, strictly speaking, a medium. Rather, it is an office
machine that can be used to transmit other media such as letters, memos and
reports electronically. The advantages are that transmission is immediate,
and a hard copy is provided. However, modern technology enables the sending
of faxes directly to the receiver’s email inbox. In this case, the hard copy
advantage falls away.

The disadvantages are that certain types of fax paper fade – make a photocopy
if the fax is to be filed – and sometimes details on, for example, diagrams may
not be clear. Another disadvantage is that because fax machines are usually
shared among members of departments, confidentiality is not guaranteed.
Fax-to-email, however, ensures greater confidentiality. Moreover, documents
can be filed and forwarded, and copies can be printed.

Sometimes, a message is typed on the cover page that accompanies the fax.
In this case, the fax becomes a medium (see page 145 for the format of a cover
page).

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Although many offices still fax documents, email has become the preferred
medium.

8.2 FORMATS OF LETTERS, EMAILS, MEMORANDUMS AND FAXES

A professionally set out document makes a favourable impression on your

reader. Format errors distract the reader from the content of your message.
Therefore, make sure you check your document to eliminate format errors.
8.2.1 Format of letters
Business letters are formatted to ensure that:

■ the letter reaches the correct receiver

■ response to the letter is facilitated
■ subject matter is apparent at a glance.

Traditionally, the writer’s details were placed on the right, with the receiver’s
details (also known as the inside address) on the left. Today, placement of the
writer’s details has become a matter of personal preference. Many writers
prefer to place their details on the left to simplify word-processing.

An option for organisations is to design a letterhead template that conveys

the image of the organisation. Elements such as the company logo, colour and
a special font can be used. Letterheads also include additional contact details
such as cellphone numbers, email and website addresses and the social media
such as Facebook on which the organisation has a presence. Letters are then
emailed as an attachment.

The advantage of the template option is that details such as email addresses
and cellphone numbers can be customised by departments and individual
senders within the organisation.

Save larger files to be sent as attachments – including files containing

letterhead templates – in a compressed (zipped) folder. This reduces data size
and facilitates ease of access.

Alternatively, letterheads can be pre-printed for letters to be sent via the

postal services. For this option, the appearance of the letterhead, together
with the quality of the paper used, contributes to the overall impression
created by the letter.

■ Business letter from an individual. If you write a business letter as an

individual to a company, the following format is used:

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Sender’s address 20 Church Street

(The address can also
be placed on the left) Walmer
PORT ELIZABETH
6070

Date 17 April 20 __

Receiver’s name The Manager

and address
Note: no puctuation for
AC Botha & Co (Pty) Ltd
names, titles, dates and 29 Market Street
addresses
JOHANNESBURG
2000

Salutation Dear Sir/Madam

Subject heading: ORDER NUMBER 12/642

gives an overview of the
content of the letter

Body: Thank you

the content structured into
an introduction, central
section and conclusion,
giving direction, if
necessary, for future action
I wish

Complimentary close
Use Yours sincerely if Yours faithfully
receiver's name was used
in the salutation

Signature

Sender’s initials
and surname J Haxton

■ Business letter from an organisation. The example shows the block format,
often used today because it is easy to type. The example also shows the parts
found in professional letters:

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Company name The Bay Company

and address 11 Russell Road
Mayaba Engineering
PORT ELIZABETH
PO Box 533
6000
TAMBOERSKLOOF
8000
Alternative contact Tel: 041 581 7172 Fax: 041 581 7174
details Email: mc@bayco.co.za Web: www.bayco.co.za
FOR ATTENTION: Ms JT Green
Reference Ref: 2x703
Dear
(this Msfiling
assists Green
and
retrieval of letters)

Date 30 October 20 __

Receiver’s name Ms JT Green

and address
Supervisor
Mayaba Engineering
PO Box 533
TAMBOERSKLOOF
8000

Salutation Dear Ms Green

Subject line REFUND ORDER NUMBER J/1195

Body Thank you

Use the plural first

person pronoun We
because you
are writing as a
representative of the
organisation
Complimentary close Yours sincerely

Signature

Typed name M Chakela

Position in company
in upper case SALES MANAGER
Reference to items Encl
enclosed MC/cvh
Initials of sender
and typist

The example addresses the letter to an individual in the organisation. If she

is out of the office, the letter, which could be regarded as a personal letter,

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might not be opened. To avoid this, the receiver can be addressed as shown
below.

Mayaba Engineering
FOR ATTENTION: Ms JT Green *

PO Box 533
TAMBOERSKLOOF
8000

* This line is optional.

The envelope should then be addressed as follows.

Most people delegate responsibilities when they are away. The letter will be
opened and dealt with by someone else, if possible.

8.2.2 Format of emails

The email software automatically provides the sender’s name and email
address. The date and time the email was sent are also automatically
recorded. This allows you to concentrate on formulating the subject heading,
which must differentiate your email from all the others in the receiver’s inbox.

After you have typed your email, the format will look something like the
example below:

need to see the message. Carbon

stakeholders is a way of showing,
carried out their instructions.

ecific and meaningful as possible.

going, alter the subject line as the
fresh email.

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Receiver’s email
address
Subject

Salutation

Body

Complimentary close

Signature, which
includes contact
details appropriate
for an external
audience

Note also the following features of email format:

Continue ➝

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Reference:
The reference number(s) can be placed on the line above the
salutation or at the end of the subject heading (see the
example on page 148).
Salutation:
For more formal emails, for example to customers, clients or
senior managers in the organisation, it is appropriate to use
Dear. Use a courtesy title and last name unless you know the
client or manager well and are on first name terms. For less
formal emails, for example an internal message to a close
colleague in your department, an informal salutation such as
Hi or Hello, and the person’s first name, can be used. If in
doubt, use the more formal salutation rather than risk
offending the receiver by being too familiar. Sometimes, the
salutation is omitted, although this sounds abrupt. It is
inadvisable, other than to a close colleague.

Complimentary close:
Yours sincerely, or, to receivers you know well, Kind regards,
Regards, Thank you or Thanks.
Signature:
Use your first and last names if the receiver was addressed by
means of a courtesy title and last name. Use your first name
if the receiver was addressed by first name.

Provide the contact details that would normally be provided

in a letter: job title, department, name of organisation,
physical address, telephone and/or cellphone numbers, fax
number, email address, web address and social media details
if applicable. For internal emails, omit the name of the
organisation, the physical address, and the web and social
media details.

8.2.3 Format of memorandums

The format of a memo is completely different from that of a letter. Most
organisations have printed memo stationery with headings that eliminate the
need for formal inside addresses, salutations and closings. Alternatively,
organisations might prefer to use a template, either custom-designed or
provided by the word-processing software in use.

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Here is an example showing the standard headings that appear in all memos.

Company name and/

or logo People’s Cars Company
MEMORANDUM
Receiver’s name and
job title, if applicable TO: All Employees

Sender’s name in
lower case and job FROM: J William
title in upper case GENERAL MANAGER

Date DATE: 8 August 20__

Subject heading SUBJECT: SCREENING FOR HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE

Body The company will provide …

Contact your supervisors …

Initials or signature of
sender
J William

Note: Although a memo has no complimentary close, it is usually signed or initialled

at the end.

8.2.4 Format of faxes

As discussed in section 8.1.4, fax machines are mainly used to transmit other
media such as letters, memos and reports. Because some of the fax pages
might go missing, faxes should always be sent with a cover page. This should
state:

■ the receiver’s name and company with fax number

■ the sender’s name and company with fax number
■ the number of pages sent
■ the sender’s telephone number in case transmission is not clear.
The sender should also type page 1 of 5, page 2 of 5 and so on at the top of
each page. Receivers can then check that they have received the complete
message.

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An example of a fax cover page is given below. The example shows a general
cover page intended for use by members of a large faculty, who type their
individual telephone and fax numbers in the relevant spaces. Alternatively,
use customised cover pages that include pre-printed telephone and fax numbers.

Global
University
Faculty of
Communication

Number of pages including cover: Date:

To:

Company:

Fax:

From:

Fax:

Phone:

Subject:

MESSAGE:

If any pages in this transmission are unclear or if not all pages have been
received, please advise us immediately.

departments can

8.3 ORGANISATIONAL PLANS FOR MESSAGES

Knowing how to format a document correctly is important. However, even

more important is the content of the document – the actual message. Yet
many writers struggle to get started.
To assist you, this chapter sets out three organisational plans. These plans
show you how to structure your messages. Once you are familiar with the

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plans and their different applications, you will be able to adapt them for your
own communicative purposes. The plans are as follows:

■ A plan for communicating good or neutral news. Examples are enquiries/

requests such as asking for a quotation, and informational messages such
as announcing a training programme or promotion. In addition,
complaint/claim messages are included in this category, as are positive
responses to complaints. Messages of thanks and letters of invitation are
also examples of good news messages.
■ A plan for communicating bad news. Examples are refusals of requests or
notifications of price increases.
■ A plan for persuading. An example is a sales message.

These plans are shown in the diagram below:

BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

Direct plan Indirect plan

Good news Neutral news Bad news Persuasion

Get straight to the point, Build up to the main point

ie main point sentence first

Examples Examples Examples

■ Enquiry and reply ■ Request refusal ■ Sales promotion
■ Complaint/claim ■ Notification of
■ Thanks price increase
■ Invitation

Before structuring your message, be sure to analyse your audience. This will
help you to identify the information that your audience needs to know in order
to respond to your message. Also determine your purpose for your message so
that you have a clear understanding of the result that you want (see Chapter
5). Consult the section on the writing process in Chapter 7, pages 122–124 to
help you with planning, drafting, revising and editing your messages.

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8.3.1 Direct plan messages: Good or neutral news

The direct plan is the most widely used way to organise business messages.
It allows the reader to receive information efficiently and it is an easy way for
the writer to organise ideas.

This plan is used when the purpose of the message is to inform, either by
conveying good news or by being neutral. In the direct plan, the focal point of
the message is at the beginning.

The plan has the following steps.

■ Formulate a short but specific subject heading.

■ Identify and state the main point.
■ Plan the order of the supporting points, evidence or arguments.
■ Devise a suitable ending by pointing the way ahead.
■ Provide an optional goodwill ending.

These steps are explained below.

■ Subject heading . This is a short but specific heading that sums up the
content of your message. Use the keywords in the main point sentence to
help you to formulate the subject heading for your message (see below).
■ Main point . In your planning, formulate the main point sentence exactly
as it will appear in your message. As this sentence will be at or near the
beginning of your message, it should not state the main point only, but also
attract interest, often by demonstrating how the point affects the reader
personally.
Although the main idea is directly stated, it should be politely phrased.
Therefore, if your main point is to request, for example, information, it is
usual in English to phrase the request as a question.
■ Supporting points. Once the main point has been formulated, organise the
supporting points in the following ways.
❏ Evidence or argument . Organise in the most logical order from the
reader’s point of view.

❏ Details . Organise in the clearest way, often by arranging them in

descending order of importance. Be sure to be specific (see section 7.2.1,
page 104).

■ Ending . In a direct plan message, end by pointing the way ahead, indicating
what you would like the reader to do next or stating what you will do next.
■ Optional goodwill ending. Consider including a final goodwill sentence, to
thank the reader for her or his time and effort. This is optional.

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Here is an example of a direct plan enquiry email. For this example, a

Sender’s email From: Gideon Eksteen <gideon.eksteen@globaluni.ac.za>

address, date and Sent: 21 March 20_ 11:27 AM
time inserted by
To: Elephant Lodge
software
Receiver’s email Subject: Accommodation: Visiting Academics: 2–4
address September 20_
Short specific
heading
Sample email
template

Global University
Reference placed Our ref: E001
here or in subject
heading
Formal salutation Dear Sir/Madam

Main point sentence We are interested in accommodating a delegation of visiting

oriented to reader’s German academics at your lodge. Our party of five will arrive
interests
at approximately 16:30 on Monday, 2 September 20 _, and
depart after lunch on Wednesday 4 September.

If you are able to accommodate us, please would you let us

have a written quotation for the following:
Supporting details
set out in numbered 1. Single-room en suite accommodation for five on a bed and
order to facilitate breakfast basis.
reading and 2. A light lunch for eight on 4 September.
response
Your quotation should reflect:
Ending points the 1. Total accommodation costs.
way ahead 2. Cost of lunch per head – please provide three menu
options.
Decision-making
meeting sets We would appreciate a response before 2 May 20 __. Our
deadline management committee meets on 3 May, when a decision
will be made.

If you need further information, I can be contacted on 041

585 3442.

Continue➝
template is used.

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

Goodwill ending We look forward to hearing from you.

Complimentary
close Yours sincerely
Name and contact G Eksteen
details suitable
for an external
Cell 083 328 6045
audience Personal Assistant to the Dean: Faculty of Humanities

Global University
Faculty of Humanities
Private Bag X6011 Port Elizabeth 6000
t +27 41 585 3442 f +27 41 585 3116
e gideon.eksteen@globaluni.ac.za
w www.globaluni.ac.za
Skype: gideon.eksteen1

Institutional slogan Tomorrow’s leaders today

if applicable

Social media details

could be included if
applicable

In the followingsections, different applicationsof the direct plan are discussed.

Examples are given for each application.

8.3.1.1 Enquiries and requests

Enquiries and requests ask for facts and information about products and
services. An enquiry or request should contain sufficient, relevant details so
that the reader knows exactly what you want. If the message is well-written,
containing all the necessary information organised in a helpful way, the task
of replying is made easy. The above email is an example of an enquiry.

Here is an example of a more complex enquiry letter. The information has

been organised using bulleted points and numbering to help the reader to
follow the details. This also makes it easy to reply.

From the writer’s viewpoint, using bulleted points and numbering makes the
letter easier to write.

The letter is written by a private individual to a company.

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Sender’s address 12 Marula Flats

is on the left 16 Esselen Street
in this example
SUNNYSIDE
0002

2 October 20__

Receiver’s name Ms L Katlegong

and address Sales Manager
Korana Confectionery cc
PO Box 1350
PRETORIA WEST
0117
Dear Ms Katlegong
Subject heading SALE OF SWEETS AT LOCAL SCHOOLS
sums up
content Two partners and I are setting up a small business selling
sweets and other items to learners at schools during break
times. This will be done through a network of agents
First paragraph working on commission. We are interested in using certain
is oriented to of your sweets for our business.
the reader’s
interests, Our research has shown that the lines listed below are the
leading to the
main point most popular in our target market:
sentence ■ gobstoppers
■ purple pops
■ swizzers and
■ marvels.

We plan to re-package the products in small packs (two

sizes) of mixed sweets. We aim to reach even learners who
have only very small amounts of money to spend.

To implement our plan, we would require:

Supporting 1. an initial weekly order of 50 kg of each of the four sweet
details set out varieties
in bulleted
and numbered
points to ensure
readability

Continue➝
Specific details 2. a delivery time of Thursday afternoons at 14:00. We can are selected in
collect the sweets directly from your factory, or any other terms of what
the reader collection point that you nominate

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needs to know 3. the option to increase or decrease our order provided we give two
weeks’ written notice.

Register We undertake to:

is formal/ ■ pay the full cost of each week’s order by EFT into your consultative
bank account by 13:00 on Wednesdays
Parallel structure ■ email confirmation of payment before close of business

(16:30) each Wednesday. Way forward –

courteous call If you are interested in our proposal, please would you let for action us know.
Would you also let us know the price payable on each of the four types of sweet. If this
is acceptable to us, we would like to meet to discuss the way forward with you.
Indication of a
time frame sets As we would like to be ready to start when the school year a deadline for
opens next year, we would appreciate a response before the the response end of October.

Provision of If you need any further information, I can be contacted on cellphone number is
cellphone number 074 503 4444. helpful and facilitates I look forward to hearing from you.
contact, if necessary
Yours sincerely

Goodwill M Plaatjies ending

M Plaatjies

8.3.1.2 Informational messages

Informational messages convey information that readers need to know, such
as the announcement of a workshop. These messages often require action
from the reader. The appropriate information must therefore be provided so
that the reader can respond in the required way.

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Below is an example of an informational email requiring action.

Sender’s email address From: Marius Tom <marius@abc.com>

Date and time Sent: 2 February 20_ 9:26 AM
Contact group
Brief but specific To: Staff
heading Subject: Report Writing Workshop

Formal salutation for Dear Colleagues

distant audience
As part of our staff development programme, the HR
Department will be presenting a workshop on report
writing.

Main point sentence We invite applications from staff interested in attending

this workshop. It is intended for staff who regularly
write reports and would like to improve their skills.

Workshop details set Date: Monday 17 February 20__

out in a reader-friendly Time: 9:00 – 17:00
way
Venue: The HR Training Centre
Presenter: Mr T Pali of Ace Training Consultants
Cost: No charge
See the attachment for course details.

Register is formal Lunch and morning and afternoon tea/coffee and

because relationship snacks will be provided.
between sender and
audience is distant
Applications will be accepted on a first come, first
served basis. Numbers are limited to 15.

Way forward
Specific details for Please email your applications to yolanda@abc.com or
applications are telephone her on extension 3442.
provided
Yours sincerely

Signature Marius Tom

M Tom
Training Manager HR Department Room 201
Contact details Extension number 3501
appropriate for an Cellular number 083 391 5566
internal audience
Email: marius@abc.com

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8.3.1.3 Responses to enquiries and requests

Responses to enquiries (and requests) should be prompt, to generate goodwill.
The way you handle enquiries often determines whether or not you will obtain
the reader’s business. Always address each point raised in the enquiry.
In your response, begin by:
■ using the same subject heading (unless unsuitable)
■ referring to the date of the previous email, letter or memo
■ referring briefly to the subject matter
■ using the reference number, if one was given.

An example of the relevant parts of a letter in response to an enquiry is given

below:

Sender’s address
Reference details –
or place at end of
subject heading Our ref: BD202 Your ref: CLE001

20 August 20__

Audience’s address

Dear Mr Banda

Subject heading
identifies reader’s COMMUNICATION SKILLS SHORT COURSE
letter

Reference to date
Thank you for your letter dated 16 August 20__ enquiring
of reader’s letter
and topic about a short course in communication skills.

If you are responding to an email, the original message can be included with
your response. It is then not necessary to refer to the subject matter. A
reference to the date is also unnecessary because the email software
automatically records the dates of all emails sent. However, if you delete the
original email (which saves network space) and send only your response,
follow the procedure described above.

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Here is a response to the letter on page 150.

Korana Confectionery cc
Korana Confectionery cc
111 New Street Pretoria West 0183
PO Box 1350 Pretoria West 0117
Tel 012 468 2543 Fax 012 468 2544
email sweets@kc.co.za
www.koranaconfectionery.co.za

Ref: MP002

Response is prompt 6 October 20__

Mr M Plaatjies
112 Marula Flats
16 Esselen Street
SUNNYSIDE
0181

Dear Mr Plaatjies

Subject heading SALE OF SWEETS AT LOCAL SCHOOLS

identifies reader’s
letter
Reference to date of
Thank you for your letter of 2 October and our telephonic
reader’s letter and conversation today regarding your new business venture.
topic As discussed, we are pleased that you have chosen our
confectionery lines for your business.

Main point sentence We would like to confirm your requirements as follows:

Supporting details. 1 four lines (gobstoppers, purple pops, swizzers and marvels)
Writer responds to in 50 kg quantities each week
points in reader’s
letter using the same 2 a collection time of Thursday at 14:00. Our Rosslyn Street
numbering system factory is the most convenient collection point
3 a written notice period of two weeks for changes to your
order.

Thank you for your offer of advance payment.

Continue➝
8.3.1.4 Complaints

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

As discussed, we can offer a discounted price as follows:

Important 50 kg or more R20,00 per kg

Less than 50 kg R25,00 per kg

information is framed for the reader

The price is the same for each of the four lines.

Way ahead
We hope this will be acceptable to you, and look
forward to your response.

In the meantime, may we offer our best wishes for success

Goodwill ending in your new
business.

Yours sincerely

L Katlegong

L Katlegong
SALES MANAGER

LK/hp

A complaint, also called a claim, could be regarded as bad news from the point
of view of the audience. However, it is customary to use the direct plan for
complaints. If you prefer a more indirect approach, you could use or adapt the
indirect plan for bad news, described on pages 165–171.
As claim messages require action to solve a problem, the following are
essential.
■ Explain the problem, supplying any information that will make tracing
the transaction or situation easier: exact date of purchase, number, size,
model etc.
■ Detail your loss or inconvenience objectively.
■ Avoid negative words like demand, worthless and dishonest.
■ Explain clearly what you want, such as an adjustment or a prompt
investigation.
■ Express appreciation for the reader’s attention.

An example of a claim follows:

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Sender’s email From: Refiloe Zauka <refiloe.zauka@globaluni.ac.za>

Date and time Sent: 20 January 20__ 11:27 AM
Receiver’s email To: Watson Book Supplies
CC cc: David Mba
Short, specific heading Subject: Order of Textbooks

Dear Ms Watson

Specific details orient I ordered 900 copies of Communication skills for engineers
reader
edited by S Jordaan to be delivered to the Global University
by 5 January 20__.

Main point sentence However, to date, the books have not arrived.

Inconvenience The above order was timeously placed on 2 October last

objectively described year (20__) to ensure that the textbooks would be available
for students registering for communication courses in
January. Lectures commenced on 19 January and students
have not been able to purchase the textbook – a most
unsatisfactory situation from the lecturers’ and students’
point of view.

I have enclosed a copy of the order form and would

Required action
like you to follow up on this delay. Please let me know
when this order will be delivered or whether an alternative
supplier should be contacted.

Thanks Thank you for attending to this.

Yours sincerely

Dr R Zauka
Cell 083 924 6375
Head of Department: Languages

Global University
Faculty of Humanities
Private Bag X6011 Port Elizabeth 6000
t 041 585 3442 f 041 585 3116
e refiloe.zauka@globaluni.ac.za
w www.globaluni.ac.za

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

8.3.1.5 Adjustments
These are responses to complaints, in which adjustments are granted. Here
is a list of essential elements of messages granting adjustments:
■ Thank the writer for the opportunity to make the adjustment.
■ Explain the cause of the problem.
■ State what adjustment you intend making.
■ Promote goodwill by giving an assurance that the error will not be
repeated.
The example below sets out a positive response to the complaint on page
156.
Response is prompt Subject: Order of Textbooks
Dear Dr Zauka
We refer to your email of 20 January regarding the delivery of
Communication skills for engineers. We followed up
immediately and are pleased to tell you that you will receive the
900 copies ordered in October last year before the end of the
Announces good news in
month.
main point sentence
Our investigations showed that the first shipment was delivered
to the Global University: Algoa Campus in Struandale. When no
Regains confidence of one at that address would accept shipment, the order was
customer by explaining returned to us. Now that we have your letter, we see that the
what happened and by order should have been sent to the Summerstrand Campus. You
suggesting plans for can be sure that we will investigate delivery and return
improvements ‘We’ used procedures with our staff to see if we can improve existing
because writer methods.

8.3.1.6 Thanks and congratulations

Messages of thanks or congratulations are seldom written. Yet,
provided sincere appreciation or congratulations are conveyed, these
messages build relationships and promote goodwill.

Here is an example of an email conveying thanks.

represents the We guarantee that you will receive the order of textbooks by 30
organisation January. Please accept our sincerest apologies for the
inconvenience you have experienced.
Yours sincerely
Closes confidently –
promotes goodwill S Watson (Ms)
From: Sally Director
Watson Watson Book Supplies
<info@wbs.co.za>
110 Abbot Park Place Johannesburg
Sent: 21 January
1012 t 011 451 6224 f 011 451
20__ 11:27 AM
3112 e info@wbs.co.za w
To: Refiloe
Zauka www.wbs.co.za
Thanks are conveyed promptly

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 Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Formal salutation for To: Marius Tom

senior audience
Subject: Report Writing Workshop
Topic and date
Dear Mr Tom
identify the workshop
for the reader Main I was one of the fortunate 15 who attended the workshop on
point sentence
report writing, held on 17 February. I was so impressed with
what was offered – in fact, it far exceeded my expectations.
Specific information
about the effectiveness Thando Pali was outstanding, presenting his material in an
of the workshop conveys interesting way. Also, the many opportunities to participate
sincerity
enabled us to put what we were learning into practice straight
away. We were all so busy that no one noticed the time passing.

I came away with much greater confidence in my own ability as

Although register is
I now have a clear understanding of how to write an effective
formal, word choice, report.
punctuation and
phrasing create a more Please congratulate the HR staff on their organisation of the
informal impression workshop. I thought the idea of name cards with a motivational
slogan on the reverse side was inspired!
Goodwill ending
Thank you for a very worthwhile day.
Formal complimentary
Yours sincerely
close in keeping with the
salutation Susan Smith
Signature appropriate for Ms S Smith
an internal email
Production Engineer
From: Susan Smith
<susan@abc.com> Manufacturing
Sent: 19 Room 412
February 20__ 10:03 Extension number 3201 Cellular number 082 221 5078
AM Email susan@abc.com
8.3.1.7 Letters of invitation
Businesses, organisations and clubs often invite a guest speaker to a special
function. Such an invitation is usually good news, but you should remember
that you are asking a favour. You should be courteous and considerate;
therefore, attention to detail is particularly important. It inspires confidence

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

in the reader, who knows exactly what is involved, and increases your chances
of receiving a positive response.
In your letter, you should:
■ Invite the speaker and explain why he or she is invited.
■ Describe for the speaker:
❏ the background to or reason for the occasion
❏ the background and general interests of the audience and what aspect
the speaker is to emphasise
❏ the number of people expected.
■ Give the following detailed information to the speaker:
❏ an indication of the length of time – for example, 30 minutes – allocated
to the speech
❏ the subject matter of the speech or whether the speaker may choose
❏ the venue, address, date and time.
■ Explain to the speaker:
❏ if and where s/he will be met
❏ who is paying for expenses
❏ whether there will be payment for giving the speech.
■ Thank the speaker or express appreciation for his or her attention. Do not
assume that the invitation has already been accepted, but express the hope
that it will be accepted.
Once the invitation has been accepted, request biographical details. Do this
only if you have been unable to obtain the details through, for example, an
Internet search. It is advisable, if you are approaching a senior person, to
request the details from the speaker’s personal assistant, if applicable, rather
than from the guest speaker directly.
On the next page there is an example of a letter of invitation:
Global University
Public Relations Management Department
Private Bag X6011
PORT ELIZABETH

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6000 t 041 585 3415 f 041 585 6711 e

keith.beyi@globaluni.ac.za
2 September 20__

Ms P Batang
CEO
Ahead Corporate Affairs
PO Box 6976
VEREENIGING 1930

Dear Ms Batang
Subject heading
announces the content INVITATION TO BE GUEST SPEAKER
– can be omitted if
preferred Our annual awards evening for public relations students takes
place on 15 November 20__. We would like to invite you to be
Invitation to the reader the guest speaker on this special occasion, our 25 th awards
and the reason for the
ceremony, and to present the awards.
invitation
The awards evening, which takes the form of a dinner, is the
highlight of the PR calendar. Each year, we invite a guest speaker
Supporting details from the field of Public Relations to address the students about
organised as follows: their chosen career. As one of the foremost graduates of the
Global University you would offer our students a rare privilege if
■ Background details you were to accept our invitation.
about the occasion
The audience will be made up of approximately 90 students, their
lecturers and senior university academics. The Dean of the Arts
Faculty and the Deputy Vice-Chancellor: Academic will also
attend. The guest speech, for which approximately 30 minutes
■ Details about the has been allocated, is scheduled for immediately after the first
audience and the course. The topic should have a PR angle. Other than that, the
speech choice of subject matter is yours.

The awards will be presented after the main course has been
served. Your role in this will be to hand over the awards to
approximately eight recipients.

Continue ➝
■ Venue and time
■ Further details about
the function
web
www.globaluni.ac.za
UNIVERSITY

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■ Details about here in Summerstrand, Port Elizabeth. The function is scheduled for
travel, transport, 19:00 and we anticipate that the evening will be over by 22:30. The
accommodation and
payment
hotel has a function room that is ideal for the type of event we are
planning. The ambiance is inviting and the acoustics are excellent.

We are fortunate to have sponsorship for our function, and will be

able to pay for your return flight on SAA, transport and
Way forward, with accommodation at the Fountain Hotel. Our funds also stretch to a
courteous request for
action small honorarium – we wish we could offer more.

We would so appreciate it if you would consider accepting our

Details about final invitation. We know our students would value and be inspired by the
arrangements opportunity to listen to one of the University’s most successful
alumni.
Note: although this letter
comes from an Please could you let us know your decision before 30 September. If
organisation, it cannot be you are able to accept, we will telephone your office closer to the
regarded as an example of time to arrange flight and transport details.
routine business
correspondence. A We look forward to hearing from you.
reference number and
writer’s and typist’s
initials are therefore not Yours sincerely K Beyi
The venue is the
Prof K Beyi
Fountain Hotel, a four-
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT: PUBLIC RELATIONS MANAGEMENT
star establishment,
used

The above letter could have been shortened by listing details such as date,
time and venue as shown in the email on page 152. Writers have to judge the
effect this will have on the tone of the letter before making a choice.

8.3.1.8 Sponsorship letters

Should you be organising an event, whether sporting, entertainment or any
other type of event, you might need to approach an organisation for
sponsorship. This should be one that is likely to identify with the type of
activity in question. Research the organisation that you are considering to
check whether it has sponsored similar events or activities in the past.
Requests for sponsorship should be sent in a letter printed on your
organisation’s official stationery. In your letter, be clear and precise about
what you are asking of the organisation and set out what is in it for them.

When asking for sponsorship, you should:

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ address the letter to the person in charge of sponsorships at the company,

or an appropriate individual. This will make your letter more personal, and
differentiate it from other requests for financial assistance
■ describe the event for which you are requesting sponsorship. Highlight its
main features and the benefits to the community
■ mention the publicity that can be generated from sponsoring your event.
State the number of people expected to attend, if applicable, and where you
will include the names of the sponsors
■ request a specific amount of money
■ include your contact information to make it easy for the receiver of the letter
to contact you
■ thank the recipient for reading the letter and for his/her time. The
organisation probably receives many requests for sponsorship so it is
important to make yours stand out by being courteous and professional.
Here is an example of a sponsorship letter sent on behalf of a choir.

East Cape Children’s Choir

P O Box 2311
EAST LONDON
East Cape
5200 Children’s Choir

Email ecc.choir@webnet.co.za

12 February 20__

Mr S Fransman
Corporate Affairs Manager
Citi Bank
PO Box 432
EAST LONDON
5200

Address the person Dear Mr Fransman

responsible for
sponsorships

Continue➝
No subject heading – defer Mention event for which sponsorship is needed
direct request

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

Highlight the main Kenya in the East London leg of their South African tour. As a
features
result, the choir has received an invitation to tour Kenya, and
to perform on the same platform as the NCK. I have attached a
copy of their invitation to us, which includes the programme of
events.

The tour will take place in the winter school holidays from 1–
10 July 20__. It starts and ends in Nairobi. As well as performing
Mention benefits to the
community in five centres to audiences of up to 2 000, our choir of 30
children, aged 10 to 12, will have the opportunity to attend a
two-day workshop at the Nairobi Music Conservatoire. This is
a wonderful opportunity for our children to perform for new
audiences, to travel outside the country – a first for all our choir
members – and to learn from the workshop offered to them.

The experience gained will benefit not only the choir members,
but the other approximately 90 children from the community
who attend our weekly ‘singalongs’, Holiday Song Club and
practice sessions.

We estimate that the cost of travel to and from Nairobi for 30

children and four adults (the piano accompanist, two parents
and me) will be Rxx. Once we arrive, all accommodation and
other travel expenses will be covered by the NCK. A few of our
members are able to pay, or partially pay, their own travel
costs, a total of Rxx. We have also raised Rxx through our own
Request specific amount
fundraising efforts. That leaves an amount of Rxx, for which we
I represent the East
seek financial assistance. Our efforts to obtain funding from
Cape Children’s choir
the provincial government have been unsuccessful
in my capacity as
conductor. Last year,
We are therefore turning to you, as an institution known for its
we had the privilege of
commitment to supporting the arts through your involvement
performing with the
in the SANA Festival. We hope that you will consider
National Choir of
supporting us with the amount of Rxx.
of money

Continue ➝

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

In return we would like to offer you the opportunity to

use the tour for the promotion of Citi Bank. We would
Give details of what is in ensure that the tour receives publicity locally both before
it for them and after our return. We would also discuss and agree
with you your requirements for the promotion of Citi Bank
during the tour, such as acknowledgement on the concert
programmes.

Be positive, yet polite If there are any aspects of this proposal that you would like
and approachable to discuss in more detail, I am available to do so at a time
that is convenient to you. My cellphone number is 083 678
2443.

Thank the reader for his/ Thank you for giving this letter your attention. We hope
her time that you will consider our proposal so that, with your
help, the East Cape Children’s Choir can benefit from this
unexpected and exceptional opportunity.

Yours sincerely

L Matiware
Louis Matiware

CONDUCTOR

Information about writing sponsorship letters for sport and sporting events
can be found at: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/examples-of-sponsorship-
letters-for-sports. html

8.3.1.9 Email/memorandum for the record

Often an email (or a memorandum sent as an attachment) confirming a face-
to-face conversation or telephone call is required. Written confirmation
ensures that a record is kept of a verbal exchange. Avoid being blunt or
tactless, which could imply that you are writing because the reader might
otherwise forget.
Below is an example using the memorandum format:

MEMORANDUM

TO: DA Smith

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

FROM: C Snow
PUBLIC RELATIONS MANAGER

DATE: 19 September 20__

SUBJECT: PREPARATION FOR FINAL

PRESENTATION
Register is After our conversation this morning I checked with June
consultative
Wynne in Marketing and confirmed that we’ll be able to go
because
writer and reader
ahead with plans for our final presentation on 11 October
are colleagues as we hoped.

As soon as I receive the material from you, I will begin work

on the visuals.

CS

SUMMARY

Business messages are communicated in letter, email or memorandum

format. Sometimes faxes are used. Format conventions differ between
organisations. What is important is that all the necessary details are
included.

The direct plan is the most common way to organise business messages
and is used when the purpose of the message is to inform, either by
conveying good news or by being neutral. In the direct plan, the focal point
of the message is at the beginning. The plan consists of four steps: a
specific subject heading, the main point, the supporting points and an
ending pointing the way ahead.

8.3.2 Indirect plan messages: Bad news

The indirect plan is used when you have bad news, such as the refusal of a
request, to convey. This bad news could also be conveyed using the direct plan,
but if you judge that your audience might be upset, offended or even angered
by receiving the bad news in such a direct way, it is best to use the indirect
plan. Moreover, some cultural groups might regard the transmittal of bad
news in a direct way as inappropriate. It is therefore important to use your
cultural knowledge to help you decide whether a direct or an indirect approach
would be best.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

8.3.2.1 The psychology of the bad-news strategy

When you are communicating bad news, it is inevitable that your reader will
be disappointed. The strategy is therefore to minimise this reaction. As its
name suggests, the indirect plan: bad news builds up to the bad news rather
than announcing it immediately. This plan is used less often than the direct
plan. It depends for its effectiveness on carefully structured information and
the skilful choice of words.

The indirect plan consists of the following steps:

■ Formulate a neutral subject heading.

■ Express thanks or devise a neutral beginning.
■ Set out your reasoning.
■ Give the refusal or bad news objectively; offer an alternative where possible.
■ Express thanks or formulate a goodwill ending.

These steps are explained below:

■ Subject heading. Begin with a neutral subject heading. If you give away the
bad news in your subject heading, your effort in formulating the rest of the
message will be wasted. If you are writing in response to a message, which
is often the case with bad news messages, use the same subject heading as
the original message (but remove any negative words).

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

■ Thanks or neutral beginning . If you are responding to a previous message,

thank the reader for, or refer to, this message. If you are initiating the topic
of the correspondence, devise a neutral beginning. The reader should have
no inkling that bad news is to follow.
■ Reason . If someone asks for something, it is because he or she believes the
request is reasonable. This step involves giving the reader a reasoned reply
so that s/he realises that the request has been seriously considered. Your
goal is to convey that a refusal is reasonable.
Similarly, if you are introducing a new policy (or a price increase) that is
likely to be unpopular, there will be a good reason for doing so.
The reasoning section should demonstrate the care that has been taken in
considering the request, or the new policy that is to be implemented. The
language used should be objective and specific and the tone polite (see
section 7.2.1, page 104 and section 7.4, page 110). Take particular care over
the choice of words. Avoid words with negative connotations, if possible.
Be careful not to begin the reasoning section with words such as ‘however’,
‘unfortunately’ and ‘but’. These words signal bad news before the reader
has had a chance to read and grasp the logic of your reasoning.

■ Refusal or bad news. The refusal or bad news should be given objectively.
Although it is polite to express regret, it is not necessary to labour over
conveying regret and apologies. Moreover, it is important that the regret
should be sincere. A simple apology is more convincing than a lengthy,
elaborate one.
If possible, offer an alternative course of action, but only if you are
genuinely able to do so. You must also be certain that the alternative will
be effective. In this case, be careful to keep your word and/or to offer helpful
details, or you will undermine the goodwill created through your hard work
in composing an indirect plan message.

■ Thanks or goodwill ending . Once the bad news has been conveyed, it is
time to look forward. End by thanking the reader, and/or by referring to a
continued or future relationship with the reader.

The example below is written in response to the enquiry on page 148.

From: Glenda Isaacs <info@elephantlodge.co.za>

Prompt reply Sent: 21 March __ 2:17 PM
To: Gideon Eksteen
Neutral subject heading Subject: Re: Accommodation: Visiting Academics

173
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Refusal – with a sincere For this reason, we are unfortunately unable to

expression of regret accommodate your visitors, although we would very
much like to do so.
Alternative offered
The provision of specific May we suggest that you contact Maluti Guest Lodge,
details demonstrates as they have very pleasant accommodation and facilities.
customer care and
Their telephone number is 042 232 3403.
promotes goodwill

Goodwill ending We do appreciate your considering our guest house, and

Reference is made to hope that you will consider using us in the future.
the possibility of a future
business relationship
We have posted a brochure to you providing details of
the enhanced services and facilities we will be offering
from November, together with a price list.

Yours sincerely
G Isaacs
G Isaacs
Manager
Elephant Lodge
PO Box 16
ADDO
6105
t +27(42)233 6112 f +27(42)233 6030
e info@elephantlodge.co.za
w www.elephantlodge.co.za
Sender’s and receiver’s Your ref: E001 Our ref: C201 references

Formal salutation Dear Mr Eksteen

Thanks, with reference Thank you very much for your enquiry of this morning to the reader’s
email regarding accommodation for 2–4 September 20__. We are pleased that you have
chosen our guest house to accommodate your visitors.

Reason – given objectively To enhance the service we offer our guests, we are
Specific details help to undertaking an upgrade of our facilities. We estimate convey the
reasonableness this project will be complete by 31 October, considerably
of the refusal later than your scheduled date.

Continue ➝
8.3.2.2 Request refusals
When a request has to be refused, do the following:

■ Reply immediately.

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

■ Be tactful.
■ Choose positive words and avoid negativity (refer to section 7.4.3, page 111
for a review of positive language).
■ Try to offer an alternative.

The following memo provides an example of a request refusal. The reader had
submitted a motivation for a company cellphone to enable her, she said, to do
her work more effectively.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

JJE
JJ Engineering
MEMORANDUM

TO: L Coombs
JUNIOR DESIGN ENGINEER

FROM: L Scheepers
CHIEF ENGINEER

DATE: 12 June 20__

Neutral subject heading SUBJECT: APPLICATION FOR CELLPHONE

Neutral beginning We refer to your application, dated 10 June 20__,

for a company cellphone. We agree with your
point that cellphones have transformed the way
companies conduct business.

Reason – given in detail The Procurement Division has recently evaluated

to show the request was the benefits versus costs of cellphones. Their find
carefully considered
ing is that the benefits far outweigh the costs in
some situations. These are when staff are involved
mainly in field work or where a minimum of one
third of the work day is spent consulting with
clients.

Refusal We have reviewed your application in the light of

this new information. As your job is largely desk
bound, with infrequent trips into the field, use of
a cellphone would not substantially contribute to
your effectiveness.

Refusal is softened by Should your duties change to include the respon

firm indication of future sibilities outlined above, we will automatically pro
prospects
vide you with a cellphone.
Goodwill ending Thank you for your enquiry and your interest in
your work.

L
Based on an idea from Communications Scheepers
student Louise Howell
8.3.2.3 Claim refusals
Sometimes, claims must be refused. Before you do so, be doubly sure that your
organisation is not at fault. Your message should:

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

■ express appreciation for the writer’s letter and assure him or her that the
claim was carefully considered
■ explain tactfully why the claim is unsuccessful

■ try to offer helpful advice or assistance

■ assume that the customer will be satisfied with your explanation and imply
that you expect to continue doing business with him or her.
Here is an example of a claim refusal:

ABC Services

PO Box 11
CAPE TOWN
8000
Response is prompt 9 June 20__

Ms V Brown
PO Box 131
Alternative EPPING we can repair it for you at a nominal charge
However,
8081
of R100,00, after which it should be used for cleaning
the
Dearspecified
Ms Brownsurfaces.
Subject line identifies We suggest that CLEANER
you purchase a Gobble Power-mate
Positive tone GOBBLE VACUUM
customer’s letter
model, which is designed for your particular cleaning
Neutral opening Thank you for
application. Weyour
canletter of 2 aJune
offer you 20__ in
discount of which
20% of the
you pointed out that your Gobble XYZ model was
purchase price. If you would like a personal demonstra
faulty.
tion of the Power-mate model, we would be happy to
Evidence is given that
arrange this.
This particular model is designed for cleaning
the claim was carefully
investigated. The wovenwould
Please or cut-pile
you let carpets,
us know ifand
you wooden
would likeorusvinyl
to repair
Sincere and friendly
reasoning suggests flooring. On inspection of your machine,
closing promotes
that the customer used
your machine. I can be contacted on 021 our
456 tech
7019.
goodwill nical department found it had been used on fluffy
the machine for the
Yours sincerely
carpets. This is why you have experienced block
incorrect application
ages at the suction intake point.
P
Refusal Because your cleaner has been used on fluffy carpets
Zingela
P Zingela
and is no longer new, we cannot replace it.
CUSTOMER SERVICES MANAGER

Continue➝
8.3.3 Indirect plan messages: Persuasion
Persuasive messages are written when you wish to get people to do something
they would not do if you merely requested it. Two elements are involved:

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ You want your audience to do something.

■ The action you want is motivation from your audience to do it.

To achieve your purpose, you must go beyond providing information and even
go beyond convincing your audience that you are right. Your message must
also get your audience to act.
To do so, you must arouse emotions that will motivate the audience to do what
you ask. Whereas in the bad-news strategy the goal is to reduce negative
emotions, in persuasion the goal is to arouse the kind of positive emotions that
will motivate the audience to do what you want.

The plan for persuasion has the following steps:

■ Attract the reader’s attention with the subject heading, so that he or she wants to
read further.
■ Create interest in your topic by appealing to a need in the reader.
■ Stimulate desire by convincing your audience of the benefits of your proposal
■ Induce your reader to act.

The acronym AIDA will help you to remember this structure.

The indirect plan: persuasion (AIDA plan) can be applied in two ways: the
hard-sell or the soft-sell approach.

8.3.3.1 The hard sell

The hard-sell approach is mainly used for direct sales letters. This type of
message is characterised by the word push.

The application of the AIDA plan in a hard-sell approach is discussed below:

■ Subject heading. To attract attention, consider using a complete sentence,

a different colour or a different font.
■ Attract attention . Your audience analysis notes will help you to identify a
way to attract your reader’s attention. Approaches will differ depending on
the subject matter. Possibilities are to:
❏ use your reader’s name

❏ use attention-getting words such as free, new and congratulations

❏ involve the reader in your message by asking a question such as ‘Are you
constantly worrying about effective healthcare for your family?’

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

❏ compliment or show concern for the reader.

■ Create interest . By appealing to your reader’s needs, you are likely to

motivate that person. Needs could include, for example, the need for love
and friendship, and the need to be admired and respected (see Chapter 1,
page 13 for a discussion of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).
■ Stimulate desire . This is the heart of the message. In this section you show
how the product, service or proposal you are presenting meets the need(s)
you have appealed to. Orient benefits to the reader’s interests and needs
(and not the profit or benefit for you!). Consider setting out the benefits in
bulleted points for ease of reading.
■ Induce action. State what the reader must do to enjoy the benefits of your
product or service. Make it easy for the reader to act by supplying, for
example, toll-free telephone numbers, tear-off slips and postage pre-paid
Language for hard-sell messages:
■ Use the ‘you principle’ to involve your readers and make them feel valued (see
section 7.4.4, page 111).
■ Use subjective language to create a vivid image of what you propose. The readers
should be able to visualise themselves getting and enjoying the benefits of your
proposal (see section 5.2.1, page 76).
■

Select the register in accordance with audience and subject matter. Consultative
register – often at the more informal end of the consultative continuum – is the
most widely used register for hard-sell messages (see section 7.1.2, page 103).
■ Repeat the name of the product or service regularly. This will help to ensure that
your readers remember the name.

envelopes.

Continue ➝
Below is an example of a non-personalised sales letter. In other words, there
are no audience details:

Sleeping Student Company

Non-personal Creates interest – need of student to succeed, but dislike of study identified
salutation
Creates desire – product is approved by trusted authorities, safe, tested
Subject heading worldwide
attracts attention
Question attracts
attention and
involves reader

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Benefits in bulleted it? Yet, you want those good results so you can follow your
points for easy
dream.
reading Subjective
language paints an With the revolutionary new Sleeping Student programme,
enticing image of
you have to be asleep to study. In fact, the more you sleep
the benefits
PO Box 10369 the better you’ll study!

E Registered with the Medical and Dental Council of SA and

A approved by the National Department of Education, the
S Sleeping Student programme has been tested in 47
T countries. It is internationally acclaimed as the study
method that gets results far beyond your expectations:
L
■ Pass all your courses with high
O
N marks ■ Graduate in record time
D ■ Become a hot target for headhunters
O ■ Shoot to the top in your dream career – AND
N ■ Have plenty of free time to chill with your friends.

5
2 Continue ➝
Product works naturally and easily
0
0
Specific details sound convincing
27 January 20__

Dear Student
Product name repeated
STUDY WHILE
YOU SLEEP AND
Details of sales prove success rate
GET THAT A!
‘You principle’ involves reader
Studyin
g is
usually
Pressure to act – offer has a time limit
so
boring
that it Action is easy
sends
you Register is consultative/informal – appropriate for student audience
straight
to sleep,
doesn’t

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

Final call for action Student programme, place the transmitter on the book or notes you
want to study and … go to sleep. The programme will do the rest.

In just three years, three million Sleeping Student programmes have

First and last names
been bought by students just like you. And in a society where good
convey friendliness marks are essential to get on the road to success, you can’t afford
and sincerity to be left behind.
This
breakthrough in Now is your chance. We’re offering you this remarkable programme
studying stems for only R949,99 including postage and packing. But don’t delay.
from the fact that This offer is valid for first-year students only until 30 April 20__.
our brains are Simply fill in the reply-paid postcard and drop it into your nearest
most susceptible post box. You’ll receive your Sleeping Student programme within
to information three weeks – that’s a promise. We’re so confident that you’ll be
when at their absolutely delighted with the programme that we guarantee it for a
most neutral – full year.
when we’re
asleep. If you’d like more information about this once-off opportunity, call
us toll free on 0800122139 and we’ll be glad to answer your
The programme questions.
works through
the natural So, what are you waiting for? Get Sleeping Student and make your
electromagnetic dreams come true.
fields of the
Yours sincerely Louise
brain. Simply put
on the special Howell
polypropylene
Louise Howell
headphones
supplied with MARKETING MANAGER
each Sleeping
Source: Adapted from a letter by Communications student Louise Howell
8.3.3.2 The soft sell
The soft sell is the indirect, low-key approach, characterised by the word
nudge. This approach is mainly used for internal messages used to present a
proposal or new idea. The tone is one of reasonableness and sincerity.

The soft-sell application of the AIDA steps is discussed below:

■ Subject heading. Formulate a neutral or gently persuasive subject heading.

Your reader will not respond to pushiness or gimmicks.

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 Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ Attract attention . Your opening should convey rationality. Although this is

an indirect plan message, begin by establishing your main point. This
directness conveys sincerity.
■ Create interest . Show that you understand your readers’ feelings and
respect their views. By indicating that you understand the readers’
position, you are more likely to arouse their interest in your proposal.
Indicate the needs that can be met. Remember that organisations also
have needs, such as to improve productivity and reach sales targets.
Therefore, managers are likely to respond to appeals that relate to the
achievement of organisational goals.
Language for soft-sell messages
■ Use the ‘you principle’ to involve your readers and make them feel valued (see
section 7.4.4, page 111).
■ Use mainly objective language – let the facts persuade (see section 5.2.1, page 76).
■ Select the register in accordance with audience and subject matter.
Consultative register is the most widely used for soft-sell messages (see section 7.1.2
, page 103).
■ Stimulate desire . In this section, present your proposal, oriented to the
readers’ interests and concerns. It is important that your proposal or
suggestion has been carefully thought through. Present it objectively and
in detail. Anticipate any information gaps the audience might identify and
close these gaps. Your proposal will then stand a better chance of
succeeding.
■ Induce action. Ask, for example, for a meeting to discuss your ideas, or for
comments and suggestions. Because you are not in a position to insist on
a response or to set deadlines, polite phrasing is essential.

Here is an example of a persuasive memorandum using the soft-sell approach.

Subject heading is Creates interest – a need can be met using available technology. Reader’s
low-key concerns about costs addressed

Attracts attention Register is consultative

by establishing the Creates desire – the proposal is effective yet easy to implement and
point of the memo. inexpensive. The benefits are explained
Respect is indicated
for the reader’s
views

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

Headings organise SUBJECT: FOLLOW-UP GUEST CONTACT

the information for
the reader and draw You’ve always impressed upon me that customer care is
attention to the two the key to success in any business. In this regard, I believe
parts of the we can improve our client care by enhancing the
proposal experience we offer visitors to our guest houses.
Sala My idea – which will cost us very little – is to use cellphone
Kakuhle technology and the Internet to enhance our guests’
Guest experience. Most travellers these days have cellphones.
Moreover, our records show that over 80% of our bookings
Houses are made via the Internet. This means most of our clients
M have the necessary technology.
E
M It’s really very simple.
O
R Thanks: SMS
A Approximately 15 minutes after each guest or group of
N guests departs from any of our guest houses, I propose
D sending a text to:
U ■ thank the guests for the visit ■
M wish them a pleasant and safe journey.
It’s really very simple.
TO: Mr R
Sending a text costs very little; yet, by showing that we care
Khumalo
and are in contact beyond the actual departure point, we’ll
CEO promote goodwill between our guests and ourselves.
FROM: Mr D
Happy snap memories: email
Hume
I suggest that we provide one employee in each guest
MARKETING house with a digital camera. The employee is then tasked
MANAGER with:
DATE: 4
November 20__ Continue ➝
Bulleted points aid ■ photographing our guests enjoying themselves, for reading
example, over a meal or round the pool.
■ downloading and emailing the photos, with a short
Parallel structure message, to our guests.

The message could include, for example, the offer of a

The proposal discount if the guests stay at any of our guest houses is detailed and within
the next six months. mainly objectively
phrased The email should be sent immediately the guests
depart so that it’s waiting for them on their arrival
Register is
consultative home. We can retain the best of the photographs for use in our newsletters.

Final nudge is No other guest house, to my knowledge, follows this given in two practice,
so it will give us the edge over our competiways: tors. These two additional means of
keeping in contact
■ competitive advantage shown will complement our existing newsletters, which, as
■ price survey you know, are well received. already complete

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

The cost to us is the price of a digital camera per guest

house (see attached list of current camera prices), and
some planning and organisation.
I could make myself available after the next managers’
Courteous call for meeting on Tuesday next week or at any other time if

action
you would like to discuss these ideas further.

D Hume

The main differences between the hard-sell and soft-sell approaches are
summed up in the table below:

Feature Hard sell Soft sell

Audience External: and Internal: management

customers
potential customers
Application Sales letter Persuasive memo/email

Continue ➝
Characteristic PUSH NUDGE

Subject heading Attracts attention Neutral/low-key

Language Facts; extensive reliance on the Facts used to persuade; very

persuasive power of subjective little subjectivity
language

Irrespective of the organisational plan or subject matter, it is important that

all messages create a good impression. Use the following checklist to help you
check the suitability of each of your messages before you send them off.

If the answer to all these questions is ‘Yes!’ then your message is ready to be
sent.
SUMMARY

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

Checklist for messages

■ Is the message written from the reader’s point of view?
■ Does the message have a clear focus?
■ Has the most appropriate plan (direct or indirect) been used?
■ Have the steps of the plan been implemented appropriately?
■ Does the message cover all the essential points?
■ Is the information given correct?
■ Is the register appropriate?
■ Is the message clear and concise?
■ Does the general tone sound natural and sincere?
■ Would headings, numbering or bulleted points aid understanding?
■ Is the message attractively laid out?
■ Is the format correct?
■ Are the grammar, spelling and punctuation correct?
■ Is it the kind of message I should like to receive if I were in the reader’s place?
The indirect plan is used to communicate bad news or to persuade the
reader to act.
Indirect plan: bad-news messages should be written specifically and
objectively to counter possible emotional resistance. In the indirect plan:
bad-news strategy, the writer builds up to the focal point of the message
– that is, the bad news.
This strategy consists of formulating a neutral subject heading, followed
by four steps: thanks or neutral beginning, reason, refusal/alternative,
where possible, and thanks or goodwill ending.
The indirect plan: persuasion attempts to motivate readers to act because
they feel that the action is in their own best interests. The plan for
persuasive messages has four steps: attract attention, build interest,
create desire and inspire action (AIDA).
Before sending any message, check to ensure that the correct information
and the appropriate impression are being conveyed.

For more information about writing emails, consult the following webpage:
http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/EmailCommunication.htm
For more information about writing letters, consult the following webpage:
http://www.usingenglish.com/resources/letter-writing.php
For more information about the AIDA plan, consult the following webpage:
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/AIDA.htm

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Which media are used for external audiences? Explain your answer.
2 Which media are used for internal audiences? Explain your answer.
3 Give two reasons why email is so widely used.
4 Why should a cover sheet be provided when sending a fax?
5 Why would organisations use a template:
for a letter?
for an email?
6 Provide five guidelines for the use of email.
7 Identify the steps of the direct plan.
8 How does the indirect plan strategise to minimise the reader’s
disappointment about bad news?
9 When should the AIDA plan be used?
10 What is the difference between the hard-sell and soft-sell applications of
the AIDA plan?

APPLICATION

1 Direct plan messages: For each of the following communicative

situations : a Draft a subject heading.
b Write the main point sentence. Remember that this sentence gives an
overview of the content of the message. The supporting details are
given later.
1.1 As a newly qualified graduate, reply to a job advertisement in the
Peninsula Times of 21 September 20__ for the position of trainee
Human Resources Officer (or choose another position).
1.2 You would like to study for a diploma or degree in … through the
World Wide University and need further information.
1.3 As a training officer, you have to confirm in writing the venue and
dates for a training seminar you have organised on
ASSERTIVENESS.
2 Direct plan messages: Read the following direct plan messages A and
B and then for each identify the following:
a audience b
purpose(s) c

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

main point
sentence.

A
31 July 20__
Dear Ms Jimbag
QUALITY AT SALE PRICES
As a Bestbuys customer we want you to know – in advance – about our Quality Sale.
THIS SPECIAL EVENT STARTS IN ALL OUR STORES ON
WEDNESDAY
12 AUGUST 20__ AND OUR DOORS WILL OPEN AT 7:30 SHARP.
At our sale you are guaranteed to find only our usual goods on offer. No seconds, no bulk buys
– just good old-fashioned Bestbuys quality. The only thing we have cut is our prices.

So, for your own personal preview of some of the goods on offer, just look on the reverse side
of this letter. And, of course, for your convenience remember to use your Bestbuys Card.

Yours sincerely
B
Dear …
APPLICATION FOR STUDENT LOAN
Thank you for your application, received on 10 December 20__, for a student loan to cover the
costs of your second year of study at Global University. We are pleased to inform you that your
application has been successful and that the sum of Rxxxx will be paid into your account,
ABC100, on 31 January 20__.

We would like to remind you of the following:

■ The loan covers the period 31 January to 31 December 20__.

■ Mr R Philander, who has signed surety for the loan, should complete, sign and deliver
the attached documents to the Main Street branch by 5 January 20__.
■ Repayments of Rxxx, which include interest of 8% per annum, are to be paid to the
bank by the 26th of each month. The first repayment will be due on or before 26
February 20__.
We wish you every success in your studies, and look forward to being of service to you now
and in the future. Yours sincerely

3 These days, order letters are seldom written, but writing one is a good
way to learn how to apply the direct plan.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Imagine that you run a small catering business from home, Tip Top
Caterers. You come across the 20__ catalogue produced by a Cape Town
manufacturing concern, Peninsula Cookware, of PO Box 3355 BELVILLE
7535. The copper pots, on page 37, interest you. In your experience,
copper pots are the best pots for commercial catering and are very hard
to find. The details on page 37 that caught your eye are reproduced below.

Copper c ookware

Type Size Price Code

Saucepans: 20 cm R 79,95 C23/34

28 cm R129,00 C23/35

Frying pans: 28 cm R110,00 C29/12

40 cm R180,00 C29/15

Choose at least three items from the list that you would like to order.
Then, write to the Sales Manager of Peninsula Cookware to place your
order.
Before writing, you need to consider:

Audience (see section 5.1, page 72):

Who? The sales manager, who is an expert on the merchandise advertised and
is keen to be of service.

Already knows? She or he knows the company products and the method of
selling from the catalogue.

Needs to know? Your exact requirements – number required, the code with
reference to the catalogue, method of delivery, delivery address, preferred
date of delivery, method of payment.

Interest or appeal? A professional, concise message.

Negatives? Omitting essential information needed for the reader to respond
will be annoying, so check your message carefully.

Presentation? Numbering, bulleted points or a tabular format will make your

order easier to read. The reader can also tick off the items as they are dealt
with.

Do? The Sales Manager should supply your exact requirements, to the
correct address, at the required time. Purpose (see section 5.2, page 75)

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

The purpose is to provide the appropriate information about your

requirements so that the correct merchandise is delivered to the correct
address by the due date. The language used should be factual and specific.

A secondary purpose is to promote goodwill, so your phrasing should be

pleasant.

Register (see section 7.1, page 101)

Because this is a distant audience, you do not have a relationship with the
reader. Therefore a formal register would be appropriate.

Now think about how you will structure the information, using the direct
plan.

3.1 Main point: In a sentence, give an overview of the content of your letter.
Use the keywords of this sentence to help you formulate a subject
heading.
3.2 Supporting details: Plan how to present all the details needed (and which
you identified in your audience analysis) for the reader to respond to your
letter. Be very specific (see section 7.2.1, page 104).
3.3 The way ahead: Tell the reader what must happen next – for example,
where and when to send the order. Include the necessary contact details.
3.4 A goodwill ending can be included.
Check that all the necessary details have been included. Check that
the order of the information is appropriate.

Finally, check that the format is correct, as well as the grammar,

punctuation and spelling.

Follow the same process for all other correspondence.

4 You are in charge of organising an end-of-year cocktail party for staff in

your department. With a partner, brainstorm details such as the venue,
the date for the function, the starting time and the cost per person. Then
write the email that you would send to department members giving them
all the details. Members will need to tell you if they will be attending so
that you can confirm catering requirements for the function. Therefore,
remember to provide contact details.
You know the readers of your email well, therefore a consultative register
would be appropriate (see section 7.1.2, page 103).
5 Refer to the email written to Elephant Lodge: Addo on page 148.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

You have read on the Elephant Lodge website that they can accommodate
conferences of up to 20 people.
As the secretary to the Sales Director of Umbrella Insurance Company of PO
Box 6702 JOHANNESBURG 2000, you have been tasked with organising
a sales conference for 15 people. The conference is to be held from 12 to
14 November 20__. Delegates will arrive at 10:00 on 12 November and
leave at 16:30 on 14 November.
You are required to obtain a quotation for accommodation, all meals, and
tea/coffee in the morning and afternoon. You must also specify your venue
requirements – the kind of seating arrangements you want and the
audiovisual equipment that will be needed.
5.1 Write a letter of enquiry to the Reservations Manager. This letter is
to be faxed to Elephant Lodge, so include a fax coversheet. The fax
number is 042 233 6030.
6 A lecturer receives the email that follows from a student at her
institution. The student is not known to the lecturer. Read the email, and
then, working in groups of three, answer the questions that follow.
From: Tamsin Wright <tamsin.wright@globaluni.ac.za>
Sent: 12 November 20__ 10:27 PM
To: Mary Smith
Subject: HELP

HI

I AM SUM1 WANTING MY THESAS EDITED COS I WANNA GRADUATE NEXT MONTH. I HEAR U
DO EDITING? IT SHOULD’NT TK LONG TO FINNISH MINE. I AM VERY FLEXABLE ABOUT THE
TIMEING AS LONG AS I CAN HAVE IT BACK BY FRIDAY LUNCHTIME. IT WOULD BE GR8 IF I CLD
COME CU, I WILL BE AT YR OFFICE AT 8 2MORO, I WILL BRING MY THESAS WITH YOU CAN DO
IT THEN IF YOU LIKE I DO’NT MIND WAITING AS LONG AS NOT TO LONG, PLS PHONE ME IF ITS
NOT OK, MY SELL IS 073 879 5061, ALSO IF NOT CAN YOU FIND SUM1 ELS 2 DO THE JOB.

LOOKING FORWARD 2 CU

X0X0

TAMSIN

PS IS THIS FREE?

6.1 Describe the intended audience of the message.

6.2 What is the writer’s purpose in sending the email?

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

6.3 Discuss the likelihood of the email achieving its purpose.

6.4 What changes should the writer make to the format of the email?
6.5 What organisational plan would you recommend the writer should
use for this message? Motivate your answer.
6.6 Now, brainstorm and list at least 10 suggestions for changes the
student could make in order to improve her chances of achieving her
purpose. These might include changes to the content, style and other
changes you consider necessary.
7 You work for Umbrella Insurance Company as a claims clerk. You wish
to take your annual leave from 16 December to 16 January. While you
are away, your colleague, Mr Sipho Makanye, has agreed to handle any
urgent work that comes in for you.
7.1 Write an email (or a memorandum) to your manager, Mr Hein
Ferreira, applying for leave.
8 You work as the publisher for Lynx Publishing House. The following
enquiry letter arrives on your desk:
6 Westbury Crescent
DURBAN NORTH 4051

25 September 20__

The Publisher
Lynx Publishing House
PO Box 6577
PIETERMARITZBURG
3200

Dear Sir

PUBLICATION OF FITNESS MANUAL

I am in the process of writing a manual on fitness training. Would your organisation be interested in
publishing the manual?

I have always
been interested in
fitness, and would like
others to benefit from
the training schedules I
have devised during my
career as a fitness

191
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

coach. Amongst the

teams I have worked
with are the KwaZulu-
Natal Rangers and the
Cape Cheetahs, both
top of their respective
logs while I was in
charge of their fitness.

Attached is a copy of Chapter One and an outline of the other chapters in the manual.

Please would you let me know if you would be interested in publishing my work. I can be contacted
at 031 583 4355 or 083 399 4967 if you require more details.

Yours faithfully
J Ramasamy
J Ramasamy
This book is certainly of interest to your publishing company. Fitness training
is a new and growing field. However, before you can agree to go ahead, you
require certain details from Mr Ramasamy. He must give you an indication
of approximately how many clubs in South Africa employ fitness coaches. You
need this to get an idea of the size of the market for the manual. He must also
tell you approximately how many pages he is planning to write and when he
thinks his manuscript will be complete. If you decide to publish his book, he
will have to sign a contract with your company.

8.1 Write a letter in response to Mr Ramasamy’s enquiry, expressing

your interest in his book and requesting him to provide the response
to your specific questions.
9 Refer to Task 3, the letter written to Peninsula Cookware.
When your order was delivered, one of the items (you decide which one) was
badly dented and could not be used. This was very inconvenient because
you had a function booked for one of your most loyal clients and you
needed to use the item. So as not to disappoint the client, you had to buy
a replacement at a much higher cost (an extra R75,00).
You intend to complain to Peninsula Cookware. Moreover, because you no
longer need the item, you want to send it back and receive a refund. You
also want Peninsula Cookware to pay the costs for the return of the
damaged item.

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

The order arrived with contact details, including an email address, for the
Sales Manager, Ms Farieda Abrahamson. The address is
farieda@peninsula.co.za.
9.1 Write your complaint as an email.
10 As a student at Tip Top College, you rely on the Blue Line bus service to
get to college every day. You normally catch the 7:15 bus on the corner of
........................ and ........................ streets. On Monday (remember to
include the date), the bus was 25 minutes late. On Tuesday, it was 15
minutes late. The same thing happened on Thursday. On Friday, the bus
did not arrive at all. As a result, you were late for college, and arrived
halfway through an important test, which you have now failed.
10.1 Write a letter of complaint to the Operations Manager, Blue Line
Bus Company, PO Box 56 (provide your city and area code).
11 Refer to Task 9.
You are Ms Farieda Abrahamson of Peninsula Cookware. Your company
prides itself on the quality of its products and service. You are horrified
to receive the complaint email. You set about investigating the matter
immediately. An inspection of the packaging warehouse shows that each
item is checked for damage or flaws before it is carefully packed. The head
of packaging confirms that the items were inspected and then wrapped,
as with all items, in a double layer of bubble wrap before being packed in
a box containing polystyrene chips. He tells you that it is impossible that
the item was damaged by your company. Out of interest, he takes another
item, and only by dropping it from a height onto a concrete surface is
similar damage caused. You are convinced that your company is not at
fault.
11.1 Write an email to the customer in which you tactfully refuse the
claim. 12 Refer to Task 10.
You are Mr Lerato Sello, Operations Manager for Blue Line Bus Company.
You are distressed to receive the complaint referred to in Task 10. It is
not the only complaint you have received. Five others were received about
the same matter. You investigate the problem immediately. The driver,
you discover, has reported problems regarding his bus to his supervisor,
and these have been ignored. The bus finally broke down completely,
which was the reason for the non-arrival on the Friday. The supervisor
will now face a disciplinary enquiry.
However, there is still the problem regarding the student’s failed test.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

12.1 Write a letter in response to the student’s complaint. In the letter,

state your intention to write to the Head of Student Affairs at Tip Top
College, explaining what happened to cause the student to be late for
the test.
13 You are the president of the Ballroom Dance Club at your institution. The
annual Latin American dance championships are scheduled for 2
November 20__ at 19:30.
13.1 Write a letter to Mr Ronnie Naidoo, current South African Latin
American dance champion, to invite him to judge the championships
and to present the trophies. He will have to select the best overall
couple and the best beginner couple. He lives in your city, fortunately,
so accommodation will not be required. (You will need to invent an
address for Mr Naidoo.)
14 Indirect plan: bad-news messages Read the following bad-news message
and then identify the following:
a audience b purpose(s) c the
steps of the indirect plan.

Dear ...

The dramatic slide of the rand against the dollar has affected a wide spectrum of South African
businesses. Since 1 November 20__ a 21% devaluation has been experienced.

As a large portion of Visual-Net’s costs are dollar related, the impact of the devaluation on our
business has been considerable.

Thanks to improved efficiency we have managed to restrict the increase on the monthly
subscription price from 1 April 20__ to 5,27%. Your Visual-Net subscription will be adjusted by
R10,00 to R199,90 per month.

20 __ will be a year of sparkling entertainment on Visual-Net. Please enjoy it with us !

Yours sincerely

15 Read the invitation letter on page 160.

Imagine you are Ms P Batang of Ahead Corporate Affairs. You are delighted
to be invited to be the guest speaker at the Public Relations Management
Department’s annual awards evening. There is nothing you would like
better than an evening spent among young people at the institution
where

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 Chapter 8 Business Correspondence

you qualified. However, your annual board meeting is scheduled for the
same day. It is the most important meeting of the year and you must
attend.
15.1 Write a letter to Prof Beyi declining the invitation, but promoting
goodwill at the same time.
16 You are a Communication Skills student at the Global University. You
receive the following email from your lecturer, in which he invites you to
become a peer supporter.

From: Adam Brown <adam.brown@globaluni.ac.za>

Sent: 1 October 20__ 10:27 AM
To: Your Name
Subject: Peer Support: Communication Skills

Dear _________

Please consider becoming a peer supporter for Communication Skills 101 in 20__. With your
fine academic record and outstanding interpersonal skills, I believe you would be most
effective in this role.

This is what is involved:

1 Attending the two-week peer support training programme from 12 to 26 November, after
the final examinations are over. The training will equip you with facilitation skills. I believe
it’s really fun too.

2 Taking responsibility for a group of up to eight students. Your role would be to guide the
students in their learning during two one-hour sessions per week. You, together with your
students, choose the times.

3 Meeting with me for approximately one hour each week to discuss the week’s work and to
iron out any difficulties.

In return for your hard work and enthusiasm, you will be paid R25,00 per contact hour,
including the hour spent with me. In addition, you will gain valuable experience and be able to
put something back into education, all of which is invaluable for the CV you are building up.

Please would you consider this opportunity? I would appreciate your response before 12
October, the day names go forward to Student Affairs. Contact me on 041 504 3442 if you
need further details.

Yours sincerely

Adam Brown

Senior Lecturer: Communication Studies

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You would love to accept this offer, but unfortunately your commitments for
20__ are heavy. You simply will not have the time to take on this extra
responsibility.
16.1 Write an email to Mr Brown refusing the request. Be sure to explain
why you cannot accept to minimise Mr Brown’s disappointment.
17 Indirect plan: persuasive messages Read the following persuasive message
and then identify the following:
a audience b purpose(s) c
the steps of the AIDA plan.

November 20__

Dear ...

Enjoy a sizzling summer with Bestbuys

Because you’re one of Bestbuys’ best customers, we wanted to make sure you received your
personal copy of our special Executive Homemaker magazine, which we’ve produced for the
summer season.

Inside you’ll find lots of ideas designed to help you make your summer entertaining easier. At
Bestbuys, we’re privileged to have the services of a number of experienced chefs, and we’ve
asked them to share some of their personal recipes, hints and tips with our customers. They’ve
come up with some fabulous ideas to make preparing everything from the perfect rack of lamb
to a refreshing berry cocktail as easy as can be.

Of course, summer isn’t only about entertaining. It’s also the time when you want to look your
best, whether it’s at a party, at home, or on the beach. So we’ve included a few pages to give
you a glimpse of some of the great new fashion arrivals for men, women and kids. Why not
come into Bestbuys soon and see the rest too?

We look forward to seeing you in our stores during the season, and we’d like to take this
opportunity to wish you a fantastic summer.

18 You have decided that you need to earn extra money by babysitting or
housesitting or exercising dogs or feeding pets and watering plants while
their owners are away, or any other service needed.
18.1 Write a non-personalised letter advertising your service. Use the
hard-sell approach (see page 172 and the example on page 173).

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19 Refer to the sponsorship letter on page 162. Citi Bank normally sponsors
organisations only at national level. However, you as the Corporate
Affairs Manager believe that an exception should be made in this case,
particularly as
the East Cape Children’s Choir is based in East London, the town where
Citi Bank first opened its doors.
19.1 Write a persuasive email to your superior, Marketing Director Serena
Pillay. Use the soft-sell approach to motivate why the bank should
sponsor the ECCC (see page 175 and the example on page 176).
20 You are the manager of Sunshine Haven for Aids Orphans (or other
suitable organisation). You are organising a fun run as a fund-raising
venture, and need R8 000 for T-shirts for participants and prizes for the
winners.
20.1 Write a letter to a local company asking for sponsorship for the event.

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Shorter Business Messages

OBJECTIVES

The media discussed in this chapter extend the possibilities available to

you for internal communication with colleagues and external
communication with clients and customers.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
■ determine the audience and purpose for a short message
■ compose a concise, yet unambiguous message
■ draft simple promotional or advertising messages such as classified and
leader page advertisements
■ draft longer promotional or advertising messages such as flyers and
brochures
■ draft short messages such as formal invitations, notices and telephone
message forms.

9.1 ADVERTISING AND PROMOTIONAL MESSAGES

Almost all organisations advertise their products and services in a range of

ways. Examples are newspaper, radio and TV advertisements. Organisations
usually employ advertising agencies to do this work.
Members of organisations are, therefore, not usually required to produce
advertisements. However, particularly in the case of small businesses, you
might be required to write:
■ classified advertisements
■ advertisements for vacant positions (see Chapter 11, page 240)
■ leader page advertisements
■ leaflets/flyers
■ sales letters (see Chapter 8, page 173)
■ brochures.
 Chapter 9 Shorter Business Messages

These media are used for external communication.

9.1.1 Classified advertisements
Classified advertisements are placed in the classified section of newspapers
and magazines. They are used mainly for advertising vacancies. However,
small companies often rely on classified advertisements to advise the public
about their products or services.

This is a very concise form of written communication, because the cost is

determined by the cost per word, or per line.
The message is written on continuous lines, using the same font, and all the
messages appear in the same format. Therefore, the focus is not on creative
layout. As a result, care must be taken in the wording of the opening, because
this is the only means available to catch the attention of the reader.

Note: Avoid ambiguity, which can occur when one is trying to be too concise.
For sale. Large dog. Will eat anything. Very fond of children.
■ Drawing up a classified advertisement:
❏ Place it under the relevant section, for example For sale, Positions
offered.
❏ Try to use an opening that is eye-catching.
❏ Use a factual and objective style, because the purpose is mainly
informative.
❏ Use a point-form style to achieve conciseness.
❏ Give as much relevant information in as few words as possible.
❏ Place keywords at the beginning of the message.
❏ Use recognised abbreviations, for example ‘bics’ (built-in cupboards)
and ‘ono’ (or nearest offer).
❏ Include relevant contact details.

Positions offered

Cashier required. English- and Afrikaans-/isiZulu-speaking. Must be friendly, responsible

and confident. Pleasant working environment. Salary neg.

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Email short CV to vacancy@snet.co.za. Closing date 09 June 20__ .

9.1.2 Leader page advertisements

Leader page advertisements appear in the section of the newspaper where
the editorial and opinion columns and letters to the editor are located. It is a
highly visible section of the newspaper. However, the space allowed for each
advertisement is small. Therefore, this space has to be used to its best
advantage. Sometimes, advertisers place the same advertisement twice on
the leader page, one on each side, to increase its chances of capturing readers’
attention.
■ Drawing up a leader page advertisement:
❏ Use the AIDA plan to create your advertisement (see section 8.3.3, page
171).
❏ Make every word count as space is limited.
❏ Be very specific.
❏ Use upper case, bold and italics to highlight important information.
❏ Use fonts of different sizes.
❏ Avoid using only capital letters.
❏ Pay attention to layout.
Leaflets are used to advertise special events and promotions and are not
intended as a permanent record. They are designed to be read and understood
quickly and easily, although a lot of information is summarised in a small
space. They target an external audience and their purpose is both to inform
the public of new developments and/or services and persuade them to act.

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❏ Allow for white space.

Attention/interest
Appeals to the bargain CLEARANCE SALE
hunter in all people BLUES FACTORY SHOP

Desire Up to 50% discount:

Merchandise can be crockery
bought at half price
kitchenware
soft furnishings

Nudge – stocks are

limited Prices valid while stocks last.
Action
Contact number and Tel: 031 466 7011
address
15 Marine Parade

9.1.3 Leaflets (flyers)

Leaflets can be distributed by hand, or delivered in the mailbox, or left in
public places for people to take as they pass by.
■ Drawing up a leaflet:
❏ Analyse the audience and determine the purpose (see Chapter 5).
❏ Ensure that the headline is displayed prominently.
❏ Use space to advantage and place important items where they will catch
the eye.
❏ Categorise the information by using sub-headings and bullets.
❏ Check that all the relevant information has been included.

The example below has been designed using the AIDA plan.

Attention/Interest CALLING ALL HOMEOWNERS

Appeals to need for Would you rather be watching soccer instead of weeding? more time for
own interests Are you tired of mowing the lawn? Desire If you’ve answered ‘Yes’ to the
above, then:
Chores can be done
by someone else – ■ Get in touch with Greenfingers and at a special price
■ Sit back and relax while all your gardening chores are taken
care of Take advantage of our special opening offer. Action
Sign up now to Sign up now for a year’s contract and get your first month benefit from the of
gardening services at half the normal price!
special offer Don’t delay – call Des at 082 987 6544 today.
Contact name and

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number And look forward to a whole year of peaceful weekends – Final nudge and a tidy
garden that’ll be the envy of all your neighbours!

9.1.4 Brochures
A brochure is an important marketing tool for your organisation, product or
service. As with the leaflet, the purpose is both to inform the public about the
services or products offered by your organisation and to persuade them to
make use of these. The most common type of brochure is the A4-sized
document, printed on both sides, which folds into three sections. This type of
brochure can be produced in most home offices. Brochures have a longer shelf
life than leaflets and design is therefore more important than in the case of a
leaflet. Whereas a leaflet promotes a once-off special event or promotion, a
brochure is an advertising medium over a long period. Therefore, much
careful planning needs to go into its design – for example, the type of paper
to use and whether to include artwork, photographs and graphics.
■ Drawing up a brochure:
❏ Determine the audience and purpose (see Chapter 5).
❏ Match the image projected by your brochure to that of your product or
service.
❏ Use the AIDA plan to create your brochure (see section 8.3.3, page 171).
9.1.4.1 Sections
The front section provides visual appeal to attract attention.
■ Identify the product or service.
■ Provide a photograph or other artwork.
■ Identify a key feature that sets the product apart from its competitors.

The inside section builds audience interest and desire.

■ Orient the description of the product to the readers’ needs and interests.
■ Group information under headings for easy reading.

The back section stimulates action.

■ Provide an address and contact numbers.
■ Include any special offers.

9.1.4.2 Language
■ Decide on the appropriate register (see section 7.1, page 101).

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■ Ensure a balance between objective and subjective language that is

appropriate to your product or service (see section 5.2.1, page 76).

9.1.4.3 Presentation
■ Decide on the illustrations and/or artwork.
■ Plan the layout, ensuring a balance between text, illustrations and white
space.
As with all other documents, revise and edit your brochure before sending it
off for printing.
It is advisable to start your own collection of corporate brochures. Many fine
examples are available from the reception areas of large companies, from
tourist and accommodation bureaux, from hotels, restaurants and B&B
establishments, and occasionally as inserts in upmarket magazines. Take
note of how the brochure projects an image of the product or service – by the
choice of paper, typeface and artwork, the use of colour, pockets of white
space, an effective headline emphasising benefits to the reader, and a balance
between text and illustration.

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Here is an example of the front and back pages of a brochure:

9.2 OTHER SHORT MESSAGES

9.2.1 Formal invitations

From time to time, organisations need to invite guests to special functions,
such as the opening of a new building or even the opening of the business
itself. Invitations are usually sent on a specially printed card, although some
organisations choose to send such invitations electronically.
For a printed card invitation, the elements to include are standard. The
design elements lie in choosing the: ■ quality of board or card
■ colour of the board
■ print colour

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■ font
■ font size
■ final layout.

These elements contribute to the overall impression conveyed.

The example below shows the information that should appear on a formal,
pre-printed invitation.

Name of host(s) and

organisation holding the The Chairperson and Board of Directors of
function ABC (Pty) Ltd
invite
Name of person(s)
invited is typed or ……………………………………………………
written here
to a

Type of function GALA DINNER

in aid of Hospice

Venue, to be held in the Ballroom of the Edward Hotel,

date and time Main Street, Bloemfontein on 15 November 20__
at 19:00 for 19:30

GUEST SPEAKER
Name of guest speaker, Dr J Naidoo
if there is to be a guest
speech President of the Small Business Association

Dress code DRESS: FORMAL

RSVP by 21 October 20__ to

How to reply Mr P Singh on telephone 051 581 7172 or

cellular 083 345 9712

A reply card is sometimes included with the invitation. However, the most
usual medium used for replies is the telephone.
Formal invitations are distributed both internally and externally.
9.2.2 Notices
A notice is chiefly an internal medium of communication, used to bring special
items to the staff’s attention. Very often, notices are posted on noticeboards
in the corridors near offices. Notices can also be sent electronically. The style
can be informative or persuasive, depending on the message. For safety and

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health notices, check your local by-laws for regulations governing permissible
mediums and placement requirements.
■ Drawing up a notice:
❏ Make the notice large enough to be seen easily.
❏ Ensure that the heading indicates the content and is prominently placed.
❏ Use a direct style (see section 7.2, page 104 ff.) and concise language (see
section 7.3, page 108 ff.).
❏ Try to achieve a pleasant and friendly tone.
❏ Attract attention by varying fonts and using bullets, arrows, graphics
and bright colours.
❏ Include contact details.

❏ Date the notice.

Heading indicates PROCEDURE IN CASE OF FIRE

content and attracts
attention All Staff
Audience
What you need to know
Overview of content
■ if you spot a fire
in bulleted points,
parallel in structure ■ if you need to escape
Subheadings WHAT DO YOU DO?
phrased as questions
1 Inform the chief fire officer. The number is 4242.
involve the reader
Instructions phrased 2 Inform all staff on your floor.
as imperatives and
numbered 3 Close all windows and doors as you leave the building.
4 Do NOT attempt to put out the fire.
WHERE DO YOU GO?
1 Move calmly to the marked fire escape doors at the rear
Tone is pleasant of the building and move out as speedily as possible.
2 Do not use the lifts.
3 Report to your FLOOR SUPERVISOR when you have
reached a safe position outside.
Enquiries:
Contact name and Harry Windvogel Tel. 4242
number 14 March 20___

Adapted from: Fielding (2006: 320)

9.2.3 Telephone message forms
When employees take telephone messages for their colleagues, it is important
that the information is accurately conveyed. The easiest way to do this is to

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A completed form is shown in the example below.

Main heading
attracts attention TELEPHONE MESSAGE

Subheadings set out Caller: Nokulunga Mbete

key details required.
This ensures ease of Tel no: 031 589 9666
completion and that
nothing is overlooked Company: Ace Workwear
Date: 27/10 Time: 10:05
Call taken by: James Green Tel ext: 3116

Message: Production delayed on the overalls –

choose another line?
Action: Call back before 15:00

Notices and telephone message forms are used for internal communication.
design a telephone message form. These forms can be stored on your desk,
ready for use. The forms serve to:
■ remind you which details to ask for
■ make it easy to take down these details.
■ Designing a telephone message form – the key information to include on
the form is as follows:
❏ caller information – name, company and telephone or cell number
❏ date and time of message
❏ name of person taking the message
❏ message
❏ action to be taken.

SUMMARY

Organisations make use of various mediums for sending short messages.

These include advertisements for an external audience such as leader
page and classified advertisements. Other promotional messages are
flyers and brochures. Internal short messages include notices and
telephone messages.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Explain the difference between a classified advertisement and a leader

page advertisement.

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2 Explain the difference between a leaflet and a brochure.

3 How would you distribute:
a leaflets?
b brochures?
4 How would you attract the audience’s attention in a:
a notice?
b leaflet?
5 What is the purpose of using a telephone message form?

APPLICATION

1 You left school at the end of last year and now you wish to sell your school
uniform/school books/multifunction calculator/technical drawing
equipment/ sports equipment. Draw up an advertisement to be placed in
the classified section of your local newspaper.
2 In pairs, decide on a product or service. Then, design a short
advertisement promoting your product or service to appear on the leader
page in your local newspaper.
3 The Faculty of Communication has decided to produce an information
brochure to be handed to first-year students at registration. The purpose
of the brochure is to give new students an overall view of the faculty and
to tell them what they can expect during their first year, from an
academic point of view. In other words, it is an orientation brochure.
Information will be grouped under the following headings:
■ Who we are – an overview of the senior and administrative staff
■ How we will work with you – details of
lectures/tutorials/tests/examinations
■ Your part in the process – the expectations the faculty has of the
students
■ Our vision for you – what the faculty hopes the students will become
■ Where to find us – a map that will help students to find their faculty in
relation to the rest of the campus.
Draw up a brochure to reflect the appropriate image for the faculty –
fairly formal. At the same time, your audience is a young one, so the
brochure should be reader-friendly and oriented towards the students’
needs and interests.
4 Your organisation has decided to do all it can to save water (or energy) in
your building. Write a notice instructing staff what to do. Brainstorm (see
section 2.6.2 , page 37) for a few ideas before you start.

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5 The following notice appeared on the student noticeboard of a tertiary

institution. In groups of three discuss the notice in terms of:
5.1 audience and purpose
5.2 necessary information
5.3 style
5.4 correctness of grammar and spelling
5.5 layout, including choice of font.
Then redo the notice, bearing all of the above in mind.

BALLROOM DANCE
The Proffesional Dancer Will Be Joining Us On Fridays & Saturdays
CAN YOU PLEASE ATTEND SO THAT YOU ARE NOT LEFT BEHIND.

IT IS YOUR WRIGHT TOGET TRAINED.

STARTING THIS FRIDAY

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 Chapter 1 0

Digital Media

OBJECTIVES

This chapter takes the options for communication into the digital world. In
this landscape, new online technologies and the development of social media
have created opportunities for organisations to engage with their clients,
customers and potential clients or customers in new and creative ways.
Technology and the social media are fluid and evolving. This chapter,
therefore, offers a snapshot of their evolution at a particular moment.
Organisations that use new technologies and social media to communicate
with clients and customers must keep up to date – or be left behind. However,
those who welcome and meet the opportunities and challenges of digital
communication are likely to be rewarded with better relationships with, and
greater loyalty from, their clients and customers.
Whereas large organisations set up digital media departments, small
business owners usually have to undertake digital media activities in
addition to their other responsibilities. The focus in the pages that follow is
therefore on equipping a small business owner with the knowledge – and
confidence – to enter the digital communication world.
The mediums discussed are all cost-effective means of communication, but
differ in key respects, namely the:
■ degree of control the sender has in conveying the message directly to the
intended audience
■ potential for dialogue, in other words one-way or two-way communication
■ ‘shelf life’ (or lifetime) of the message
■ nature and length of the message
■ potential for sharing with others
■ potential for verbal and non-verbal communication.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ use short message service messages (texting) effectively
■ understand what information to include in a website
■ write a business blog post
■ understand the applications of social network services such as Facebook
and Twitter in a business environment
 Chapter 10 Digital Media

■ understand the value of a presence on the professional network service

LinkedIn.

10.1 TEXTING OR SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE (SMS)

In South Africa today, with currently over 40 million cellphones in use

(approximately 1.5 cellphones per user) texting has become the most cost-
effective and efficient way for small and large organisations to connect with
clients and customers, both for informational and marketing purposes. It is
also a means of reaching remote or isolated audiences who, because of a lack
of infrastructure, are not accessible by landline or the postal service.
Audiences are mainly external, although texting is also used for internal
communication.

10.1.1 Audience
Audiences for text messages come from a variety of educational and economic
backgrounds. The devices on which texts are received range from the latest
smartphones to bottom-of-the-range models. In addition, texts are often sent
to multiple audiences. Organisations should consider not only their
audience’s needs, but also the devices on which their audience members will
receive messages. It is pointless, for example, to send texts incorporating
visuals to audiences whose devices are unable to receive them.

10.1.2 Purpose
Because text messages are short, the purpose of each text must be identified
to ensure the message has a clear focus.
Some of the purposes for which texting is used are to:
■ inform clients, for example, each time a transaction takes place in their
bank accounts
■ invite enquiries about, for example, insurance products
■ notify customers of special offers or events
■ send accounts, for example, municipal accounts, to householders in areas
not covered by the postal service
■ provide information about social grants and pensions.

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Reproduced by permission of Mark Anderson, Andertoons.com

Developments in instant messaging have enabled users to exchange messages

without having to pay for texts. Examples are the following:
■ Selected smartphones include a facility enabling users to text to single or
multiple users of the same device. Texts can include images, video clips
and audio media messages. A current example is the iPhone.
■ WhatsApp Messenger, a cross-platform mobile messaging app available for
selected smartphones. Users can text single or multiple WhatsApp users
and send images, video clips and audio media messages.
In an organisation that uses texting extensively, considerable savings can be
effected if text communication is managed to incorporate free messaging
opportunities.
For professional texting, keep the following elements in mind, but remember
to keep up to date with developing trends.

10.1.3 Format
Format your messages as follows:
■ Include a greeting to personalise your message if necessary. This will
depend on the audience, purpose and topic. ‘Dear’, ‘Hello’ or ‘Good morning’
and the audience’s name are appropriate for business audiences.
■ Include a complimentary close if necessary. ‘Regards’, ‘Thank you’, or
‘Thanks’ and your name is appropriate for business audiences.

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■ Provide the sender’s name, contact or link and, if applicable, reference

details at the end of the message for identification purposes and easy
response.
■ Limit messages to a maximum of 160 characters, for ease of reading.

10.1.4 Content
Use texting for brief, one-topic messages such as:
■ confirming the time of a meeting or appointment
■ cancelling a meeting or appointment – but follow up with a phone call
■ advising of a payment received or requesting a payment
■ saying ‘thank you’ (a way to promote goodwill)
■ announcing a special offer with a time limit (but see section 10.10).

10.1.5 Style
Although texting is a concise form of communication, messages should
nevertheless be professionally formulated as follows:
■ Type out words in full.
■ Use complete but concise sentences (see section 17.1 on page 403).
■ Avoid ‘txt-speak’ such as 4 ur info and cu 2mro. These are not appropriate
for business usage.
■ Use sentence case, not capital letters.

Here is an example of a personalised text message. The message is within

the 160-character limit. For multiple audiences, omit the greeting.
Hello the Beyi family. Pay for a two-night stay at Elephant Lodge before 10/05/20__ and
your third night is free. Book on 0839924572. Regards the Elodge Team.

Be sure to manage your messages effectively – store, note or diarise important

details. Failure to do so could lead to missed appointments or non-delivery of
undertakings, which could damage or destroy business relationships.
SUMMARY

Texting is a concise form of communication, enabling messages to be

conveyed to specific audiences. Used for internal and external
communication, texting is a cost-effective medium for conveying short,
one-topic messages to a range of audiences.

10.2 THE ONLINE BUSINESS PRESENCE: WEBSITES

The media discussed in this section and in the section on social media (page
213) are websites. They are voluntarily accessed by audiences, which means

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that the website hosts have to find a means to ensure that audiences want to
visit their websites and that, once there, will read and engage with the
information on offer.

A website is a collection of webpages that may contain text, images, sound

and video. Websites are set up by organisations of all types and sizes, ranging
from one-person businesses to large corporations, schools, universities,
research centres, health facilities and non-profit organisations.

Setting up a website for your business provides an online presence to a global

audience seven days a week, 24 hours a day. This means that customers can
find out about your organisation’s products and services from the comfort of
their homes and offices, or via their mobile devices, from wherever they
happen to be. Today, customers and potential customers expect organisations,
including small and medium enterprises (SMEs), to have an online presence.

Since the development of Web 2.0 technology, anyone with a computer – or a

smartphone – can have an online presence. In addition, new technologies
have made it possible to create increasingly interactive websites, with the
potential for dialogue with site visitors.

To set up a basic four-page website, two skill sets are necessary. These are:

■ some (surprisingly little) knowledge of technology. Be prepared to keep

extending and updating this knowledge as technology evolves and changes
■ good writing skills – the subject matter of most of the chapters in this book.

You can set up a website for your business yourself. However, whether you
employ a professional to create your website or decide to do it yourself, certain
technical aspects must be considered before you get started.

■
Search engine optimisation (SEO) – this refers to the process of getting traffic to your
website from the free listings on search engines. SEO is a specialised and evolving
aspect of online use. Set aside a budget to pay for professional SEO, or whatever
technology is in current use.
■ Security – websites have increasingly become a target for malware through security
holes. Seek professional advice about security threats and how your site can be
protected.
■ Analysis tools – these come into play once your site is up and running. Such tools –
for example, Google Analytics – enable you to measure and understand
engagement on your website and social networking sites, so that content can be
better customised to your audience’s needs.

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For your website, think about the following:

■ Domain – the name you give to your website. For example, the domain name of the
Elephant Lodge guest house (an imaginary establishment) on pages 196 and 211 is
elephantlodge.co.za. An annual fee is paid for the right to use the name.
■ Web host – the company that provides your website with a ‘home’. Free hosting
services are available, but it is likely that you will receive better service from a paid-
for hosting company. Essential considerations are:
■ reliability – in other words, an uptime (the amount of time a server has stayed
up and running, usually listed as a percentage) of above 99.5 per cent ■ web
space – this refers to disk space and is measured in megabytes (MB). The amount
you need depends on how many images, videos and audio files you wish to upload,
because these take up more space than text
■ bandwidth – the amount of data that is requested from your website over
time. Bandwidth is usually expressed in terms of kilobits per second (Kbps).
You must have sufficient bandwidth to support the number of visitors to your
site each month
■ technical support – several support options should be available, including
phone, email and chat, and 24/7 availability is desirable.
■ Mobility – your customers might be accessing your site from a mobile device. The
appearance of your site must therefore be appropriate for a mobile screen as well as
a personal computer screen, or consider creating a ‘light’ version for mobile
browsers.
■ Scalability – the ability to handle increasing volume. As your business grows, you
need to be able to add features to your website so that you can keep up with new
trends. It is important that your web host has the capacity to enable your website to
grow as your business grows.
■ Interactivity – your customers will increasingly expect to be able to engage with you,
so consider adding tools and apps that will enable visitors to your site to interact
with you.
■ Navigation – this is what gets visitors round your site. If they cannot find their way
easily, they will lose interest. Because websites are not read in a linear fashion,
anticipate the paths that visitors might follow and provide hyperlinks where needed
so that readers can explore successfully. Consider linking, for example, your blog,
Facebook page and Twitter account to your website and to each other (see section
10.3.1 on page 215, section 10.4 on page 222 and section 10.5 on page 226).
■ Speed – investigate ways to ensure that your pages are fast. Potential visitors to
your site will lose interest if the download speed is slow. Reduce the size of images,
for example, so that pages load at a faster rate, and consider hosting videos on an
external server such as YouTube and linking these to your site.

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Next, think about the visitors to your site. They are there on a voluntary basis
– with the click of a mouse, the visit is over. How can you make it easy for
visitors to read the content on your site?

Here are some guidelines for writing for the screen:

Writing for the screen

Because reading onscreen is more difficult than paper-based reading, you should:
■ restrict the amount of text
■ consider using columns to reduce eye span
■ break text up by using headings and subheadings if appropriate
■ use a sans serif font such as Arial or Verdana because these create a clean,
uncluttered effect
■ use a text size of a minimum of 14 points and 1,5 line spacing ■
ensure a balance between text and images.

Presenting your content in this way assists scanning and skim-reading, so

that visitors to your website:

■ find what they are looking for in the shortest time possible
■ decide whether the content is worth reading in the shortest time possible.
(See sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, pages 50 and 51, for information about
scanning and skim-reading.)

When considering what information to include on your website, begin by

analysing your audience and determining your purpose.

10.2.1 Audience
Draw up a profile of your audience (see section 5.1, page 72). Is this a local,
national or global audience, or a combination of all three? What are the
information needs of your audience?
For example, a website for the Elephant Lodge guest house on page 211
should be designed so that visitors to the site can easily find specific
information about types of accommodation, rates charged, activities on offer
and so on.

10.2.2 Purpose
Define your purpose for your website. This might be, for example, to market
and sell your product(s). If yours is a non-profit organisation, your purpose
might be to create awareness of what you do, and to solicit support from the
public in terms of time or money. You might find, also, that there is an overall

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purpose for your website and within this overall purpose, each page or section
has its own purpose.

The purpose of the Elephant Lodge website, for example, would be to market
the guest house to travellers and holidaymakers. Within this overall purpose,
each page or section might have an individual purpose – for example, to:

■ attract business during low-season periods through special offers

■ entice visitors with descriptions and photographs of meals
■ create an image of social responsibility by providing details of community
projects
■ provide information such as maps, diagrams and GPS coordinates to guests
– who might come from different directions – about how to get there.

10.2.3 Content
A basic four-page website tells the reader:

■ ‘This is us’ – the home page

■ ‘This is our background’ – the ‘about us’ page
■ ‘This is what we make or do’ – the ‘products and services’ page
■ ‘This is how you will find us’ – the ‘contact us’ page.

Here are some suggestions for information on each of these pages. Where
appropriate, include images – graphics or photographs – to illustrate the
information. However, these should not dominate the page.

10.2.3.1 Home page

Give a brief overview of what your business does. State:

■ the type of business, for example a guest lodge

■ where it is located, for example in the Addo Valley
■ what is special about your business, for example, access to surrounding
game parks, local hospitality, a malaria-free region, etc
■ names of any professional organisations you belong to, for example a
national guest lodge organisation. Affiliation to a recognised body
increases perception of the credibility of your business.
This page should include the business logo and slogan, if applicable. Visual
material should complement the image you wish to project for your business.

10.2.3.2 About us
People love stories, so give a short history of your business. State, where
applicable:
■ who founded it

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■ when it was founded

■ why it was founded
■ your business values or philosophy
■ other information relevant to your particular business.

10.2.3.3 Products or services

This is what you are marketing and selling, so give details of:
■ the products or services you offer, including pictures or photographs if
applicable
■ how they should be used
■ what is special about them
■ how customers might benefit from your product or services
■ how customers can obtain the products or make use of the services.

10.2.3.4 Contact us
On this page, provide:
■ contact details for customers and potential customers, ensuring that a
range of contact media are available. As well as the usual telephone/cell
numbers and address details, many organisations include a Google Maps
widget to provide an accurate location of the organisation;
■ a means for visitors to the website to be able to ask questions or leave
comments. This could take the form of a response form, which makes it
easier for the site visitor to contact the organisation.

10.2.4 Style
The target audience and purpose, together with the type of product or service
you are offering, will influence your style and the tone you adopt.
You should:
■ write in a personal, conversational style – which does not mean a careless
or sloppy style
■ ensure that you sound professional – this includes writing complete
sentences
( see section 17.1 on page 403 for information about complete sentences )
■ keep paragraphs short – three sentences on average
■ adapt your tone depending on the audience, purpose and product or service.
For example, a caring, empathetic tone would be appropriate for a website
for a care home for the elderly, while an upbeat tone would be suitable for
a trendsetting fashion site

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■ write as globally as you can, if applicable. Ensure that, for example,

currencies, measurements, dates and times are clear so that readers know
exactly what you mean
■ check grammar and spelling. Errors detract from the professional
impression you are creating.
Here is an example of what a home page for Elephant Lodge might look like:

Elephant
Lodge


Home About us Accommodation Activities Contact us

Home
Elephant Lodge guest house is situated in a nature
Nature of business conservancy just five kilometres from the historic Addo
and locality Elephant National Park. Malaria-free Addo is home not
Specific details only to the gentle giant, but is also a sanctuary for lion,
buffalo, black rhino, spotted hyena, leopard and a variety
of antelope and zebra species.
Special features of
the business Our experienced game guides will share their enthusiasm
Short paragraphs
of two to three for the flora, fauna and birdlife of Addo as you enjoy
sentences a game drive in one of our comfortable game-viewing
vehicles. Afterwards, sip sundowners on the deck above
Blend of specific
details and subjective the lodge waterhole and spot some of the 165 species of
language birdlife recorded in the valley.

Conversational Use of the ‘you principle’ includes the reader in the message
style

Affiliation to recognised body enhances credibility

Relax and enjoy valley hospitality in one of our Africanthemed
suites, where everything from the comfortable beds to the
crisp bed linen has been locally designed or made. Then

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sample chef For something different, botanist and amateur historian Amos
Sara van Sampson offers tours of the Sundays River Valley. You’ll be
Breda’s African fascinated by the ingenuity of valley vegetation, which has to
fusion cuisine, make do on an average annual rainfall of only 385 mm, while
conjured from Amos brings the history of Addo to life as you visit the
ingredients landmarks of the area.
grown in our
At Elephant Lodge, we speak French and German, in addition
own gardens, or
to the languages of the valley. Elephant Lodge is co-owned by
on neighbouring
the community and a member of Responsible Tourism South
farms.
Africa (RTSA).
10.2.5 Site monitoring
Once your website is up and running, it should be regularly monitored to
check that:
■ the site is available at all times
■ download speed is fast
■ the site works with the browsers that your audience is likely to use – such
as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome and Safari
■ information is up to date. Customers and potential customers soon lose
interest if the content on a site is perceived to be stale
■ there are no broken links
■ the site is as readable on a mobile screen, if applicable, as on a computer
screen.
Considerable time and effort goes into the preparation of a website and it
should therefore serve your organisation for a considerable time. However,
ensure that it is dynamic, with consistently fresh appeal through regular
updates and the provision of appropriate add-ons. These could include a link
to your blog or Facebook page and occasional special offers to meet your
audience’s needs, add to their experience of your site and lead to the
attainment of your purpose(s).
Consult the following very readable website for more information about
creating websites: http://www.thesitewizard.com/.
SUMMARY

A website is the online presence of an organisation, enabling it to

showcase its products and services to a local or global audience 24 hours
a day. Websites are accessed from a computer or, increasingly, from
mobile devices. Modern technology has made it possible for small-
business owners to create their own websites. Information on websites

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should be accessible and readable and created with the intended

audience and purpose in mind. The text on a website should be written
in a conversational, but professional style and balanced with images.
Websites should be regularly updated with fresh information and
monitored to ensure that they are working effectively.

10.3 SOCIAL MEDIA

The term ‘social media’ refers to a set of platforms or tools that foster
interaction, discussion and community, allowing users to share information
and build relationships. Social media platforms were originally intended for
personal use and interactions could take various forms, such as commenting
on information or voting on an issue.

Here are some examples of social media websites:

■ Digg is a social news website where users interact by voting web content
‘up’ or ‘down’.
■ Tumblr is a social blogging website, in which images rather than text are
predominant. Users interact by following other users and giving ‘notes’ to
posts they have enjoyed. Notes take different forms such as ‘likes’, text or
photos.
■ YouTube is a social video-sharing website where users interact by sharing
videos and commenting on them.

Social media conversations take place in real time and anyone can
participate, although some sites do have restrictions. Comments left on social
media sites can lead to conversations that flow from one social media platform
– such as Facebook – on to others – such as Twitter. The subject matter and
direction of these conversations cannot be controlled, which makes social
media very powerful instruments of communication. In effect, the
development of social media has taken word-of-mouth – the most powerful
recommendation an organisation can have – and extended it on a global scale.

Given that millions of people access social media platforms every day, it is not
surprising that organisations – from local businesses to corporates, charitable
organisations, and public organisations and institutions – saw the potential
of using social media to communicate in a different and more personal way
with their customers and supporters.

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Here are the key principles for effective business use of social media.
Principles of social media use
■ Community: engaging with and forming relationships with customers and potential
customers, ultimately building trust and loyalty
■ Time: taking a long-term view – relationships are not formed overnight
■ Content: sharing information that is relevant, engaging, interesting and valuable
with your users
■ Authenticity: communicating in an authentic voice, rather than creating a fictional
personality who supposedly represents your business
■ Listening: noting what people are saying about your business and your industry and
responding to comments from users, showing you value them and their opinions.

(See section 4.4.2, page 67 for information about empathic listening. See also technical
considerations and writing for the screen, pages 207 and 208.)
Before you decide to use social media as a communication tool for your
business, you should:

■ establish your social media goals – for example, whether you would like to
connect with other professionals in your field, engage in conversations
about your industry, or establish yourself as an expert or leading thinker
in your field
■ decide which social media service is the most appropriate for your particular
goals
■ decide how much time you have available to spend on social media – using
social media consistently requires time, commitment and effort
■ spend time observing and learning from others’ use of the services you are
considering.

Finally, remember these two general guidelines:

■ Use your website for promotional purposes.

■ Use social media for building relationships and your reputation.
In time, the care and effort put into developing relationships and building
your reputation will be rewarded when users – or their friends – turn to you
if they need the product or service that you provide.

Currently, the social media most frequently used as a means of engaging and
communicating with clients, customers and potential customers are blogging,
Facebook and Twitter. However, recent history shows that once-popular
social media services such as MySpace have experienced a decline in usage,
and have been supplanted by others, such as Facebook. Therefore, social

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media services should be monitored as they develop and change. When new
entrants arrive in the social media space, these should be assessed for their
potential value and use as communication media.

Blogging, Facebook and Twitter and their potential business applications are
discussed in the pages that follow. The section ends with a discussion of
Pinterest, an imagesharing service, and an overview of LinkedIn, a
professional networking service.

10.3.1 Blogs
A blog (condensed from web log) was originally an online diary in which people
wrote about their personal lives. Later, bloggers started writing about other
topics that interested them, such as cookery, politics, art, sport and music.
There are even blogs about blogging. Today, hundreds of thousands of blog
posts or ‘articles’ are daily added to the blogosphere.

In multilingual countries, blogging created a space for communicators to

write in any of the languages spoken by the people of the country. A South
African example is the isiXhosa blog isigidimi (http://isigidimi.co.za).

The WordPress (http://wordpress.com) or Blogger (http://blogger.com)

platforms are the most popular platforms for publishing blogs. Both platforms
are open-source content management systems.

Blog posts make up about 70 per cent of the content of a blog. The balance of
the blog consists of, for example:

■ images, such as a logo and/or an appropriate visual

■ an archive, so that older blogs can be accessed
■ a blog roll – a list of other blogs that are complementary or relevant to the
blog. Links to these blogs are included.

Blog posts:

■ appear in reverse chronological order – the most recent entry first

■ often consist of a combination of text and images
■ may also include videos, music and links to other blogs and webpages
■ allow readers to leave comments, making for two-way communication or
conversations.

As blogging became more widespread, organisations saw the possibilities for

engaging in two-way communication with clients and customers. This
resulted in the development of the business blog.

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Before you decide to start a business blog, think about content. If you have
only a one-off item or event to write about, blogging is not for you. You must
have sufficient content to be able to post to your blog on a regular basis now
and into the future.
Here is an example of a mind map exploring blog post content for the
Lodge guest house.

Create a plan or calendar for content for your blog, which might be organised
Elephant
round business milestones, the seasons, events in your industry and new
product launches – whatever is relevant to your area of expertise. It is also a
good idea to prepare about five posts before you launch your blog – as long as
you keep up, you will have material available for regular posting.

Types of blog posts to consider are as follows:

Blog post types

■ ‘How to’ posts, in which readers learn how to do something, such as create a family
budget

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■ ‘Tips for’ posts, in which readers are given ideas about, for example, improving their
financial management
■ Reviews, in which, for example, conferences, products or events relevant to your
readers are reviewed

■ Interviews, in which readers meet interesting people – the ‘thought leaders’– in

your industry
■ Educational posts, in which readers learn something new, different or unexpected
■ Behind-the-scenes posts, in which readers see your operation from the inside
■ Meet-the-team posts, in which readers meet your staff. Mention what employees do
in your organisation, but also include a few details of other interests, such as netball
coaching or fishing, which allows visitors to see their personal side

■ Guest posts, in which other voices are invited to write posts, ensuring that the
content on your blog is fresh and different.

Continue ➝
10.3.1.1 Format
The format of a blog post is as follows:

Title: This attracts attention by enticing the audience to read more.

Publication date (and sometimes the time): Readers immediately see whether
the post is current. Blogs that offer consistent, valuable posts rate highly with
readers. Post at least once a week to create a reputation for consistency.

Author’s name: This identifies who wrote the post, which is particularly
necessary if the blog has more than one author.

Images: These provide a contrast with the text and should complement the
message. Depending on content, the blog might be almost entirely visual.

Links: Most posts contain links within their content, which direct readers to
further information and to information sources.

Comment section: Readers are invited to leave comments. Responses to these

comments build a two-way conversation and show readers they are valued.
In return, you will find out what your readers think, what matters to them,
and what they need and want.

10.3.1.2 Audience
Consider the audience for whom your blog is intended.

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■ What is likely to interest them?

■ What can you share that will be of value to them?
■ What problems might they have for which you can offer solutions?

Answering these questions will help you to refine your content offering. Keep
adjusting the profile you have created of your audience – and your content –
as you receive comments and feedback.
10.3.1.3 Purpose
The overall purpose for a blog should be to develop relationships with your
readers – who might also be or become your customers – and to build your
reputation. Aim to become a trusted resource that readers turn to when they
want reliable information, solutions and help in your area of expertise.

Within this overarching purpose, each individual post will have a purpose,
which might be, for example, to provide information, solve a problem or
educate. This purpose provides a focus for each post.

10.3.1.4 Content
Content for a blog post should be current, relevant, interesting and useful. It
should preferably have currency beyond the day, week and month. Depending
on the content, readers might be able to return to the post even as much as a
year – or perhaps even two – after it was posted and still find value. For this
reason, your blog should include an archive, to enable readers to locate older
posts that might still be of interest or use. This relatively long shelf life makes
the investment in time and effort on writing your posts worthwhile.

A blog post has no set length. As a general rule, it should not take longer than
10 minutes to read or exceed approximately 600 words. Some are considerably
shorter. Each post should consist of four principal elements – the title,
introduction, body and conclusion. Each has a specific purpose.

The title is like a headline – it should catch the readers’ attention, drawing
them into what is to follow. Start with a working title and then refine and
revise until you have formulated an attention-grabbing title (see section
14.1.3.1, page 317 for some ideas for titles).

The purpose of the introduction is to create a sense of anticipation for what is

to follow in the body of the post. To show the reader that it is worthwhile to
continue reading, you could introduce your topic by:

■ sharing an anecdote – tell your readers a story to which they can relate

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■ using an interesting quote – let your readers hear what others have said,
particularly well-known personalities
■ asking the reader to imagine a situation – draw your readers into the story
as they visualise the scene
■ asking a question – involve your readers in thinking about an answer
■ citing an unusual statistic – surprise your readers with something new or
unexpected.

The body is the main part of your post, where you deliver on the promise of
the title and opening paragraph by exploring the topic introduced. Follow this
procedure: ■ Draw up an outline for your topic – each main point becomes a
subheading.
■ Fill in the supporting points for each main point. These are the paragraphs,
which should on average contain about three sentences.
■ Use bulleted points for connected or related supporting points, if
appropriate.
■ Use numbering or bulleted points in a list or how-to post.
■ Provide links to the original source of any content that is not your own.
Your content does not all have to be original, but if you have used the
content or ideas of another writer, this must be acknowledged.
Alternatively, identify and acknowledge the source in your text. Failure to
do this constitutes plagiarism, and might also breach copyright. (See
section 13.2, page 295 for more information about plagiarism.)
■ Provide links to other sources of interesting information that goes beyond
the scope of your post. Remember that by doing so, you are recommending
these sources to your readers. Ensure, therefore, that it is high-quality
information in terms of relevance, content, accuracy and style. Failure to do
so will negatively affect your reputation. (Refer to section 13.1.3, page 291 for
information about assessing the reliability of online sources.) ■ Revise the
content. Is it:
❏ correct?

❏ logical?

❏ complete?

❏ useful? – and above all

❏ interesting?

■ Edit for grammar, spelling and punctuation.

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The conclusion is the final paragraph that rounds off the post. Consider
suggesting that the reader tries an idea set out in the post, or provides a
comment.

10.3.1.5 Style
A blog post is a conversation, so:

■ write as you speak – read your post aloud to ‘hear’ whether your writing
sounds natural and conversational. However, conversational does not
mean careless, so grammar, spelling and punctuation should be correct
■ adapt your tone to the audience and subject matter
■ consider using humour or a light-hearted approach, if appropriate
■ be yourself – in this way, you will develop your own, recognisable ‘voice’.

(See also the section on article-writing in Chapter 14, because there are
similarities between blog posts and articles.)
Here is an example of a blog post, dated 2012, when smartphones and the
mobile web were gaining in popularity. The content in context is current and
useful:

Eye-catching Top tips for taking your blog mobile headline

Author/date/time Posted by Chris Peterson on April 10, 2012 @ 6:30 a.m.

The opening It’s time to take that last step and go mobile. Your competi paragraph shows tion
is already there with nice, neat, accessible and entertainthe reader the
benefit of reading ing blogs. Just because you’re online doesn’t mean your read further ers are
compelled to visit you from their smartphones. You have to make it simple and enjoyable
for them. First subheading, Why go mobile? phrased as a
question There is a reason people use mobile apps instead of opening clunky
browsers on their phones and looking up information Style is as they would on a desktop
computer. People turn to mobile conversational apps because they are easy. You can
click your way to an enand personal tertainment news post as you wait on a bus.
You can thumb
through recipes on your favourite cooking blog as you do your
grocery shopping. You can pull up a quotable news blog as you
argue politics with your uncle.

And then there are the benefits to the person or company

behind the blog. You can grow your audience and your brand
awareness by being accessible. You can make yourself a fixture
on the phones of members of your target demographic.

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Your mobile blog can be a great asset to you for marketing and
name recognition, as long as you present an aesthetically
pleasing, simple-to-use option for your readers.

Second How do I get started? subheading

Let’s say you’re in the business of packaging. You’re an expert in
sustainable packaging ideas, not developing. Not to worry. You
have plenty of software options for blogging for mobile devices.

Links to Many blogging applications have been predesigned for mobile

WordPress and use. WordPress, for example, is very smartphone-friendly. Not
other sites only can readers easily view your blog, but you can write and publish directly from
your own smartphone. Tumblr has similar features, although blog
posts are not as neatly indexed, and it reads more like a Facebook
newsfeed. I would recommend Tumblr only for a personal blog.
Hyperlink to Concluding paragraph invites the reader to join the conversation
relevant You can also use apps tailored to your business. Mee Templates
information
specialises in multiple blogging themes beyond different
backgrounds. Layouts and navigation vary to give the blogs
unique looks. Many private Web development companies also
specialise in smartphone apps that feature blogs.

Third subheading Should my writing style change?

The title, together
with the The short answer is no. If you can read a blog post from a
subheadings, computer screen, you can read it from a smartphone. However,
facilitates
consider breaking up your paragraphs more frequently. An
skimming and
scanning average block of computer screen text could appear enormous
on a smartphone. Keep paragraphs no longer than two or three
sentences, and let all quotes stand alone in their own
paragraphs.

Also, be mindful of relativity and the proximity of text to a

Practical, useful
corresponding photo or graphic. If a photo is to the right of a
advice text block on your screen, it might not be that way on a mobile
device, so be careful with phrases like, ‘… according to the chart
to the right’.

Remember that you’re dealing with a smaller screen space and,

oftentimes, limited bandwidth. Use images sparingly. Finally,
your mobile blog should be simply indexed, easily searched and
quickly read. Think drop-down menus and archives catalogued
Information is by date. If you blog about products, divide them by topic:
shared, which
solves a problem automotive lifts in one category and hydraulic pumps in
for the reader another.

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If you have to take his or her operation to a mobile platform, please feel
advice for a free to comment below. I’d also be interested in hearing any
blogger looking other suggestions for simplified blog-hosting applications.
Source: Peterson, C. 2012. Top tips for taking your blog mobile. Memeburn. [Online]. Available from:
http://memeburn.com/2012/04/tips-for-taking-your-blog-mobile/ [Accessed 15 May 2013].
This material is reproduced by permission of Memeburn.com
10.4 FACEBOOK

Social networking service Facebook (http://facebook.com) was launched in

February 2004. Originally intended for personal communication, Facebook
enabled users to share, for example, information, images, videos and news
with their friends and families. To date, Facebook has over one billion active
users. As participation on Facebook escalated, businesses saw its potential
for two-way, external communication with customers and clients.

Registration on Facebook Pages – the business side of Facebook – allows local

businesses, corporations, products and brands, institutions and charitable
causes, among others, to create a Facebook presence. This presence enables
organisations to:

■ share information about their products and promote their brands

■ share interesting company milestones
■ engage in conversations with their communities
■ gather information about their customers’ needs and preferences.

Through Facebook, organisations can engage in a more personal way with

customers and potential customers than is possible on a website. Content is
considerably shorter, and there is greater potential for use of a variety of
media including text, photos, links to other texts and images, and video – all
in a relatively limited space. Visitors and customers might pose questions
about products or complain about poor service, so that a Facebook page also
becomes a part of customer service.

A key feature of Facebook is the ‘like’ application, where visitors to a page can
indicate whether they ‘like’ a particular content item such as an image. ‘Likes’
can sometimes create a buzz of excitement about a product or promotion. This
happens when users see many ‘likes’ for a particular product and are then
more inclined to investigate it for themselves. The ‘like’ application also
enables a business owner to find out about user preferences and engagement.

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10.4.1 Creating a Facebook page

Before you can create a Facebook page for your business, you are required to
join Facebook in your personal capacity. This can be done by going to
http://facebook. com and registering to become a user. After this, you can
register your business.

Follow the Facebook instructions to complete your business timeline profile,

ensuring you post the essential information your audience needs to know. In
particular, you should:

■ use your logo for your profile photo. This ensures that your business is
instantly recognisable
■ use, for example, an image of your latest product(s) or any other visual
material that conveys the image of your organisation for the timeline cover
photo. Regularly change the cover photo so that your page remains fresh and
appealing
■ check that your Facebook page image complements the image conveyed by
your website.

Here is an example of a Facebook page Timeline:

Next, consider the following.

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10.4.2 Audience
Analyse your audience to identify their wants, needs and interests (see section
5.1, page 72). Think about why your activities and products are of interest to
customers, potential customers and the community and what is likely to
engage them. Your understanding of your audience will be refined over time
as you audit how they use Facebook, the type of content they ‘like’ and how
active they are online. The better you understand the nature of your Facebook
visitors, the better you will be able to plan ways of connecting and interacting
with them.

10.4.3 Purpose
Identify your purpose(s) for establishing a presence on Facebook. The most
common purposes for creating a Facebook page include:

■ promoting your brand, products and services by interacting with existing

customers ■ ensuring that your customers and clients are up to date with
product development and any new initiatives that would be of interest to them
■ finding new clients, customers and partners by communicating about your
organisation’s activities.

10.4.4 Content
Posts should be interesting, varied, topical and eye-catching. Suggestions
include:

■ information about milestones or new activities – anything new or different

happening in your organisation that would interest visitors to your page.
Accompany the post with a photograph
■ photographs and images – an album of photographs should have a
meaningful title, for example, the Elephant Lodge guest house might post
images of animals drinking, bathing and playing at a waterhole, entitled
‘Early morning at Domkrag waterhole’. If appropriate for your particular
photographs, provide individual captions for each image. The captions
provide a context for the images, increase viewers’ appreciation of the
images and lend a professional touch to the post
■ tips and hints for how to do something related to your business, for example,
game-viewing tips
■ video clips, for example, footage shot at Domkrag waterhole

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■ links to related content, which could be text, images or video. If the text has
an accompanying photograph or image, this shows up as a thumbnail on
the
timeline and adds to the interest and variety of your page
■ links to content about community causes or initiatives that your
organisation supports. This shows the caring, more personal side of your
business
■ an invitation to do something. The invitation should appear within the first
90 characters of the post. This might be an invitation to drop in to see a
new line of products or to provide a caption for an amusing photograph –
with a prize for the best caption
■ questions – ask engaging questions to find out what your visitors think.
Experiment with formulating questions until you find the type of question
that elicits the best-quality answers and response rate. For example, a
dawn photograph accompanied by the question: ‘What is your favourite
time of day?’ is unlikely to obtain a response. However, if you say, ‘Our best
time of day is when the world’s just starting to wake up. What’s yours?’
you are more likely to receive a response. This is because you have shared
something about yourself before asking your visitor to do so
■ meet-the-staff posts – you could, for example, run an employee-of-the-month
competition and then post a photograph on your Facebook page with a
short description of what the employee does in your organisation, and a
few personal details about, for example, an interest or hobby that the
employee enjoys.

When your users engage with you, respond as follows:

■ Thank users for their posts, if complimentary.

■ Respond promptly and appropriately to queries and enquiries.
■ Deal with negative comments or criticism in an open, honest and fair
manner, and avoid being defensive.

Post content regularly and consistently. Three to five posts per week is the
average, but depending on the nature of your business and its current
activities, you might post more or less often. The shelf life of a post –
depending on the conversation it sparks – is from as little as a few hours to as
long as about two days. Therefore, for Facebook content, currency is as
important as interest value and usefulness.

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10.4.5 Style
Posts that are warm and welcoming, quick to read and easy to understand
and act upon have a higher rate of user engagement. Here are some guidelines
to ensure that your posts meet these criteria:

■ Keep messages short and direct – between 100 and 250 characters (three to
four lines of text).
■ Use a conversational style. Address your audience as you and refer to
yourself as we, as you are speaking on behalf of your company. Although
conversational, your tone and style should nevertheless be professional
and in keeping with the image of your website and Facebook page.
■ Ensure that your voice is authentic and consistent. Customers like to know
they are talking to someone real.
■ Use positive language. Avoid negative postings, criticism or complaint as
this reflects poorly on your company’s professionalism.
■ Use the active voice to ensure directness and conciseness.
■ Avoid marketing jargon, for example, benchmarking or SWOT analysis.
■ Avoid abbreviated Web text, for example, LOL, gr8, @Y and B4.
■ Use the imperative when you want your customers to take action. For
example, ‘Tell us’, ‘Vote for your favourite’ or ‘Click the link for more info’.
These simply and directly invite your users to engage.
■ Write grammatically and ensure that spelling is correct. Errors can be
minimised by typing your updates on a word processor before posting them
on Facebook so that spelling, grammatical errors and typos can be
corrected.

Here is an example of a Facebook post:

10.5 TWITTER

Twitter (http://twitter.com), established in 2006, is a micro-blogging

information network that enables users to connect to what interests them, to
share information and to find out what is happening in the world. Tweets –
messages posted on Twitter – represent conversations, and relate to whatever
topics interest the users. Twitter is a public forum. Anyone can read, post and

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share messages, which might include photographs and video, all of which
takes place in real time.

Twitter has a greater potential for sharing and for reaching large numbers of
people than the other social media discussed in this section. Although it is
largely used for external communication, it can also be used internally by
organisations to facilitate internal conversations.

Twitter enables organisations to:

■ connect their businesses and brands to what people are talking about
■ listen to what people are saying, for example, about their industry, their
business and their competitors
■ gather insights about their customers’ interests, needs and preferences.

10.5.1 Twitter ‘definitions’

If you are new to Twitter, here are some explanations to help you understand
how it works.

■A Tweet is limited to 140 characters.

■A timeline is your Twitter ‘feed’. Tweets made by people you follow appear
in your timeline.
■ Followers are the people who follow your Tweets, which they receive in their
timelines.
■ Tweets frequently include links to other content. This is enabled by the use
of URL shorteners such as bit.ly, which create permanent short links to
the content being shared.
■A reply is a Tweet that begins with a user’s Twitter ID preceded by the @
symbol. It is used when replying directly to someone. A reply Tweet is seen
by a user’s followers only if they also follow the person being replied to.

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■A Twitter mention is a Tweet that contains a user’s Twitter ID preceded by

the @ symbol somewhere in the Tweet, apart from at the beginning.
■A Retweet (RT) is a Tweet from one user that has been shared by another
user.
■A direct message (DM) is a private message sent from one user to another,
but is possible only if the second user follows the first one. These messages
are not seen by other users and provide a confidential way of asking for a
user’s contact details.
■A hashtag is a word or phrase preceded by a hash symbol (#). A hashtag
denotes a public discussion about a topic. Clicking on a hashtag will bring
up a list of search results for that string of words on Twitter, so you can
see what other people have to say about the topic. In this way, hashtags
are used to connect conversations around a topic or event.

Here is an example of a Tweet. The Tweet is well below the character limit
characters. This makes it quick and easy to retweet the message.

Logo and
user name
Elephant Lodge @elephantlodge
Message with hashtag
and link to video 7 lions including 3 cubs at #Domkrag waterhole bit.ly/242XbvO
footage

Organisations and businesses use Twitter in a range of ways, including, for example:

■ Communities of professionals such as engineers or teachers share useful information

or direct members to new research or developments in their field.
■ An advertising agency Tweets an inspirational thought for the day, sourced from an
influential thinker (and attributed to the source by mention of the @ username of
the source or media outlet, if applicable).
■ A sports organisation taps into conversations about football by inviting predictions
for the Africa Cup of Nations winner.
■ A training organisation invites the public to register for a free webinar.
■ A coffee shop Tweets a password that allows customers a special discount for the
day.

of 140
A characteristic of Twitter is the speed with which messages travel. Research
into the Twittersphere shows that engagement on Twitter takes place largely
within one hour of the posting of the Tweet. Therefore, with Twitter, the

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Here is an example showing the Twitter profile summary for Elephant Lodge:

Logo

Name of Elephant Lodge

organisation
Twitter user name @elephantlodge
(ID)
Short description Elephant Lodge offers game viewing in the Addo Elephant
of organisation National Park. Enjoy hospitality, comfort and fine cuisine in the
Sundays River Valley +27 42 233 6112
Web address Addo, South Africa elephantlodge.co.za

10.5.3 Audience
emphasis when deciding what to Tweet is on currency, and most Tweets have
a short shelf life.

10.5.2 Opening a Twitter account

Register as a user at http://twitter.com and then follow the instructions to
open your Twitter account. For your profile image, choose one that represents
your business, usually your business logo. However, if your logo contains
lettering that will be illegible when reduced to fit the Twitter frame, adapt it
or find another means of ensuring that your Tweets will be recognised as
coming from your business.

Your biographical details (bio) should include a brief description of your

business and your products and services, a link to your website, and details
of other social media usernames, if applicable.

Aim to become a reliable source of information that meets your audience’s

needs. The focus is on what your audience wants, not what you want to tell
them. Remember that Twitter users:

■ are eager for new ideas, information, services and products

■ want and seek out solutions to their problems
■ value authentic interaction with real people.

10.5.4 Purpose
Twitter is a social network, and therefore your purpose should be to join a
community where you can add value by sharing information, insights, tips,
hints and ideas that will benefit your followers. By listening and by

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responding to Tweets, you will build up a reliable and trustworthy reputation,

which will ultimately benefit your business.

10.5.5 Content
When selecting content for Twitter, consider the following suggestions:

■ Plan ahead – even though Twitter lives in the moment. Think about
important upcoming events – the introduction of new products or services,
important games or matches that could be linked to your product, or even
public holidays – and plan how these could be used in your Tweets.
■ Tweet regularly, approximately three times per day. For example, on
Mondays, tweet a password that your followers can mention to obtain a
discount when they visit your business. On Tuesdays, run a series of
informative Tweets. For example, a tourism business could Tweet holiday
tips.
■ Include links to useful or interesting content related to your business or
industry such as online articles or news stories. Personally check the
quality and relevance of the content before posting the link.
■ Post photos or links to photos or videos in your content. Visual material will
increase the impact of your message, which is then more likely to be
Retweeted and to reach a wider audience.
■ Interact with and respond to your followers. Monitor your Twitter account
regularly so that your responses are prompt. Thank followers and
customers for praise or compliments with an @reply and deal with criticism
in a calm and helpful manner.

10.5.6 Style
■ Write as though you are having a conversation with a good friend – people
respond best to friendly, conversational Tweets.
■ Polish your summarising skills. Become expert at reducing messages into
as few characters as possible, while at the same time creating meaningful
‘headlines’.
■ Adjust your tone depending on the situation. For example, a distressed
customer is best addressed in a respectful tone.
■ Use hashtags as an economical way of conveying the theme of your Tweet –
no more than two per Tweet.
■ Ensure that your Tweets are substantially less than 140 characters. This
means they can be retweeted without the need for editing.

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■ Write grammatically and ensure that spelling is correct – anything less is

unprofessional.
10.6 PINTEREST

Social networking service Pinterest (http://pinterest.com), launched in 2010,

is the online equivalent of a pinboard – or a scrapbook – where users share
images of whatever interests or is important to them. It is a relatively new
arrival on the social media landscape, and is attracting a rapidly growing
following because of its visual nature and capacity to enable users to share
beautiful, interesting or quirky images. This visual nature makes Pinterest
ideally suited to product-based businesses. It is probably the only social
network where users might look for and expect to find images of various
products.

Pinterest currently works as follows:

■ Users create boards around themes or topics, such as crafts, fabrics or food
– whatever is of interest to them.
■ Text is restricted to a brief description of the theme. For example, a board
dedicated to shoes might have the specific theme of ‘must-have shoes’.
■ Images (or videos) relating to each theme are pinned onto the boards.
■ Images are individually labelled.
■ Sharing someone else’s pin is known as repinning.
■ Users engage by following other users – or specific boards – and repinning,
‘liking’ specific pins and leaving comments.

Depending on audience and purpose, some of the ways businesses can

participate on Pinterest are by:

■ creating different pinboards on different topics relating to the business,

ensuring that only high-quality images are used. The cover image for each
board should be selected to ensure it catches the eye
■ engaging with others by commenting, ‘liking’ and repinning their images
onto your boards – provided the images complement your pins. This
engagement is likely to result in your images being shared in return
■ creating a board based on a product collection – perhaps in an unusual
colour or style
■ creating a catalogue of products – possible as Pinterest permits the display
of prices
■ hosting ‘pin-it-to-win-it’ competitions.

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Pinterest has been used by a range of institutions such as libraries,

universities and healthcare facilities to create awareness. The visual nature
of Pinterest is particularly effective for the promotion of causes by non-profit
organisations.
Here are some examples of different uses of Pinterest:

■ The British Library creates awareness of the visual side of its collections, available at
http://pinterest.com/britishlibrary/.
■ A board available at http://pinterest.com/dfiduk/stop-violence-against-women/
creates awareness of the need to address violence against women.
■ A series of boards created by a children’s hospital covers topics related to children
and is available at http://pinterest.com/nationwidekids/.
■ Created by an individual, this board is themed ‘Save the Rhino’ and is available at
http://pinterest.com/ken4601/save-the-rhino/.
■ Finally, here is a board showing how a range of people, organisations and institutions
use Pinterest as a communication tool: http://pinterest.com/ dgraveline/great-ways-
to-use-pinterest/.

To conclude, make the most of your social media efforts by linking your
website, blog, Facebook page, and Twitter and Pinterest accounts to each
other, so that traffic is driven from one to the others. Include your social media
contact details on your email signature as another means of creating
awareness and of driving traffic to your social media sites.

For a current South African example of linking of social media sites, see the
Nal’ibali (isiXhosa for ‘here’s the story’) website (http://nalibali.org). Nal’ibali,
founded to promote reading for enjoyment among children, has an interactive
website – an example of communication flow from website to social media
sites, complemented by links to relevant, high-quality information.

10.7 LINKEDIN

LinkedIn (http://linkedin.com) is a professional networking site, enabling

members to search and connect with other members. By connecting with each
other, registered users gain access to information about others’ career
histories and can communicate directly.

Although LinkedIn was not designed as an employment-seeking forum, many

employers use LinkedIn to identify suitable candidates to fill staff vacancies.
As your LinkedIn profile represents you 365 days a year, this means that you

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are available to employers searching for someone with your particular

competencies and skills any time they care to look.

After you have studied Chapter 11, and learnt how to represent yourself by
means of a CV and covering letter, investigate LinkedIn and start building
your professional profile. You have from now until you graduate to perfect it.
10.8 SOCIAL MEDIA EVALUATION

Building a community using social media is a process, rather than an end

result. Once your online business presence has been established, you should
measure and evaluate – over time – the effectiveness of the social media you
have chosen.

Are your social media activities helping you to achieve your communicative
goals? Available to help you answer this question are the analytics functions
of the various social media sites. Use the data provided to help you to
understand your audience better and to inform content decisions. Success
should not be judged purely in numbers of followers or ‘likes’. Quality
outweighs quantity: a smaller, but highly engaged community is preferable to
a large number of followers.

The use of social media for business communication is evolving, so keep up to

date with the latest trends and developments. As each business is different,
there is no one-size-fits-all approach to using social media Therefore, keep
posting in a timely manner and assessing and evaluating the responses and
response patterns of your users until you find the formula that works best for
your business.

10.9 SOCIAL MEDIA ETIQUETTE

Always remember that whatever you post on social media today can be seen
by anyone, any time. Post messages that you would be happy for anyone to
read, any time. Always think twice, post once.

Social media etiquette guidelines

■ Do not talk only about yourself and your brand or product. Share information about a
related subject that might start a conversation.

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■ Create a warm and welcoming atmosphere by showing the human side of your
organisation, for example in the way you introduce key employees on your
Facebook page, or in your readiness to share information on Twitter that will benefit
your followers.
■ Respond with care to negative comments about your product or service. Avoid being
defensive or argumentative. Your visitors must know their concerns are being
listened to.
■ Never use capital letters – this is seen as SHOUTING.
■ Do not try to be part of every conversation. If ten comments are similar, it is not
necessary to respond to each one. However, it is good manners to respond to
Facebook posts and to thank users for retweeting.
Remember also that social media are social. Therefore, think of yourself as
the host of your blog, Facebook page or Twitter account and follow the
etiquette guidelines below:

10.10 POLICIES AND LEGALITIES

The advent of digital communication in general and social media in particular

has led to a blurring of the boundaries between personal and business
communication. It is not always easy to tell where the one ends and the other
begins. However, communicators who choose to use texting and the social
media for business purposes, where marketing and selling is the objective,
must study the relevant policies and laws governing the conduct of business
by means of these media.

10.10.1 Social media policies

All social media platforms have policies governing the use of their platforms.
It is important that you familiarise yourself with and adhere to these policies.

10.10.2 Marketing through digital communication

The use of social media and other digital communication media, for example
email and texting, has expanded into the marketing of products and services.
When venturing into digital marketing territory, marketing communicators
may innocently expose themselves to claims for damages.

In addition to common-law principles, South Africa has statutory and

regulatory standards. These include:

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■ the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) Code of Advertising

Practice ■ the Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25 of
2002 (ECTA) ■ the Consumer Protection Act 68 of 2008 (CPA).

Special care needs to be exercised when offering or receiving digital marketing

communications.
SUMMARY

Social media are websites, originally intended for personal use, that
enable businesses to interact with users. This interaction or two-way
communication takes place in real time and the emphasis is on
authenticity. With the appropriate approach and over time, relationships
of trust are established between sender (the business) and audience
(customers and potential customers). Social media offer the potential for
including additional media such as images and video, as well as links to
other content, over and above text.

Communicators using social media should focus on audience needs and

wants and on providing interesting and useful content. Currently, the
most popular social media are blogging, Facebook and Twitter. Pinterest,
with its visual focus, is becoming increasingly popular, while LinkedIn is
a professional network that can be used as a source of employment
opportunities. Social media use is governed by certain regulations and
laws, which must be understood and adhered to.

For information about the application of games mechanics in website design,

consult the following webpage:

http://www.netmagazine.com/features/pro-s-guide-gamification?utm_
source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:+net/topstorie
s+%28. net+%29#null

For news, information, updates and advice about social media, consult the
following websites:

http://memeburn.com
http://mashable.com
http://socialmediatoday.com
http://socialmediaexaminer.com
http://technorati.com

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 What makes texting such an efficient and effective medium of

communication?
2 What is the advantage to an organisation of using WhatsApp Messenger?
3 From your own knowledge, name any two business-use examples of
texting.
4 True or false? It is a good idea to use capital letters for text messages.
5 Why should texts sent for business purposes not include ‘txt-speak’?
6 What is the advantage to a business of having a website?
7 Identify and discuss any five technical aspects that should be considered
before you set up a website.
8 Name at least three ways in which you can ensure that the text on a
website is easy to read.
9 What kind of information should be included on an organisation’s website
home page?
10 Name at least three contact mediums that should be available to visitors
to a website.
11 Identify five aspects of a website that require monitoring after the website
is up and running.
12 What are social media?
13 Name three examples of social media.
14 Why are the social media such a powerful means of communication?
15 What type of content featured in the earliest blogs?
16 Differentiate between a blog and a blog post.
17 Name at least three different types of blog posts.
18 Identify at least five features or elements you would expect to find in a
blog post.
19 Why is the title of a blog post so important? 20 What was the original
purpose of Facebook?
21 What made Facebook so attractive to businesses as a tool for
communication?
22 Identify at least three examples of non-verbal codes that can be used in
messages on Facebook.
23 Describe five ideas for Facebook posts.
24 Name three features of style that are advisable for writing Facebook
posts.

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25 What is a tweet?
26 What is the character limit of a tweet?
27 What is a retweet?
28 What is a hashtag?
29 What is a Twitter mention?
30 The key feature of Pinterest is ...
31 What is meant by pinning?
32 Name three options Pinterest users have for engaging with other users.
33 Identify a reason for joining LinkedIn.
34 Name three social media etiquette guidelines.
35 Name an Act that has implications for the use of social media for
marketing purposes.
APPLICATION

1 Match each of the characterisations in Column A to the appropriate

medium in Column B.
Column A Column B

1.1 The corporate headquarters of a A Blog

business, showcasing products and
services, furnished in the corporate
colours

1.2 A catalogue of handbags for readers to B Twitter

page through

1.3 A coffee shop, where people pop in to C Website

catch up and find out what is
happening in each other’s lives

1.4 A quick meeting with a friend – and just D Pinterest

enough time to impart the latest news

1.5 An experienced and knowledgeable E Facebook

employee, taking time to impart
interesting information or solutions to
problems

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2 With a partner, and bearing in mind that modern mediums are fluid and
evolving, put the following in order, ranging from the medium likely to be
mostly verbal to the one that is likely to be mostly non-verbal:
a Pinteres
t b website
c Twitter d
Facebook e
blog f SMS.
3 With a partner, rank the following in terms of how time-sensitive
messages conveyed using these mediums are likely to be. Rank them from
most time-sensitive to least time-sensitive.
a Pinteres
t b website
c Twitter d
Facebook e
blog.
4 In groups, choose a local business with which you are familiar. Identify
and discuss two different social media that this business could use for
communication and creating awareness of the business. Give reasons for
your choices.
5 In groups, identify a business – or a type of business – with which you are
familiar. This could be a clothing business, a motor vehicle business or
any other type of business you know. Or choose a community organisation
or an educational institution. Then choose a calendar month that contains
at least one public holiday. An example is June, with Youth Day on 16
June. Fathers’ Day also falls in this month. Draw up a list of possible
content items (including images and video) that could be shared on social
media during your chosen month.
6 Using the Internet, find out what these are:
a an
Internet
troll b an
Internet
rager c
Internet
spam.
Discuss with a partner how these could affect your online business
presence.

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7 Mind map or draw up a list of ideas for blog posts for the Orientation
Committee of your institution. See the example on page 216.
8 Write a blog post of about 400–500 words on one of the topics or ideas on
your mind map or list in 7 above.
9 In groups, discuss five ideas for using Pinterest to share images on topics
or themes relating to the facilities and activities at your institution. An
example is a board illustrating available living options, such as on-
campus residences and off-campus housing options. Think of suitable
short descriptions for each board you plan to create.
10 Join Twitter (or any of the other social media networks discussed in this
chapter). Choose five organisations to follow and observe how these
organisations use Twitter (or the social media of your choice) as a
communication tool. You might have some ideas of your own of how they
could use Twitter.

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 Chapter 1 1

Business Career: Employment Procedures

OBJECTIVES

After you have obtained your degree or diploma, your next step is to find
employment. During the course of your career, you might change
positions several times, or even become an employer yourself. You need
to prepare for each stage in the employment process to give yourself the
best chance of being selected for a position.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
■ conduct an employment search using appropriate channels
■ analyse the elements of an employment advertisement
■ write an effective covering letter
■ compile a curriculum vitae, highlighting your academic and employment
history
■ prepare yourself adequately for an employment interview
■ write a follow-up thank-you letter after the interview
■ interpret a letter of appointment
■ write an appropriate letter of resignation.

11.1 THE EMPLOYMENT SEARCH

Successful employment-seekers need to be well informed and have good

employment-hunting skills. You need to be aware of your goals and skills, and
understand the employment market. Then you will be ready to plan your
employment campaign. When to begin your search?

Experts recommend that you begin an active employment search six to nine
months in advance of your target employment date.
Where to search?
 Chapter 11 Business Career: Employment Procedures

If you are a student, you can begin the process by visiting the Career Centre
at your institution early, about nine months to a year before graduation. You
can also visit one of the following websites:
Career Junction at http://www.careerjunction.co.za/
Job Junction at http://www.jobjunction.ca/
Gumtree at http://www.gumtree.co.za/
Careers 24 at http://www. careers24.com
Job Rapido at http://jobrapido.com
Your career action plan calls for the following five steps:
■ Step 1: Begin with self-assessment
This important process begins with an identification of your values,
interests, skills, accomplishments and goals, so that you know what you
want from a position and what you have to offer a prospective employer.
■ Step 2: Prepare employment search documentation
Once your employment goals have been analysed, CVs and application
letters can be tailored to reflect qualifications and skills in relation to the
interests of prospective employers (see section 11.3 on the covering letter
and section 11.4 on the CV).
■ Step 3: Target employers
There are a number of ways of doing this:
❏ Pursue advertised vacancies both in print and electronically.
❏ Develop a contact network by acquainting yourself with professionals in
the field or in the organisation.
❏ Contact employers directly by sending a letter of application and CV to
the Human Resources Department or specific managers. This method
should be followed up by a phone call.
❏ Register with employment agencies or career consultants.
❏ Join professional websites such as LinkedIn (http://za.LinkedIn.com),
Business Networking International SA (http://www.bni.co.za) and the
Clickonit Business Network SA (http://www.clickonit.co.za) so that you
start building a professional network.
■ Step 4: Be persistent
If at first your efforts are unsuccessful, do not be discouraged. If your search
is not producing the results that you would like, avoid blaming and try
another strategy.
■ Step 5: Continue to develop your career action plan
This can be done in two ways:

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❏ by keeping records of all communications sent to and from organisations,

and of interviews and referrals
❏ by sending thank-you messages to all the people who were involved in
the process (successful or unsuccessful) of your employment search (see
section 8.3.1.6, page 158).
Remember to use all five steps to assist you at any stage in your career
progression, or if you want to change employment.

11.2 THE EMPLOYMENT ADVERTISEMENT

One of the ways in which you can obtain employment is by responding to an

advertisement.
A typical employment advertisement contains the following elements:
■ the name of the company or organisation, prominently displayed
■ the title of the vacant position
■ a brief description of the duties that the position entails
■ the requirements which a candidate is expected to meet
■ the date for the assumption of duties
■ some mention of benefits, not necessarily specified in detail

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■ details about how to apply ■

the closing date for applications.
An example of an advertisement for an employment opportunity is given below:

Name of organisation OCEANVIEW SHOPPING CENTRE

Position and starting date has a vacancy for a Public Relations Practitioner
com mencing on 01 December 20___.

Description of duties
Duties include:
■ writing media releases
Use of parallel structure ■ organising promotions and functions
■ handling exhibitions
■ attending to all other aspects of PR.
Benefits include:
Benefits ■ a competitive salary
■ a thirteenth cheque
■ membership of a pension fund
■ medical insurance.
Requirements Requirements are:
■ a relevant degree or diploma
■ excellent communication skills
■ a valid driver’s licence.

How to apply Post, fax or email a CV and covering letter to:

Contact person and Ms L Apostolis

details
Public Relations Manager
Oceanview Shopping Centre
PO Box 456
CAPE TOWN
8000

Fax: 021 411 9869

Email: apo@centre.co.za

Closing date Closing date: Friday 02 October 20___.

11.3 THE COVERING LETTER

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The covering letter, also known as a letter of application, should be brief, direct
and factual. It should be accompanied by a CV (see section 11.4). While the CV
will convey your details to your prospective employer, it will require more to
persuade him or her to grant you an interview. Therefore, the covering letter
may be the most important letter that you ever write.
Use the best paper you can. Alternatively, the covering letter can be
submitted by email with the CV and other relevant documentation included
as attachments. Use a font that is easy to read. Convey a positive attitude
through the tone you adopt, but be wary of sounding too confident or even
arrogant.

Introduction
❏ State the position you are applying for with reference to an advertisement.
❏ Mention your reasons for being interested in the position and for wanting to
work for that particular organisation.
■ Body
❏ Highlight your background, education or previous work experience especially
relevant to the position.
❏ Offer concrete evidence or specific examples in support of claims made.
❏ Refer to an attached CV.
■ Conclusion
❏ Indicate possible arrangements for an interview.
❏ Provide clear and accurate contact details, including telephone numbers.

Organise the content as follows:

The following is an example of a covering letter in which the writer applies
for the position advertised on page 240.
Your address State specific position applied for

Position applied for and reference to advertisement

Background

Contact person’s full name

and courtesy title
Position
Name of organisation
Address Past experience shows suitability for the position

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 Chapter 11 Business Career: Employment Procedures

Reasons for being Dear Ms Apostolis

interested in position and
for wanting to work for APPLICATION FOR POSITION: PUBLIC
organisation
RELATIONS PRACTITIONER
129 River Road
Hill’s View I would like to apply for the position of Public Relations
C Practitioner as advertised in the Sunday Independent on 13
A September 20__.
P
E I am a final-year student, completing the National Dip loma in
Public Relations. I hope to graduate with distinction at the end of
T this year. In addition, I completed the required six months of
O experiential learning in your Public Relations Department in 20
W __.
N During this learning period I assisted with the compiling, editing
and distribution of the Oceanview Shoppers’ News. I also helped
8 to organise the very successful Young Entrepreneurs’ Day. This
0 gave me an opportunity to liaise with the media and the
2 participants, coordinate activities and then, on the day, to be on
1 hand to answer queries. You might recall that the event received
very favourable comments in the local press. Both of these
22 September 20__ experiences convinced me that your Shopping Centre values the
role of its public relations practitioner and offers exceptional
Ms L Apostolis career opportunities.
Public Relations
Manager
Oceanview Shopping Continue ➝
Centre Reasons why you are a more suitable candidate than others
PO Box 456
C
A
P
E
Skills match job requirements
T
O
W
N

Reference to CV
8
0
0
0 Possible arrangements for the interview, with clear contact details

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Should you be I would be happy to provide it.

prepared to offer me
the position, I would Should you wish to interview me, I am available every weekday
love to be a permanent after 16:00. My home telephone number is 021 323 3412 and my
member of the number during office hours is 021 453 6578.
dynamic PR team that Yours faithfully
inspired and
encouraged me while I M Peter
was a part-time
employee. I would M Peter (Ms)
bring to the position

11.3.1 The unsolicited covering letter

Some employment-seekers or students looking for placement for experiential
learning send a letter of application and CV on spec. In other words, they are
not responding to an advertised position.

The following is an example of an unsolicited letter enquiring whether the

organisation has an opportunity for experiential learning:
my personal qualities Encl: 2 – Curriculum vitae
of commitment, – Study record
enthusiasm and Your address
initiative, as well as the
writing and editing
skills I have developed
during my studies and
experiential learning.

I pride myself on and Contact person’s full name and title

have consciously
developed my
interpersonal skills.
While I enjoy taking the
initiative, I believe that
I am also a good team
member. I am Find out the name of the receiver
computer literate and
Subject heading indicates specific field
willing to learn any new
programs the position State specific academic background and requirements
may require of me. I am
also in possession of a
valid driver’s licence.

I enclose my curriculum State experience and reasons for wanting to work for organisation
vitae and a certified
copy of my study
record. If further
information is needed,

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 Chapter 11 Business Career: Employment Procedures

State what you have to TOWN 8000

offer the organisation
129 River Road
Dear Ms Apostolis
Hill’s View
C EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES: PUBLIC RELATIONS
A
P I am a second-year student currently studying for my National
E Diploma in Public Relations at the Cape College. One of the
requirements for completion of the diploma is that I undergo six
T months’ experiential learning in the workplace.
O While still at school I worked in your department on a parttime
W basis during the December holidays in 20__. This was a most
N valuable experience for me, because I assisted Ms Damons with
the Oceanview Sizzles exhibition. She also entrusted a
8 considerable amount of the correspondence related to the
0 exhibition to me. I believe I handled this well. In addition, I helped
2 to organise the very successful Kiddies’ Day. This gave me an
1 opportunity to liaise with participants, coordinate activities and
15 May 20__ then, on the day, entertain the children. Being entrusted with
these responsibilities confirmed my choice of career and
Ms L Apostolis convinced me that your Shopping Centre values the role of the
Public Relations public relations practitioner and offers excellent training
Manager opportunities.
Oceanview Shopping One of my special interests in the field is writing. I successfully
Centre edited both my high school magazine and the quarterly student
PO Box 456 publication at the college. Apart from developing my writing and
C editing skills, I have also worked on developing effective
A interpersonal communication skills
P
E Continue ➝
through interaction with others during my studies and parttime
work. I enjoy working with others and consider myself a good team
player. I am computer literate and always willing to learn new skills.
I hold a learner driver’s licence and hope to obtain my driver’s licence
in two months’ time.

Period of training The period for which I require experiential learning required is from .......... to ..........
. I would be very glad of the opportunity to work for your organisation again.
Should there be an opening for an experiential learner, I
Tone is tentative
and courteous would like to be considered for the position.

Reference to CV I enclose my curriculum vitae and a certified copy of my study record. If further
information is required, I would be happy to provide it.

Possible interview Should you wish to interview me, I am available arrangements every weekday after
16:00. My telephone number is 021 323 3412.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Yours sincerely

M Peter
M Peter (Ms)
Encl: 2 – Curriculum vitae
– Study record

11.4 THE CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)

The curriculum vitae (CV) provides a prospective employer with a concise

summary of your education, qualifications and attributes tailored for the
requirements of a particular position. It should be up to date and relevant. The
CV should contain the following sections, if applicable:

■ personal details
■ academic details – in reverse order: university before school results
■ awards and achievements
■ career plans
■ employment history – in reverse order, starting with the most recent position.
More detail should be given for recent positions. Remember to include any
voluntary work you may be involved in
■ membership of professional organisations
■ developed abilities and skills
■ interests/activities
■ referees – who can vouch for your professional and interpersonal skills.

Attaching a recent passport-sized photograph is optional.

11.4.1 The entry-level CV

This CV is used if you are entering the employment market for the first time. It
should be about two to three pages in length. There are many formats, layout

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designs and styles, so choose the one that suits you and the job for which you are

Subjects Communication Science I, II and III

Media Studies I, II and III
English A
The following example is a guide for your use:
isiXhosa A
High school details 2.2 Matriculation
would be scaled CURRICULUM VITAE
down for a job-seeker
School Cape Town High School
with some experience 1 Year
PERSONAL DETAILS20 ___
Surname Certificate Peter Senior Certificate
National
First name(s)
Subjects, English
Miriam Home Language B
Place and dateand
grades Cape Town
isiXhosa 1st Additional Language B
of birthsymbols Afrikaans
31 September
2nd Additional
19___ Language C
Identity number 900931 0079
Physical Science 005 C
Present occupation Full-time student
Mathematics C
Driver’s licence Code 08
History C
Address
2.1.1 129 River Road
Activities and Achievements
Editor Student News – a quarterly publication
Hill’s View
Committee CAPE TOWN 8021
Prospective employers
need to be able to contact Telephone
member 021 232society
Debating 3412
you quickly and with the Cell 084 435 6789
least effort 2.2.1 Senior school Student Leader
Fax 021 323 3414
achievements Prize for English, Grade 12
Email miriam@gmail.com
Editor School magazine
Skype miriam.peter1
Captain 1 st team netball 20__
Indicate language and Home languages English, isiXhosa – bilingual
level of fluency
Include any– an 2.3 Certificated courses Afrikaans – speak, read
Other languages
important skill in courses
certificated a as
multilingual working
Institution ABCandMarketing School
write fluently
they show ongoing
environment
personal development Year 20 ___
isiZulu – conversational fluency
Course Professional Public Speaking
Give academic details 2 Institution
ACADEMIC DETAILS Vista Computer School
in reverse chronological 2.1 Year
Higher education 20 ___
order Course MSCape
Project
Institution College
Year 20 ___ – current
Start with current or 3 EMPLOYMENT
Diploma HISTORYNational Diploma in Public
last position Current Waitron at Gobbles Restaurant
Use of the gender Relations Management
inclusive word Duties Serving at tables
’waitron’ Front of house
Cashing up
No job, part time or full 20 ___ Vacation work at Oceanview Shopping
time, is too menial to Centre as assistant to Public
mention. It shows that
you are employable Relations Officer

applying.

Categorise your specific skills

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

You need to be specific organising Kiddies’ Day.

about skills that make
you more suitable than
other candidates 4 DEVELOPED SKILLS
4.1 Administrative
I am able to prioritise tasks and meet deadlines.
Being meticulous and methodical by nature, I
enjoy creating and working in a well-organised
environment.
4.2 Computer
I am able to use most of the programs required
in my field, such as MS Word, MS Excel, MS
Publisher, MS Pow erPoint, MS Outlook
It is important that you
are perceived as a and InDesign, competently. I am also aware
wellrounded candidate of the need to update these skills by attending
Include any community short courses.
involvement 4.3 Interpersonal
Duties
I get on well with other people. I have
Assisted with
maintained a good working relationship with
exhibitions
both my supervisors and my fellow
team members. I deal well with criticism and
Sent out try to learn something from it. I enjoy being
correspondence part of a team and have learnt how to
relating to motivate other team members.
e
x
5 OTHER ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS
h
Choir I have been a member of the church choir
i
for the past four years. I also assist in compiling
b
and distributing the monthly choir newsletter.
i
t Sunshine Homes
i For the past two years I have been a mem-
o ber of a group of volunteer workers who
n arrange educational programmes and outings
s for Aids orphans at Sunshine Homes. My
particular responsibility is canvassing local
Assisted with companies for donations to fund these
outings.

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6 REFEREES
The following have agreed to act as my referees:
Always include the Mr J Brown Prof A Smith
position of the referee Public Relations Practitioner Department of
and contact details Oceanview Shopping Centre Communication
CAPE TOWN Studies, Cape College
8000 CAPE TOWN
8000
Tel 021 796 4536 021 795 7353
Email brown@centre.co.za asmith@capecol.ac.za

11.4.2 The CV of an experienced employment-seeker

After some time, you might wish to change your job. To do so, you need to

Below is an
These should be exampleACHIEVEMENTS
of a concise CV, which you may use as a guide:
work-related Introduction of monthly newsletter to improve
Personal details Miriam Peter
intra-organisational communication
President’s Award for Best 129
Corporate Annual Report 20___ .
River Road
Contact details Hill’s View
PERSONAL QUALITIES AND SKILLS
CAPE TOWN 8021
Select those relevant Ability to work under pressure
Tel 021 323 3412 Cell 083 234 6789
to the position Commitment to task
Email: at hand
miriam@gmail.com
required
MeticulousSkype:
editingmiriam.peter1
skills
Creative writing skills
Excellent
EDUCATION interpersonal skills at all levels
Reverse chronological
order Ability
Master to of
prioritise
Businessand meet deadlines.
Administration (MBA) – part-time
Post-school education
details only UNISA 20___ – current
National Diploma in Public Relations: Cape College 20___ .
Further information on highlighting your skills and experience in a career portfolio

Start with current or last EMPLOYMENT HISTORY

position Public Relations Assistant: National Broadcast Corporation,
Cape Town
20 ___ – current.

Duties include: All internal communications, ie collecting and

Detailed, specific
description of duties editing news for monthly newsletter, compiling annual reports,
compiling recruitment brochures, compiling annual in-house
magazine.

Continue➝
refocus your CV, highlighting your recent work experience. It should be one
page in length. can be found on the UNISA website at http://www.unisa.ac.za.

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11.4.3 CV checklist
Ask yourself the following questions once you have completed your CV:

■
Does it look professional? (Decorative borders are not recommended.) Is the
layout clear? Does the CV have wide margins, clear spacing, proper formatting,
white space and a professional-looking font?
■ Is the information presented in a logical manner?
■ Is the language clear?
■ Are your skills and achievements emphasised?
■ Is the CV free of spelling and grammar errors?
■ Has it been checked by an objective person?
■ Have the referees been informed that you are sending your CV to companies?

If the answer to all these questions is ‘Yes’, then your CV is ready to be sent.

A cover sheet or folder is not necessary. If you are sending your application
by post, staple the pages of your CV together, then attach your covering letter
with a paper clip. Use an A4 envelope to avoid folding.

Always keep a soft (electronic) copy of your CV so that it can be updated

continually.

Sadly, the issue of honesty in the writing of CVs needs to be raised. Do not
claim to have experience or a qualification that is false. Dishonest CVs have
become so prevalent that many recruiters have to spend precious time
verifying CV details.
For more information about CVs, consult the University of South Africa
(Unisa) website, which has useful information about compiling an effective
CV. The web address is: http://www.unisa.ac.za/.

11.5 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW

The employment interview is a strategic conversation with a purpose. The

interview usually takes place face to face, but could also be conducted by
means of an online conferencing facility such as Skype. (For information
about this service, see: http:// www.skype.com.)

Your goal is to persuade the employer that you have the qualifications, skills
and abilities required for the position and that you will fit into the
organisation. At the same time, you should be gathering information about

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the organisation to determine whether the position and work environment

are right for you.

11.5.1 Interview preparation

In order to present yourself as professionally as possible, you need to:

■ Be prepared
Not being able to answer questions about the company is guaranteed to
create a bad impression. Find out about its products or services, mission
statement, company policy and recent successes or achievements by
reviewing the company website or annual report beforehand.

■ Dress appropriately
Dressing formally is not always appropriate. Dress as though you were
employed by the company and you will not go wrong.

Plunging necklines (for women), tight pants (for both men and women),
bright colours, revealing clothes and too much jewellery, however, are
always inappropriate.

■ Be punctual
You place yourself and your employment prospects at a disadvantage by
arriving late. Always allow sufficient time for the unexpected, such as
traffic jams, late public transport and a lack of parking, and for finding the
interview venue.

■ Communicate positively
What you say and how you say it are vital to creating a favourable first
impression. Shake hands, make eye contact and connect personally with
the interviewer. Remember to switch off your cellphone (see section 1.5.3,
page 15).

■ Be focused
Listen carefully to a question before you give your answer. Do not tell your
whole life story but keep your answers relevant, concise and focused.
■ Be articulate
‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answers should be avoided unless appropriate, as this makes
it very difficult for an interviewer to gauge your communication skills.

■ Be positive about your previous employers

The worse you paint your past position or employer, the worse it reflects
on you. Negative comments about previous employers often say more
about you and your shortcomings than about them.

■ Remember to follow up

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Always send a thank-you letter or email immediately after the interview,

regardless of what you perceive your chances to be. This confirms your
interest in the position or company and reinforces a favourable impression.

11.5.2 Interview structure

The interview can be conducted either by one representative of the
organisation or by a panel. A panel of interviewers is usually used for a more
senior position.

An employment interview is generally divided into three stages:

■ Stage 1: The warm-up or ice-breaker

The purpose of this stage is to put you at ease and to set the scene for the
more formal business of the interview. During this stage, the interviewer
will be formulating a first, and perhaps lasting, impression of you.

■ Stage 2: The information exchange part

Here, the interviewer is trying to assess whether you have the necessary
qualifications, experience, skills and personality profile. You, on the other
hand, are trying to determine whether the vacant position will meet your
career needs.

■ Stage 3: The wrap-up

Now you may ask any further questions about issues not yet covered or
clarify anything about which you still have doubts. You should always ask
questions, because this demonstrates your prior research and interest in
the position.

11.5.3 Interview questions

■ What were your responsibilities in your previous position?
■ What were the major challenges?
■ How did you handle these challenges?
■ With the advance of technology, do you think people will cease to communicate?

Employment interviews are always stressful. The best way to reduce the
stress is to be prepared. Take the time to review ‘standard’ interview
questions that you are most likely to be asked.

Interview questions usually fall into the following categories:

■ academic history (for first-time applicants)

■ Why did you choose your course?

■ Why did you choose to study at …?

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■ What is the most important benefit you gained from your studies?
■ Is your university record a good measure of your skills and abilities?
■ What would you change about the South African education system?

■ What are your most important values?

■ What are your strategies for handling stress and pressure?
■ Do you prefer to work independently or as part of a team?

■ work history (if applicable)

■ about you

■ What are your career goals for the next five years?
■ Where do you see yourself in ten years’ time?

■ What interests you about this position?

■ Why do you want to work for us?
■ Why do you want to work in Cape Town?
■ Why are you the best person for the position?

■ about the new position

■ about your future

11.5.3.1 Dealing with difficult questions

Sometimes interviewers will throw in tough or illegal questions to test your
poise.
Consider beforehand how you will deal with them.
Difficult question Suggested response

What do you consider is I pay meticulous attention to detail, so sometimes a task takes
your greatest weakness? a little longer, but then I know that I have done a professional
job. (Your weakness becomes a strength.)

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Are you planning to have a I keep my private life separate from my working life. I do not
family in the near future? allow my personal life to affect my commitment to my work.
( Your commitment is highlighted. )

What kind of salary are I would hope to earn a salary commensurate with my
you looking for? qualifications and experience. (You have avoided naming a
figure, but expect to be fairly rewarded.)

11.5.3.2 Questions to ask the interviewer

Now it is your turn. Make sure that you have prepared some questions to
ask the interviewer.

What are the particular responsibilities of the position? Are

there opportunities for training and advancement?

Is further study, such as part-time study, encouraged?

11.5.3.3 Questions not to ask

Prospective employers are looking for someone who is interested in and will
be committed to their work. Here is a list of questions that should be avoided,
as they create the opposite impression:
What’s the salary?
How long do I need to work to qualify for leave?
How long are the working hours?
Do you offer maternity/paternity leave?

11.5.3.4 Facebook
Be aware that a social media site such as Facebook is a public forum, which
prospective employers can visit to gauge the suitability of a candidate.
Indiscreet comments posted on your Facebook page or any other social media
site about your present boss, organisation or work ethics might disqualify you
from consideration for positions you apply for in the future.
11.6 THE FOLLOW-UP LETTER

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Writing a prompt thank-you letter reinforces the fact that you are interested
in the position and generates goodwill.

It should contain the following:

■ an expression of appreciation
■ a specific comment about the interview or position
■ any additional details such as submitting information requested
■ a reminder of why you consider yourself a suitable
candidate ■ a hopeful look to the next step in the appointment
process.

Here is an example of a follow-up letter:

129 River Road

Hill’s View
CAPE TOWN
8021

14 October 20___

Dear Ms Apostolis

Specific comment about Thank you for the positive interview experience relating to
the interview the position of Public Relations Practitioner at Oceanview
Shopping Centre. The position, as you presented it, seems
to be a very good match for my skills and interests. The
creative approach to Public Relations that you described
confirmed my desire to work with you.

Reminder of your In addition to my enthusiasm, I will bring to the position

suitability as a candidate strong writing skills, assertiveness and the ability to work
well in a team. My computer skills will facilitate the produc
tion and distribution of the monthly newsletter.

Requested information As requested, I have attached a copy of the choir newsletter,

Choristers’ Chronicle , for which I am responsible

Understanding of the As you know, my six months of experiential learning in your

requirements of the department has given me an understanding of the adminis
position
tration of the department, the coordination of activities and
the promotion of special events.

Continue➝

265
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Hopeful look to the next

step in the process Thank you once again for inviting me for an interview. I am very
interested in the position and the opportunities it offers. I look
forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely
M Peter
M Peter (Ms)
Adapted from: Job interview follow-up/thank you letter. nd. [Online]. Available from: <http://jobsearch.
about.com/od/thankyouletters/a/thankinterview.htm> [Accessed 22 April 2013].

11.7 THE LETTER OF APPOINTMENT

If your interview was successful, the company will send you a letter of
appointment offering you the position.
You need to consider the following elements before you accept or reject the
offer:
■ the conditions of employment, such as the notice period for resignation
■ the benefits, which may include the salary scale, medical insurance and
housing allowance
■ position and duties
■ starting date
■ accepting the offer, such as: How? By when? To whom?

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Here is an example of a letter of appointment:

Oceanview Shopping Centre

Address of PO Box 456, CAPE TOWN, 8000
organisation
Tel: 021 411 9860 Fax: 021 411 9869

05 November 20___

Address of successful Ms M Peter

candidate 129 River Road
Hill’s View
CAPE TOWN
8021

Dear Ms Peter

Heading states position OFFER OF APPOINTMENT: PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER

Main point sentence stating We are pleased to offer you the position of Public
position, starting date and
Relations practitioner at Oceanview Shopping Centre,
starting salary
starting on 01 December 20___. Your starting salary will
be R6 500,00 per month.

Details of documents Attached are the following documents:

included as attachments • A description of your duties
• The terms of employment
• A list of benefits, including the salary scale and full
details of the pension fund and medical insurance
• Your own employment agreement.

If there is anything you wish to clarify, please do not hesi

tate to contact me.

Accepting the offer If you would like to accept this offer of employment,
concludes the employment please sign the duplicate copy of the employment
process
agreement and return it to me by 16 November 20___.

Optional details about first Subject to your accepting our offer, please report to the
day in new position reception desk at the Public Relations Department at 08:30
on 01 December 20___. There you will be met by Ms
Patience Mtana, who will show you around.

Continue➝

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Goodwill ending We hope to welcome you as part of our team.

We feel sure that you will be very happy in our company.

Yours sincerely

PD
Moletse
PD Moletse (Ms)

HEAD: DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

Documents referred to in Encl: 4 – Job description
body of letter – Terms of employment
– List of benefits
– Employment agreement

11.8 THE LETTER OF RESIGNATION

Before deciding to resign, be absolutely sure that this is the right decision.
Then, if you need to know more about the next position you are considering,
ask whether you can spend a day in the office ‘shadowing’ the staff. This might
help you decide whether you want to work there.

11.8.1 Resignation advice

■ Give written notice.
■ Abide by the terms of notice in the employment contract, which may include
giving one calendar month’s notice before you intend leaving.
■ Before you leave, ask for a reference from your manager.
■ Find out about the benefits and salary you are entitled to receive upon
leaving.
■ Return any company property you may have such as keys, documents, a
cellphone or a computer.

11.8.2 How to write a letter of resignation

Keep your resignation as simple, brief and focused as possible. It should
always be positive. Giving the reason for leaving your present position is
optional.
Your resignation letter should include:
■ the fact that you are leaving and the date from which your resignation is
effective
■ thanks to your employer for the opportunities you have had during your
employment. You need to be specific here (see section 7.2.1, page 104).

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You may use the following example of a resignation letter as a guide:

129 River Road

Hill’s View
CAPE TOWN
8021

18 October 20___

Ms T Smith
Head: Public Relations Department
Oceanview Shopping Centre
PO Box 456
CAPE TOWN
8000

Dear Ms Smith

Date according to Please accept my resignation from my position as Public

terms of employment Relations Officer, effective from 30 November 20__.

Optional reason I have been offered an opportunity as senior public relations

practitioner with another organisation. As this position best
suits my professional goals, I have decided to accept the
offer.

Thank you so much for the support and the opportunities

you have provided. Being put in charge of the monthly
newsletter was an excellent opportunity for me to develop
Specific thanks
my writing and editing skills. These two years at Oceanview
Shopping Centre have been both professionally and person
ally rewarding. I appreciate the interest you have shown in
my career since I joined the company.

Please let me know whether I can be of any help in orient

ing the person who takes over my duties.
Goodwill ending I wish you and the company all the best in the future.

Yours sincerely
M
Peter
M Peter (Ms)
PUBLIC RELATIONS OFFICER

SUMMARY

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Finding employment involves several stages. First, do a careful

employment search to find the right position for your training and
abilities. Then compile a CV and a covering letter for your response to an
advertised position. These should be tailored to meet the requirements
of the position. However, you can also submit an unsolicited application.
If you are invited to an interview, prepare carefully to create a good
impression. Find out all you can about the organisation and think of
possible answers to interview questions. Follow up the interview with a
letter of thanks. Should you be successful, you will receive a letter of
appointment offering you the position and outlining the terms of
employment. Finally, when you eventually decide to leave the
organisation, put your resignation in writing.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Name the five steps you need to take when starting an employment
search.
2 Name any five elements of an employment advertisement.
3 There are two types of employment applications. What are they? Under
what circumstances would you use each?
4 What is the purpose of a CV?
5 How does the CV of an experienced employment-seeker differ from that
of a first-time employment-seeker?
6 Name the three stages of an employment interview and state what
happens at each stage.
7 Discuss how kinesics plays an important role in an employment
interview.
8 Why should you write a thank-you letter after an interview?
9 What is the function of a letter of appointment?
10 Name three important elements of information in a letter of appointment.

APPLICATION

1 Conduct an employment search using one of the following websites:

Career Junction, Job Junction, Careers24 or Gumtree (see section 11.1,
page 238). List all the positions for which you would be suitable (your
qualifications, abilities and experience). Then organise these vacancies
into categories such as: first choice, second choice and third choice.

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 Chapter 11 Business Career: Employment Procedures

2 Apply for the following position. Compile your CV and write an

appropriate covering letter. Remember to analyse your audience and
determine your purpose before you start (see Chapter 5).

TASTY CHICk
Trainee Manager
As trainee manager, you will be part of a dynamic team, managing a busy outlet,
supervising frontline and kitchen staff, cashing up, overseeing deliveries, maintaining
quality control, meeting targets and promoting customer relations.

You need to have:

• a national diploma in business-related studies • excellent communication and
people skills
• the ability to work under pressure.

Multilingualism and a knowledge of TALLY would be strong recommendations.

No previous experience is necessary.

You will receive:

• excellent in-service training according to our internationally accredited training
programme
• a competitive salary with overtime benefits
• the usual leave and medical benefits.

Interested?

Send your CV and a covering letter by post, fax or email to:

The Regional Manager
Tasty Chick Ltd
PO Box 7474
CAPE TOWN 8000

Fax: 021 584 9357

Email: recruit@tastychick.co.za
Closing date: 17 December 20__.
3 In pairs, draw up a list of interview questions for the Tasty Chick
position. Then role-play the interview, with one partner taking the role of
interviewer and the other the role of interviewee. The interviewer should
take care to structure the interview appropriately.
4 Read the transcript of an excerpt from an interview below and then
identify FIVE serious blunders that the interviewee, Binu, has made:
Pumla Msutu has been waiting for twenty minutes for Binu, who is late for a job interview. He
arrives, breathless and untidy, and is shown into her office.

Pumla: How do you do, Binu? Will you please have a seat?

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Binu: Pleased to meet you, Miss ... er ... Mswana. I searched all over for this place!
Thought I would never find it!
Pumla: Yes, well, can we get started? What can you tell me about our company?
Binu: Um, don’t you make sweets and chocolates, or something like that?
Pumla: We are the largest confectionery manufacturers in the southern
hemisphere. Tell me, Binu, why do want this position?
Binu gazes out of the window as he fidgets with the stapler on Pumla’s desk.

Binu: I dunno really. I need a job because I wanna get a new surfboard and they
cost a mint!
Pumla: Are there any questions you would like to ask about the position?
Binu: Ja! What’s my salary going to be?
Adapted from Fielding (2006: 416)

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Academic Writing

OBJECTIVES

Academic writing links to the writing of business correspondence, article

writing and report writing. This is because precise and logical writing
styles, as well as drafting and revising processes, are as integral to
academic essay writing as they are to all other writing forms. After
studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ apply the five composing stages in the writing process, namely, thinking,
gathering, drafting, revising and editing
■ select appropriate topics, identify the purpose, formulate thesis
statements and consider the audience of writing tasks
■ gather and organise information to achieve coherence and unity
■ write effective introductions and conclusions appropriate to your
purposes and audiences
■ write effective paragraphs
■ use drafting and feedback processes to structure writing logically,
coherently and cohesively
■ use a formal academic writing style
■ revise the structure of your writing and edit faulty language.

12.1 STAGES IN THE WRITING PROCESS

To succeed as an academic writer, you need to understand the key features of

academic writing, including:

■ summarising – ideas are reduced to their essence and precisely conveyed

■ analysing – ideas and arguments are broken down into their principal parts
and examined in detail
■ evaluating – evidence is weighed to establish whether it supports the line
of argument and to test its reliability.
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Therefore, an academic writing style is typically both objective and logical,

and avoids jumping to hasty conclusions. Read this chapter in conjunction
with Chapter 13, which contains information about locating suitable sources
for an academic writing task, and information about academic referencing
conventions or rules for referring to the work of other writers in your own
writing tasks.

Academic writing, like other kinds of writing, requires a systematic approach

incorporating various composing stages, which progress from the start to
completion of an academic writing task (see Figure 12.1). Although the stages
are described separately, this division is artificial, because each stage is
recursive and often overlaps with the next one. Furthermore, writers
stages – perhaps several times – before proceeding to the next stage.

STAGE 1 – THINK
■ Think about your topic, purpose and audience

STAGE 2 – GATHER
■ Gather information, which could come from:
❏ research
❏ the internet
❏ handouts
❏ your own knowledge and ideas
❏ problem-solving
❏ discussion
■ Record the information

STAGE 3 – OUTLINE, PLAN, STRUCTURE

■ Synthesise the information gathered.
■ Plan and structure information logically.

Continue➝
sometimes have to revisit earlier

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 Chapter 12 Academic Writing

STAGE 4 – DRAFT, REVISE, EDIT

■ Write a first draft. Then redraft for feedback (many drafts may be necessary before the
final version).
■ Revise for structure and style.
■ Edit spelling, grammar and punctuation.

STAGE 5 – FINAL COPY

■ Type or write the final copy neatly using the required formatting.

Figure 12.1 Flow chart: Stages in the writing process

12.1.1 Stage 1: Think

12.1.1.1 Topic selection
When selecting a topic, try to choose what is called an area of dissonance. This
is an issue that is a genuine problem, a problem that needs solving or at least
a thorough thinking through. Make sure also that the topic is of interest to
you.

Some topic examples are listed below:

■ Discuss reasons for collaboration dysfunction in teams.

■ Analyse equity trends in middle management.

■ content words – tell you what the question is about

■ instruction words – tell you what to do with the content words. For example, discuss,
compare, evaluate or analyse (see the Instruction words list on pages 266–267 for
definitions of these words )
■ limiting words – help you limit the question’s focus, for example, a particular time
period, theory, location or number.
■ Evaluate the effectiveness of HIV/Aids awareness programmes in the
workplace.
■ Account for the growing challenge of absenteeism in the automotive
industry.
■ Assess the impact of diversity training in multicultural organisations.

Before tackling your essay topic, identify the three different keyword types
that are usually contained in most essay questions:

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Follow the five-step plan that follows to help you to identify the different
keyword types so that you can analyse your question or topic:

Instruction words
The most common instruction words are:
■ analyse : take apart an idea/concept/statement to consider the factors it
consists of – requires a methodical and logically organised answer
■ assess: determine how important something is or to what extent it is successful/
useful/unsuccessful – requires a contribution to knowledge, events or processes
■ compare : set items side by side to see similarities and/or differences – requires a
balanced and objective answer
■ contrast : emphasise the differences between two or more items – requires a
balanced and objective answer
■ criticise : point out mistakes or weaknesses as well as favourable aspects –
requires a balanced answer
■ describe : recall the main or specific attributes or the facts of something –
requires a recounting of facts and/or details
■ discuss : give information/examine a point of view by arguing or debating. Or
describe and explain by giving supporting information, examples, points for and against
– requires an analysis and then an evaluation
■ evaluate : similar to discuss, but the emphasis is on a judgement in the
conclusion – requires an analysis and then a judgement

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1 Draw a box around the instruction word(s) so you do not forget what you
need to do.
2 Circle the content words so they stand out from the others.
3 Underline the important limiting words.
4 Look up any unfamiliar words in a dictionary.
5 Rewrite the question in your own words, using the keywords from the origi
nal version.

Example
instruction word(s) limiting word(s)

Discuss reasons for collaboration dysfunction in teams

content words

Whether you are responding to a set topic or creating one, the following
instruction words suggest a specific approach to a topic:

Continue ➝
■ examine: inspect or study in detail – requires a careful or critical analysis or inspection
■ explain : explain an idea, principle or problem precisely by describing it in detail
or giving reasons for a situation or attitude (analysis implied) – requires a clear and
logical answer.

12.1.1.2 Writing purpose

In order to get the writing process going, you will need to think about your
purpose: why you are writing. Think about the instruction word/s in your
writing task. These will lead you to your purpose, which might be, for
example, to evaluate, assess, convince or argue. Your purpose will affect your
entire writing approach – style, tone, content and virtually everything about
your essay.
If you have determined your purpose, you will know:
■ how to begin
■ what kind of information you need
■ why your information is important
■ what specific details to choose

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■ how to organise and develop the

information ■ how to conclude.

In effect, purpose directs and controls all the decisions that you make when
writing your essay.

The purpose of this essay is to:

■ evaluate Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) symptoms so that the syndrome can be
recognised and treated in the workplace
■ assess whether a small company’s performance is directly related to its leadership style
■ examine multicultural collaboration during team-building in diverse workforces.

12.1.1.3 Knowledge of audience

In addition to purpose, you need to think about the audience: the readers for
whom you are writing. For students writing academic essays, several
audiences are involved:
■ You are the first reader of your own writing. By going through the process
of writing an essay, you gain new insights into your topic and clarify your
thinking.
Moreover, you need to be satisfied that the final product best represents
what you are able to write at the current stage of your intellectual
development. Successful students are demanding and critical readers of
their own writing.
■ Your peers are the second readers of your writing. By asking classmates to
read your drafts and by discussing, debating and perhaps defending drafts
with your peers, further insights will be gained and thinking sharpened.
Your lecturer might encourage the posting of essay drafts on noticeboards
or learning sites to create opportunities for you to experience having your
writing published and to promote critical thinking and discussion.
■ Your lecturer – the person who will assess or mark your essay – is your
third reader. This is a very demanding reader. He or she will require you
to demonstrate the ability to:
❏ find and use information sources to argue a point of view
❏ think critically
❏ construct a logical argument
❏ represent others’ ideas accurately
❏ adhere to academic writing conventions.

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12.1.1.4 Formulation of a thesis statement

Once you have a clear idea of your purpose in writing, and of the requirements
of your audience, you must decide what you want to say about your chosen
topic – the argument or point of view that you wish to present. Formulate this
in a thesis statement: a statement that is provable (opinion) and specific
(fact).
A topic and the resulting thesis statement are illustrated in the example
below. The topic is very general, while the thesis statement is both provable
and specific. It tells the readers exactly what the writer is planning to say

Topic: Explain the benefits of collaboration for managing diversity in

multicultural organisations.

Opinion: Collaboration is beneficial.

Fact: Collaboration requires open and meaningful communication.

Thesis statement: Within multicultural organisations, a collaborative approach

founded on open and meaningful communication facilitates the
management of diversity.

about the topic.

A thesis statement is a guide that enables you to write a unified essay that
says something significant. A thesis statement is formulated after the
purpose has
been determined. It expresses the main idea that will be developed in the
essay and suggests a point of view. To sum up, a thesis statement is:

■ a guide that will enable you to write a unified (one idea) essay that makes
a statement
■ a sentence stating as precisely as possible what your essay is going to be
about ■ a clear and concise statement.

12.1.2 Stage 2: Gather

Writers are often required to gather information from a range of sources –
from observation, speeches and documents to pictures or images.

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12.1.2.1 Information sources

Once you have a clear understanding of your writing assignment, you are
ready to begin gathering information. Chapter 13 (see section 13.1, pages
289–295) provides you with details about the information resources that are
available to you. Among these are the Internet, journal articles and reference
books. Chapter 13 also tells you how to access these resources (see section
13.1, pages 289–292), refer to them in-text (see sections 13.5, page 304 and
13.6, page 306) and how to avoid plagiarism (see section 13.2, pages 295–297).

12.1.2.2 Recording information

The next step, after information sources have been located, is to note
information you are likely to include. While information sources should and
must be used, they should not be plagiarised – that is, used without
acknowledgement. Chapter 13 provides information on:

■ taking notes (see section 13.1.4, page 293)

■ avoiding plagiarism (see section 13.2, page 295).

Finally, Chapter 13 provides direction on how to record and reference your

information sources. This is needed so that sources can be correctly
documented when:

■ referring to them in your essay, and

■ compiling your list of references or a bibliography.

12.1.3 Stage 3: Outline, plan, structure

12.1.3.1 Organising information
Once the thesis statement has been drafted, it is often helpful to use various
planning techniques to outline and organise the essay. Some of these
techniques include mind mapping and listing (see Chapter 3, pages 54 and
55).
In the formal outline, at least three or four points will be needed to support
your thesis, as well as an equal number of minor points (details and examples)
to support or illustrate each of your main points. Organise your thoughts into
major and minor points by looking for patterns of similarity. Then decide
which ones are the best to use.

Once you have selected the main ideas and their supporting details, decide in
what order they must be presented. If there is no chronological order (time
order) involved or no steps in a process, begin with a fairly important and
interesting point to get the reader’s attention. You can start or end your essay

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with the strongest point so that your audience feels that what you have said
is worthwhile.

A formal outline helps you to discover the need for more information and
enables you to organise a more precise structure before you begin another
draft. It also breaks down the topic into units and subdivides these into minor

Managing diversity
Thesis: Within multicultural organisations, a collaborative approach founded on open and
meaningful communication facilitates the management of diversity.

■ Challenges:
❏ varied perceptions, values, beliefs, backgrounds, languages
❏ communication encounters ❏
individualism.

■ Collaboration requirements:
❏ cultivating open communication
❏ committing to a shared vision ❏
motivating through responsibility.

■ Development needs:
❏ communication techniques
❏ group participation ❏
visualisation techniques.

■ Benefits:
❏ stress reduction ❏
better solutions
❏ continuous improvement
❏ reduced staff turnover
❏ increased morale ❏
increased productivity.

■ Collaboration training:
❏ workshops
❏ role-playing ❏
evaluation.
units.

Continue ➝

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■ Is your thesis satisfactory? (The thesis controls the outline.)

■ Is the relationship between the sections clear and consistent? (A good outline should
show how each main heading relates to the thesis and how each subdivision helps
develop its main heading.)
■ Does the order of the parts provide an effective progression and cohesion?
When evaluating your outline, you should consider the following:

12.1.4 Stage 4: Draft, revise, edit

12.1.4.1 Draft
Writing is an intellectual activity that requires a flexible and recursive
(constantly going over) approach. You may have to repeat activities in one
stage several times before you are ready to move on to the next, or you may
have to loop back to an earlier stage before you can go forward again.

Within this process, experienced writers seem to perform in different ways.

Some spend a great deal of time planning every detail before they write;
others prefer to dispense with planning and discover their direction through
drafting and revising. Use whichever method works best for you. However,
writing an effective essay will involve the processes of drafting and revision.

There is no correct way to approach composing a first draft. However, many

experienced writers write their first draft without editing (ie not worrying
about correctness of style and grammar). The advantage is that you can
concentrate on outlining the argument without being distracted by detail or
quality control. The disadvantage of trying to be too precise by going over and
over each sentence for logic and grammar is that your ideas often become
stalled and your language development can be restricted (Crème & Lea,
2008). By struggling for the right word and the best sentence constructions at
this stage, you often lose momentum and have difficulty maintaining the flow
If you have difficulty getting words on paper or screen, try to get through the first writing
of your essay as rapidly as possible. Do your rewriting later.

of ideas.

As you work from your outline to compose the first draft, bear the following
in mind:
■ Discussion

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When including sources relevant to your essay, do not simply list them.
Show that you understand them and that you can incorporate them into a
conceptual outline by discussing their relevance.
■ Quotation
Use quotations wisely and sparingly. Too many quotations overwhelm
rather than enhance. Avoid stringing quotations from different authors
together; these usually lack coherence because of style differences.
■ Paragraphing
The main points of your essay will fall naturally into paragraphs. For
shorter main points, one paragraph might be sufficient. More complex
issues will need to be dealt with in two or more paragraphs. Make sure
that each main point of a paragraph is fully developed with supporting
details and clear transitions between ideas (see Chapter 7, page 115 ff. for
more information about paragraphing and section 13.2, page 295 for
information about avoiding plagiarism).
To help you with transitions in your essay, see the list of transitional devices
that can be used to cue your reader in a given way at the end of the chapter
in Appendix A on page 283.
Here is an example of paragraphing, discussion and quoting:

Main point One of the criteria for measuring the effectiveness of a collaborative
approach towards managing diversity is employee well-being. Employees managed
according to
Discussion this approach report far more often that they feel valued than those
managed differently (Smith, 20__: 25). This finding confirms the
common-sense view that effective communication lies at the
heart of the collaborative approach, and communication
cannot be effective without knowledge of and interest in the
other person(s).
Paragraph As well as contributing to employees’ sense of feeling valued, transition a
collaborative approach also has an impact on employee retention. A survey into staff
retention rates conducted in three large organisations (staff complement of 750
upwards) in the USA showed a 20 per cent better

Continue ➝
Transitional words rate for staff managed collaboratively than for any other
management approach (Brown, 20__: 126). Although similar
research has not been conducted in South Africa, it seems
likely that the results would be similar. However, this

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assumption needs to be tested before any firm conclusions

can be drawn. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the results

provide, according to Brown (20__: 130),
Brief quotation ‘compelling reasons’ for encouraging managers to adopt a collaborative
approach.

If you have not already written an introduction or a conclusion, you need to

do this now.
No piece of writing is complete without an introduction. The introduction is
the official start of your essay and introduces your reader to the subject. It is
easier to understand writing that has an introduction that leads your reader
into the subject.
An introduction is like a funnel. The beginning, where the general topic is
given, is very wide, becoming gradually narrower as the specific focus is
introduced. The base of the funnel represents the point of transition from the
introduction to the body of the essay. The funnel analogy highlights the key
functions of an introduction: to name the topic, to limit its scope and to shape
the discussion to follow.
Formulate your introduction in the following way:
■ ( Re)state the title of the essay.
■ Explain the title as necessary:
❏ define the terms used in your title

❏ explain your purpose in writing about the subject.

■ Narrow the field: describe your particular focus on the subject, which can
also be a gap or problem in the field stated in your thesis.
■ Briefly state the structure of the essay by giving the main points. This
prepares the reader for what follows.
As an example, consider the following introduction:
Source: Adapted from an essay by Communications student Jacques Louw

No piece of writing is complete without a conclusion. Readers always need to

know that the writing is ending and that it has been appropriately rounded
off. It is important that your conclusion does not include ideas that you have
not mentioned before.
The components of a conclusion include:

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Topic: Explain the benefits of collaboration for

managing diversity in multicultural
organisations

Identify the following introduction ele The benefits of using a collaborative

ments in the Introduction on the right: approach to manage diverse – that is,
culturally different – employees are
■ the title
increasingly being recognised. The
■ the explanation of the title
approach is based on teamwork, in which
■ the purpose for writing ■
employees share knowledge and resources
the narrow focus/thesis ■ the
as they work together to complete tasks
essay structure.
and achieve goals. To be effective,
collaboration requires a commitment by
both manager and team members to open
and meaningful communication.
Communication of this nature facilitates
the identification of individual potential,
which can then be developed,
strengthening the team and increasing
productivity.
The essay begins with examples of the
challenges of managing diverse
workforces. Against this background, the
requirements of a collaborative
management approach and the
development needs are described. The
benefits of a collaborative approach are
then assessed. Finally, a training plan is
suggested to prepare employees to work
collaboratively.
■ a summary of the main points, usually referring to the thesis
statement ■ a evaluation of the main points:
❏ recommendations
❏ justification for recommendations
❏ research need
❏ personal comment.

Note: It is more common to include a personal comment at the end of an essay than at the
beginning. In general, it is better to avoid giving any personal comments at the beginning of
an essay.
Language to begin conclusions:
■ In conclusion, ...

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■ To summarise, ...
■ Finally, ...

Consider the following conclusion to the essay on managing diversity:

Identify the following In conclusion, the diversity of the workforce in

conclusion elements in the multicultural organisations has important implications
conclusion alongside: for management practice. A collaborative approach, in
which managers and employees are committed to
■ Concluding phrases
meaningful communication, facilitates the recognition
■ Summary of main points
of individual differences, responses to these differences
■ Writer’s comment(s) and the development of individual potential. The result
is improved employee morale, greater productivity and
higher levels of staff retention. Finally, organisations are
only as strong as their employees and no organisation
can afford to disregard the resources employees have to
offer.

Source: Extract adapted from an essay by Communications student Jacques Louw

Allow your rough or discovery draft to rest for a period or to ‘cool off’ before
rewriting or revising begins. Then, rewrite the rough draft. You will be better
able to detect faulty sentences, ill-chosen phrases and lapses in thinking after
a rest period. Once your rough draft has been rewritten, it is a good idea to
give it to a tutor or teacher for feedback.

Feedback on essay drafts is essential if your essay is to be refined so that it is

coherent and cohesive. Remember that writing is not an isolated activity, but
a social and collaborative event. Essay drafts should be handed in to tutors or
lecturers for comment and feedback, to guide your revision.

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If your institution has a writing centre facility, a more personal and

Revising is the process of seeing again.

conferencing type of feedback is given, because the tutor and writer are able
to discuss the essay draft informally.

12.1.4.2 Revise

Do not hesitate to cut and paste when revising your essay. Paragraphs in a
section might seem out of order, and this practice makes it easier to rearrange
them.

Most importantly, make sure that your essay makes sense. Read it aloud so
that the ear will catch any careless repetition of words. It is important that a
teacher, tutor, writing centre consultant, peer or friend read your revised
essay to give feedback on whether it is entirely clear and convincing. As you

■ Is there a purpose for your writing?

■ Is the writing appropriate for your audience?
■ Does the development of the essay relate to the thesis?
■ Is there sufficient evidence to support the discussion?
■ Is there any overlapping or repetition of evidence?
■ Is the paragraphing appropriate?
■ Have too many quotations been used?
revise your essay, check for the following:

Continue ➝
■ Are the quotations too long?
■ Have you paraphrased sources to show understanding?
■ Have references been inserted and listed?
■ Are the sentences varied?
■ Is the style appropriate? (This is discussed in the next section.)

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12.1.4.3 Academic writing style

Most academic essays are written in a formal register as set out in section
7.1.1, page 102. Features of formal register are:

■ complete sentences (which means that each sentence contains at least one
subject with its verb – see section 17.1, page 403)
■ short sentences, containing – on average – about 18 words, and even fewer
if the message is complex
■ short paragraphs of, on average, about five sentences
■ a simple but formal vocabulary. Note that trying to sound sophisticated or
intelligent usually results in sounding false
■ the avoidance of contractions such as ‘isn’t,’ ‘weren’t’ and ‘can’t’
■ an impersonal approach, which means that first and second person
pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘we’ and ‘you’ are avoided.

However, there are different viewpoints on the use of ‘I’ in academic writing,
because it sometimes sounds awkward to refer to yourself as ‘the author’ or
‘the researcher’. An advantage of using the first person is that it limits the
use of the passive form. Depending on your writing style, you can refer to
yourself as ‘I’, ‘the writer’, ‘the author’ or ‘the researcher’. Once you have
selected a term to refer to yourself, use the same expression each time. You
may also use ‘he’ or ‘she’ once you have referred to yourself, for example, as
the writer.

Together with using a formal register, writers must adhere to other

requirements of academic writing style, such as how to refer to the work of
other writers.

Some stylistic features of referencing are as follows:

■ Tense: when presenting or discussing the written work of a writer, always

use the present tense: Smith (1984) writes ... not Smith (1984) wrote …
■ Objectivity: in general, it is wiser to let authors and researchers argue for
you. Let them suggest, contend, argue, connect and support. In this way,
you maintain objectivity.
■ Voice: although the references present their own cases, you must not remain
invisible. One of the most effective methods of formulating an argument
using references is that you present a train of evidence, opinion and
writings, and then add your own views, which draw everything together.
For example, after a train of conflicting findings from studies and
conflicting opinions has been presented, you write: ‘In the light of the

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The point is that you interpret, relate, summarise or synthesise the train of
thoughts through your own writing.

disagreement among the writers and researchers, I suggest that the major
point of disagreement is …’

■ Connection of other authors’ ideas: when presenting the works of others,

relate them to one another. When there is agreement among the

references, assist the reader to see the agreement by using phrases such
as:

When there is disagreement among the references, you can help the reader

In contrast, …

In disagreement with …

Smith’s findings (2004) contradict ...

Not all researchers agree with Jones (1991). However, Smith (2004) finds …

Conflicting studies (Smith 2004, Wesson 1993) suggest that …

In agreement with Jones (1991), Smith (2004) writes … Smith (2004) concurs …

Similarly, Smith (2004) suggests …

Smith’s findings (2004) are comparable with … Smith (2004) supports Jones’s
(1991) findings …
by using phrases such as:

■ Identification of authors: be careful of saying ‘and others’ in referring to

studies. In academic writing you need to be more specific and name the
authors.

Zanie (2006) supports the findings that …

Bulea and Jordaan (2000) compare …

■ Active voice: avoid writing in the passive voice, for example: ‘findings were
supported’. If the passive voice is used more than a very few times, your
reader may begin to believe that you are trying to hide your opinion, and
your competence as a writer may be doubted. Use the active voice and say
who performed the action:

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Here are some other academic style considerations that you should keep in
mind as you revise your writing:

■ Purpose : let the purpose be your guide. A clear sense of purpose controls
all the choices made at every stage of writing.
■ Audience : try to see your writing as the readers will see it. Writers often
assume that what is clear to them is clear to their readers. Try to
anticipate your readers’ need for clarity and completeness.
■ Tentativeness : in research, nothing is obvious so do not use ‘obvious’ or
‘obviously’; rather be more tentative and use terms such as ‘sometimes’,
‘often’ and ‘may’.
■ Words and terms : keep word usage consistent. Once you use a term such
as ‘client’, avoid using ‘customer’ or ‘people’ when referring to the client.
■ Acronyms and abbreviations: explain specialised terms, acronyms (such as
NASA) and abbreviations (such as ESL).
■ Numbers : when writing numbers, use figures (for example: 11, 23, 54) for
numbers of 10 and above and words (for example: three, eight) for numbers
below 10.

Note the following about appendices and figures in academic writing:

■ Appendices are optional blocks of information at the end of an essay. They

give your readers additional – but not essential – facts and explanations.
For example, if you refer to tables, case studies, letter examples,
transcripts, questionnaires, graphs or additional material in the body of
your essay, but do not want to explain these in detail, you can put them in
your appendix and simply write: See Appendix A (B, C, …) or 1 (2, 3, …).
■ Figures are images such as pictures, graphs, diagrams and tables that you
write about in your essay. They can either be inserted in the text, near the
relevant paragraph, or in an appendix. You should always refer to the
figure when you are writing about it. For example: In Figure 1, … or As is
shown in Figure 2, … .

12.1.4.4 Edit
Once all revisions have been completed, you must proofread very carefully.
Proofreading is a close reading of the final version to eliminate errors in
grammar,

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spelling and punctuation, as well as typographical errors that have

survived your revisions. Proofreading should be done slowly, preferably
When proofreading, check that:
■ words have not been omitted or carelessly repeated
■ words have not been misspelt
■ concord or tense errors do not occur (see sections 17.2, page 405 and 17.3, page 406)
■ plurals have not been omitted (see section 17.7, page 418)
■ apostrophes have not been omitted for possessives and no unnecessary apostrophes
have been used (see section 17.8, page 418)
■ contractions and/or abbreviations have not been used
■ full stops, dashes, commas or quotation marks are not left out or used unnecessarily
■ spacing or format errors have not occurred.
aloud. If possible, allow some time to elapse between your final writing or
typing and proofreading. In this way, you are more likely to read with a fresh
eye.

12.1.5 Stage 5: Final copy

12.1.5.1 Presentation
Remember that a neatly typed and professionally formatted paper creates an
initial favourable impression on the marker and readers. It suggests to your
readers that time and effort went into your preparation and that your essay
was not simply thrown together at the last minute.

Marks may be lost for untidy and sloppy presentation.

■ Typing . It is preferable to type your essay. Ensure that your typing

is accurate and use double spacing for greater legibility. If this is not
possible, be sure that your handwriting is clear and legible. Use a black
pen.
■ Length . If your essay is too short, it will lack content and development. The
length limit is an indication of the amount of detail required. Do not exceed
the maximum length set for the essay.

The following excerpts from an essay illustrate an effectively researched,

planned and structured essay:
Adapted from an essay by Communications student Devin Flesh

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Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Introduction: Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) is a debilitating disease rendering all
who are affected unable to function in the business
environment. Before 1984, few doctors had encountered CFS
and there was little knowledge about who was affected and
why. By the end of the decade, CFS had become a more
prevalent disease. This essay will discuss what CFS is, what the
misconceptions were and what is understood about the
disease today. Finally, the effects on the business environment
will be discussed.

Paragraph 1: CFS is a neurological, metabolic and immunological dis-

ease that is often thought to be flu. In the early stages …
Paragraph 2: Jule (1994: 68) explains how CFS was misconceived in its early stages as
being solely a woman’s disease, leading to the name
‘GirlieAids’. In the late 1970s, CFS was believed to be a disease
that affected …

Paragraph 3: Today, there is still little knowledge concerning this disease and,
therefore, it is referred to as the invisible epidemic. What is
known about it is that it is one of the most serious diseases
compared to …

Paragraph 4: CFS affects the economy as shown, but CFS also has a negative effect on
the business environment. CFS leaves workers incapable of
functioning, resulting in …

Conclusion: In conclusion, CFS is a debilitating disease with a low rate of recovery.

Even though it has been studied extensively, there are many
misconceptions about the effects of CFS and little is
understood about it as a disease today. Financially, CFS has
had a major effect not only on economies, but also on the
micro-climate of businesses. Human resource managers need
to understand CFS in order to counter its effects on
productivity through an awareness of the disease’s
symptoms.

Reference
Jule, H 1994. The invisible epidemic. Working World, 1: 69–73.
Now that your essay is complete, all that remains is to prepare a cover page,
in accordance with the submission requirements of your lecturer who may,
for example, require a declaration that the essay is your own work.

Here is an example of a cover page.

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 Chapter 12 Academic Writing

Name Ruanda Mento

Student number 205222078
Course Introduction to Professional Management (LLE103)
Due date 1 March 20__
Lecturer Dr O Vanqui
Essay title Explain the benefit of collaboration
for managing diversity in multicultural organisations
Plagiarism declaration Plagiarism declaration
I understand that plagiarism is the presentation of
someone else’s work as my own. When sources
have been consulted, they have been carefully
referenced and fully acknowledged both in my
essay and on my reference list. I have not
plagiarised in this essay.
I understand that if I am found to have committed
plagiarism, I will have to face disciplinary action.
Signed: R Mento
Full name: Ruando Mento

SUMMARY

Academic writing is a practice that can be learnt and improved. The

processes that form the basis of effective writing start with selecting your
topic and end with the handing in of your final draft. The stages in the
writing process are recursive and include thinking, gathering, drafting,
revising and editing. Feedback is part of the refining process to ensure
that what you have written is clear and correct. Academic essays are
usually written in a style that is objective and analytical, and the work
of other authors is referred to, using accepted referencing conventions, to
support points made.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. For essay writing, differentiate between the following instruction words:

1.1 Describe and explain
1.2 Discuss and examine
1.3 Compare and contrast
1.4 Assess and evaluate
2. Select the correct answers for each of the following.

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If the findings include complex statistics, it is helpful to illustrate these by

means of a graphic aid such as a table, graph or chart. (See section 15.7.2 on

page 343

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

Third 4.2.3 Interviews with security guards

procedure
Interviews with the security guards provided the
following information:
a Customer complaints
From Monday to Saturday, the number of customer
complaints varied from 8 to 25 daily (see Figure 1).
The number of complaints received daily is listed
below.
O Monday 8
O Tuesday 16
O Wednesday 13
O Thursday 17
O Friday 21
O Saturday 25
Graphic
aid – see
section
Line graph 15.7
section 15.7.2.2

Figure 1: Number of customer complaints received per day

15.5.1.4The conclusions
Continue ➝
The conclusions are based on the facts gathered and your interpretation of
the information. This process involves giving meaning to your data. The mere
presentation of facts and data does not help your reader to benefit from the
report. Once the facts have meaning, your reader will benefit from their
inclusion.
This is when you reap the rewards of the effort put into organising the
information in your report. If your organisation is effective, it will be
relatively easy to draw the conclusions because they will grow out of the
procedures and the findings. As a final check, go back to your introduction
and make sure that you have drawn a conclusion (or conclusions) for each
issue under investigation.
Be careful not to misinterpret information by:
■ drawing conclusions based on insufficient information
■ exaggerating information
■ allowing personal feelings to influence the interpretation
process ■ comparing data that is not comparable.

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Above all, base your conclusions on the given information. In other words, do
not introduce new information in your conclusions.
present tense.
Write the conclusions in the

5 CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Reduction in income First
issue
The tenant’s income loss complaints are justified:
O Most tenants are experiencing an 11 to 15 per
cent drop in their monthly turnover.
O The reduction in turnover is most probably
linked to a reduction in foot traffic.
State logical 5.2 Customer access Second
implications issue
of findings
O The temporary entrance is unsafe and
restricts customer access.
Use the O Customers are not happy with the
present
temporary entrance, which is evidenced
tense
by the number of complaints received
by the tenants and security guards.
5.3 Staff parking Third
issue

15.5.1.5 The recommendations

Your recommendations are based on your conclusions. They are the actions
that should take place as a result of the findings and conclusions.
Recommendations should be realistic, feasible and written as specifically as
possible so that action can be taken.

Writing a set of recommendations is an opportunity to show your:

■ ability to solve problems ■
creativity in designing
solutions ■ commitment to
your work.

Write the recommendations in the future tense.

15.5.1.6 The summary
The summary replaces the report for the busy reader. It is written once the
report has been completed and then positioned at the point in the text where

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Guidelines:
■ Avoid too many lines on your graph.
■ Use colours and various line patterns (for example, ---, ***) to distinguish
lines on multiple line graphs.
■ Start the vertical axis (Y) at zero (if necessary).
■ Use equal spacing on each axis.

N EW HIV INFECTIONS AND AI DS RELATED DEATHS

4 000 000

3 500 000

3 000 000

2 500 000

2 000 000

1 500 000

1 000 000

500 000

New HIV infections Globally new HIV infections peaked in 1997

Aids-related deaths

Figure 15.5 New HIV infections and Aids-related deaths 1990–2010

Source: http://www.unaids.org/en/aboutunaids/

Pictographs
Uses:

■ to show numerical
relationships ■ to appeal to the
eye.

Guidelines:
■ Apply scaling rules.

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

Figure 15.6 Numbers of full- and part-time students studying marketing and management

Photographs Uses:

■ to have eye appeal

■ to be economical in terms of space.

Guidelines:

■ Use only sharp, clear photographs.

Figure 15.7 Flyover during and after construction (reprinted with kind permission of Strydom,
Basson & Tait (Pty) Ltd)
15.7.2.3 Illustrations and diagrams
Uses:

■ to simplify complex material and ideas.

Guidelines:

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

■ Focus on the structure and/or function of the process, product or equipment.

■ Omit all unnecessary information.
■ Use arrows to point to key points.

Roof truss – timber

Window frame – timber, Walls – brick

aluminium or steel
Door – timber

Floor slab – concrete

Foundation – concrete

Figure 15.8 A house construction

SUMMARY

Graphics are an essential part of report writing because they support major
points and help to make the message concrete and visual. Graphics show
trends, movements, distributions, cycles and comparisons that may not be
readily apparent in the text. Because they also simplify complex material,
care should be taken to avoid cluttered visuals. The main categories of
graphic aids are tables and graphs (pie, bar and line). Pictorial graphic aids
are pictographs, photographs and illustrations or diagrams. Graphics must
be labelled and provided with an explanatory title. The writer of a report
should also prepare the reader for each graphic by referring to it and
explaining it in the text.
15.8 THE FORMAL REPORT

Formal reports have a more dressed-up appearance, contain standard parts

and are often longer than other types of report. Although formal reports are
usually written for external audiences who expect a methodological
presentation of the investigation or study, a well-crafted formal report is
formatted in such a way that the information it conveys is readily accessible
to all audiences. These audiences include specialist and non-specialist
professionals and managers overseeing the subject matter of the report.

Most of the following sections are required in a formal report. However, some
are optional and are included only if a specific situation dictates their use.

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15.8.1 Preliminary report sections

A comprehensive Report title page

title
Investigation on Internet Security at Ace Connections

The name of Prepared for:

the person or
authority who
Ms J Leeds (Internet Security Officer)
requested the ACE Connections
report

The author's Prepared by:

name and D Doucette (Project Manager)
organisation
Security Solutions

The date 20 April 20__

submitted

Report headings need not always be precisely the same. However, the
following are often included in a report:

■ title page: organisation(s) involved, author(s) details, intended audience,

report date
■ table of contents: report sections with page numbers
■ terms of reference: instructions given to the writer to investigate an issue
and report back findings
■ summary or synopsis: brief summary or outline of the report’s important
findings, conclusions and recommendations
■ list of illustrations*: complex statistics or data examples
■ glossary*: list of terms used, with explanations
■ appendix*: information that is too bulky for the main report or is of interest
to a small number of readers.

* Optional and included only for a specific purpose or situation.

15.8.2 Report body sections
Report sections are often sequenced as listed below:

■ procedure: method(s) of data collection to give an accurate account of how

the investigation was carried out
■ findings (the facts): citing of the evidence, objectively, concisely and
specifically
■ conclusions (interpretation of the facts): must be convincing and a basis for
recommendations
■ recommendations (if requested): based on conclusions, and must be
practical, specific and well organised, with the most important stated first.

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For more information about formal reports and for detailed examples, consult
the texts in the reference list for this chapter at the end of the book.

When you are ready to submit your report to the person(s) requesting the
investigation, a transmittal letter often accompanies the report and informs
readers of the purpose and context of the report. The transmittal letter is brief
and outlines the specific context. It is also a permanent record that the
document was sent.

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

Security Solutions
South Point
205 Main Street
BRAAMFONTEIN
2001

20 April 20__
Ms J Leeds
Internet Security Officer
ACE Connections
1000 Chastain Road
KENSINGTON
2001

Dear Ms Leeds

Internet Security Report

Describes what I enclose the report on Internet security you requested on
is being sent
and includes
1 March and which is due on 22 April 20__.
important dates
The purpose of the report, Investigation on internet security at ACE
Connections , is to inform the company of the state of its Internet
Reminds the
reader of the security.
report’s title and
purpose
Many of the PCs have been attacked by viruses, including worms,
trojans, adware and spyware. The report focuses on ways to protect
Summary of key company PCs from viruses and recommends the purchase of a virus
elements
security program.

Please contact me at 011 375 237 should you require more infor
mation.

Closing Thank you for the opportunity to work on this project.

establishes
goodwill by Yours sincerely
thanking the
recipient.
D Doucette
D Doucette
PROJECT MANAGER

15.9 OTHER REPORT FORMATS

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15.9.1 Short or summary reports

A report that is not long enough for the formal report format can be
presented as a short report. A short report:

■ is not as long as a formal report (one to four pages)

■ deals with one topic
■ does not include:
❏ a synopsis
❏ a letter of transmittal
❏ a table of contents
❏ a letter of authorisation
❏ an appendix
❏ a bibliography/references
■ is written in a less formal style.
The format, however, does resemble that of a formal report and should have
the sections indicated below.
■ The introduction (to orientate the reader) contains information about the
background situation or context of the report. It informs your reader of:
❏ what your report is about ❏ how
your information was obtained

❏ why it is important.

■ The summary states what the most important finding(s), conclusion(s)

and recommendation(s) are.
■ The findings contain the detailed facts. This is the longest section of your
report.
■ The conclusions and, if requested, the recommendations, usually follow
your findings and should be numbered to follow on directly.
■ The recommendations can be placed immediately after your introduction
in recommendation and feasibility reports. This section is placed here as
it is the main point of your report. Your reader needs to know immediately
what your recommendations are.

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WORLDWIDE COLLEGE
REPORT ON COMPLAINTS ABOUT POOR SERVICE
IN THE STUDENT CAFETERIA

1 INTRODUCTION
The Catering Administrator, Mr Y Zengo, gave instructions on 4 June 20 __ that Mr T Long
conduct an investigation into the complaints received about the service and food in the
student cafeteria.

Areas to be investigated were:

O Staffing levels
O Equipment
O Food selection.

Recommendations were to be provided.

2 PROCEDURE
O An interview was held with Ms B Duru, Cafeteria Manager, on 10 June 20__.
O Questionnaires were completed by 48 students who used the cafeteria between 10 and 15
June 20__.

3 SUMMARY
It was found that there were insufficient helpers to cope with serving between 12:00 and 13:00.
The result is that most students have to queue for service at this time. It is, therefore,
recommended that three additional staff members be made available to assist during
peak serving times.

4 FINDINGS
4.1 Staffing
4.1.1 Interview with cafeteria manager
Ms Duru has two full-time assistants. The third assistant works fulltime on two days of the week
and from 13:00 to 17:00 on the other three days (Monday, Wednesday and Friday).

4.2 Equipment
4.2.1 Interview with cafeteria manager
A schedule of current catering equipment and their year of purchase is attached. Ms Duru said
that the following additional equipment was necessary:
O 1 microwave oven
O 1 slow cooker
O 1 pie warmer
O 1 bread slicer.

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4.3 Food selection

4.3.1 Questionnaire
Food preferences
O 65 per cent of the students preferred salad sandwiches.
O 20 per cent of the students requested hot chips.
O 15 per cent of the students requested halaal foods.

The students also said that they would make alternative lunch arrangements if the
selection did not improve.

The food selection available is shown in the attached schedule.

4.4 Queuing
4.4.1 Questionnaire
O 73 per cent of the students regularly visited the cafeteria between 12:00 and
13:00 . They all stated that they had had to queue for more than 10 minutes.
O 27 per cent of the students regularly visited the cafeteria between 13:00 and
14:00 . They said that they had to queue for between 3 and 5 minutes.

5 CONCLUSIONS
5.1 There are insufficient assistants to cope with the 12:00–13:00 lunch slot, which is
the more popular slot.
5.2 The present catering equipment is not adequate.
5.3 The meal selection is not wide enough to cater for student requirements.

6 RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 A part-time assistant should be recruited to work from 8:00 to14:00 on Mondays,
Wednesdays and Fridays.
6.2 Two additional servers should be utilised to ease the queuing congestion between
12:00 and 13:00.
6.3 Ms Duru should obtain quotations for the additional catering equipment required
and submit them to management before 30 October 20 __.
6.4 Ms Duru should be asked to plan new meals which also include a sandwich selec
tion, hot chips and halaal food.

TN Long
Business Administration Officer
30 June 20 __

15.9.2 Reports with subject-specific headings

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

The prescribed series of headings illustrated in the previous sections may be

inappropriate for some report topics. It is entirely up to the writer, or the
guidelines laid down in your organisation, as to how reports should be
presented. A series of headings specific to the subject matter, as in the
following example, may be preferred:

MOUNTAIN LODGE
MEMORANDUM
TO: Z Anda
MANAGER
FROM: S Zietsman
ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT
DATE: 5 August 20__
SUBJECT: REPORT ON GUEST COMMENTS AT MOUNTAIN LODGE

During May 20__ 10 comments were written in the visitors’ book. Seven guests were
complimentary about the hotel. However, some of the guests suggested areas for
improvement. The comments are summarised as follows:

1. POSITIVE COMMENTS
Encouraging comments were made about:
O General good quality and value of the lodge (8)
O Good food (7)
O Beautiful surroundings (7)
O Helpful, friendly, polite staff (6).

2. PROBLEMS
O Three guests commented on the slow or poor service in the restaurant.
O One guest was not happy with the lack of satellite TV channels, and was
also disappointed that there was no wi-fi connectivity.
O One guest waited two days before a broken light in a bedroom was
replaced.

CONCLUSIONS
In general, visitors are happy with the lodge. However, complaints about service are a
concern. Because the focus is on encouraging guests to enjoy the outdoors, one
complaint about TV and wi-fi facilities is not significant.
Continued ➝
RECOMMENDATIONS
O The service aspects relating to service in the restaurant and to repairs/mainte
nance should be investigated further.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

O An upgrade of TV facilities, which would have cost implications, should not be

considered at this stage.
O Wi-fi access should be considered, depending on the cost implications.
sz

15.9.3 Letter reports

Letter reports are often sent outside an organisation and are useful for
presenting limited amounts of information. They are usually one to four pages
in length and have a letter format. These reports often have a single reader.

The structure of the letter report varies widely, with the circumstances
determining which parts or sections to include.

As requested by Mr Ndlebe on 15 January 20__, I am submitting the following report on

the capital expenditures of the KZN branch office.
■ The opening sentence may refer to the authorisation, the date of the

authorisation and the name of the person who authorised, for example, the
purchase of stationery.

■ The report body includes information relating to the depth of the study,
the people consulted and the sources read in preparing the report.
Many reports present only information because the situation does not
require analysis or recommendation. But, if recommendations and
suggestions based on the findings are appropriate, they should be
included. If the reader is likely to consider the recommendations section
as a key part of the report, it should be placed before the findings section.
The organisational structure should, then, immediately give your reader
Should you wish to discuss any aspect of the content of this report, please contact me on
011 445 6789.

the information of greatest concern or interest.

■ The closing often contains an offer to be of additional assistance should the

need arise. This promotes goodwill.

Here is an example of a letter report. The report also has subject-specific

headings:

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

RICHMAN’S CC
PO Box 1114
JOHANNESBURG 2000

23 March 20__

Mr D Ndlebe
General Manager
Management Designs
1200 Main Street
JOHANNESBURG 2001

Dear Mr Ndlebe

REPORT ON BRANCH OFFICE RENOVATIONS

The report you requested on 15 January 20__ on the nature of the physical improvements
made at the branch office has been completed.

Physical Improvements to General Office Area

The general office area has been completely renovated. New tiles have been laid in the
general office area, and the carpets in the managers’ and supervisors’ offices have been
replaced. Furniture was purchased for three employees and two of the work areas.
Because the new furniture is streamlined and the old furniture has traditional styling, the
two styles are not well coordinated.

Suggestions for Additional Improvements

In response to your request for suggestions to improve the branch office facilities, the
following recommendations are made:

1. Replace traditional styling with new streamlined furniture.

2. Renovate the rest room facilities.

Substantial progress has been made in improving the appearance of the branch office. If
you need additional information, please contact me at 084 567 8989.

Yours sincerely

HJackson
H Jackson
DESIGN ASSISTANT

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15.10 ORAL REPORTS

The written report is often only part of the total report presentation. You
might also be required to present your findings orally to your department.
(See Chapter 6 for information about oral presentations.) It is preferable to
distribute your report in advance so that people can read it carefully and
think about your findings (see section 4.4.1.1, page 66 for information about
listening strategies).

15.10.1 Preparation of the oral report

The oral report should consist of the following:
1 Title, author(s), date
2 Introduction and overview
3 Method (if applicable)
4 Results and Discussion
5 Conclusion(s)
6 Recommendation(s)
7 Questions
8 References

Oral reports are supported by slide or PowerPoint presentations. The

guidelines below provide direction for planning your content and designing
your slides.

15 .10.1.1 Content guidelines

■ Record the full title of your project, the name of the principal author (if
applicable), the names of the other (collaborating) group members and the
date on your title page.
■ Mention your results briefly to assist your audience to comprehend their
significance and anticipate what is to come.
■ Present your most important information and leave out details that do not
meaningfully contribute.
■ Use bulleted lists to organise short phrases or sentences (no paragraphs of
text) and explain what is shown.
■ Convey information through visual content (graphs, drawings,
illustrations). Keep the written verbal accompaniment (such as
explanations) to an absolute minimum.
■ Allow for two minutes’ discussion per slide (a 20-minute presentation
requires 10 slides) and about 5 minutes – depending on the length and
nature of your presentation – for question time at the end.
Adapted from: Oral report guidelines. [Online]. Available from: http://www.columbia.edu/

itc/seas/E3810lab/oreport.html [Accessed 8 March 2013].

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

15.10.1.2 Slide guidelines

■ Titles. Give most slides titles, with a font size of at least 36 points, and body
text with a font size of at least 24 points. If you need to cite a source of
information, include the citation in a smaller font size at the bottom of your
slide.
■ Purpose. Identify the single purpose for each slide before it is designed
(discussion of a graph, comparison of different data sets, description of a
data analysis method, presentation of conclusions). Overcrowded slides
covering multiple topics confuse audiences.
■ Rule of 8s. Apply the rule of 8s: include no more than eight words per line
and eight lines per slide.
■ Bullets. Use parallel structure for each bulleted line.
■ Design. Use both upper case and lower case letters and orient pictures left
to right. Avoid the overuse of animations and transitions, especially audio-
based transitions, which can be distracting and silly.
■ Colour. Make sure the text colour is readable, especially under less than
optimal lighting conditions. Basic dark lettering and a white background
can be used for slides, particularly if they are text-based. If a background
theme or colour is chosen, enhance continuity and clarity by keeping it
consistent and subtle.
■ Images. Where possible, replace words with images. Use images in
particular when presenting data, demonstrating trends, simplifying
complex issues and visualising abstractions.
■ Spelling. Spelling does count. Be sure your slides are free of grammatical
and spelling errors.
Adapted from: Style for students online: Oral presentation and PowerPoint. [Online]. Available from:
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/c7_p4.html [Accessed 8 March 2013].

SUMMARY

There are several different report types. You may be required to use one
(or even a combination) of several different types. The format, however,
usually depends on the type and purpose of the report, its intended
readers, and the presentation conventions and layout prescribed by the
organisation for which you work. Although this section describes the
formal, short, letter and oral reports, these choices are not restrictive,
but indicate a range of report type possibilities. These report types have
different purposes and functions and are often differentiated by whether
the summary and/or recommendations are placed after the main body of
the report, or are placed earlier, before the main body. The eventual
format chosen might be a combination or a condensed version of these
two formats.
Addendum

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Complete investigative report

Report title The impact of construction at Springacres Shopping

page Centre
Prepared for:
Mr A White
Custom Property Developers

Prepared by:
J Rowani
Public Relations Practitioner
Springacres Shopping Centre

16 May 20__

1 INTRODUCTION
Construction started on the extensions
Background to Springacres Shopping Centre on
1 April 20 __. Completion of the work was
scheduled for 30 September 20 __. Between
7 April and 3 May, the centre management
received 20 complaints from tenants.
States who
requested the On 5 May 20 __, Mr White, the developer,
report, when asked the centre management to investigate
and due date
the complaints. The report was to have been
completed by 21 May 20 __.

The investigation focussed on three issues:

Issues to be
investigated, O Tenants’ claims of income loss as a result of
set out in the decline in business.
bulleted form
O The effect of construction work on customer
access to shops.

O Claims of inadequate parking for staff.

Possible The report will be used to assess the extent of

future action the problems and recommend any necessary
remedial action.

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

2 SUMMARY
2.1 Procedure
How? Compiling
List methods of Information was obtained from:
data:
collecting a Questionnaires completed by tenants collecting
information b Observations of customer movement information
c Interviews with security guards.
2.2 Findings
a Tenants’ income had decreased as a result
of building operations.
b Customer access was affected by
construction work.
Main findings,
conclusions and c Staff parking complaints were exaggerated.
recommendations 2.3 Conclusions
a As most tenants are experiencing a
significant drop in turnover, their complaints
are justified. Organising
b The temporary shopping entrance for data
customers is inadequate.
c Staff parking is not affected.
2.4 Recommendations
a Tenants should receive a 10 per cent rebate
for income loss.
b The temporary shopping entrance should
be monitored at peak hours to reduce
congestion.
c The staff parking area should be
monitored.
d A committee should be formed to
implement and monitor the proposed
actions and to assess the costs.

3 PROCEDURES
Primary 3.1 Tenant questionnaire
research methods On 7 May 20___, a questionnaire was sent
to 35 tenants for completion, achieving a
Data-
response rate of 87 per cent. The responses collecting
were then analysed and tabulated. A procedures
copy of the questionnaire is attached as
Appendix A.

3.2 Observation of customer movement

The shopping centre’s temporary entrance
Primary was observed from Monday to Saturday Data-

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

research methods collecting

at two-hourly intervals: 7:00–9:00; 12:00– procedures
14:00 and 16:00–18:00 during the week of 7–13
May 20 __. The number of people using the
entrance was recorded.

3.3 Interviews with security guards Interviews were

carried out with five randomly selected security
guards during the week of 7–12 May 20 __. The
security guards were interviewed at the end of
their shift each day. A copy of the questions is
attached as Appendix B.

4 FINDINGS Classifying
First issue 4.1 Reduction in income data:
organising
First procedure 4.1.1 Questionnaire information
The following information was obtained according to
from the questionnaire. issues
Use subhead a Reduction in turnover
ings to classify O 90 per cent of tenants had registered a information logically
reduction in their monthly turnover.
O 10 per cent of the tenants did not
disclose this information.
Use full sentences b Percentage reduction in turnover to record findings O 60 per
cent of the tenants reported a
reduction in turnover of between 11 and
State highest 15 per cent.
percentage first O 30 per cent of the tenants reported a
reduction in turnover of between 6 and
Write in 10 per cent.
past tense O 10 per cent of the tenants did not disclose this information.
See Schedule A for trading figures for the months
of January to April 20__ for each of the tenants
who took part in the survey.
The document supports the tenants’ claims. c Foot
traffic
O 80 per cent of the stores reported that
there had been a noticeable drop in foot traffic.

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4.3 Staff parking

The numbers show that the temporary entrance Third issue
4.3.1 Questionnaire
was most congested:
a Limited parking
O 7:00–9:00 Saturday
O 90 per cent of the tenants acknowledged
O 12:00–14:00 Monday, Thursday, Friday and
Saturdaythat they had experienced staff arriving
10 to 15 minutes late after lunch
O 16:00–18:00 every day.
because of the limited parking available.
b ODemographics
10 per cent of the tenants managed
of people using the temporary
their shops individually and had no staff.
entrance.
4.3.2 Interviews with security guards
O 62 per cent of users were customers.
a Staff parking
O 18 per cent of users were construction
O There were sufficient parking bays for
workers.
staff.
O 14 per cent of users were tenants.
O Most staff complained about parking
O 6 per cent of users were security
when they returned from collecting stock
personnel.
and wanted to park closer to their shops.
Third 54.2.3 CONCLUSIONS
procedure
Interviews with security guards
5.1 Reduction
Interviewsin income
with the security guards First issue
The tenants’
provided theloss of income
following complaints are
information:
a justified.
Customer complaints
Do not add new
information in OFromMost
Mondaytenants are experiencing
to Saturday the numberanof 11
conclusions to 15 per
customer cent drop
complaints in their
varied monthly
from 8–25 daily
turnover.
(see Figure 1). The number of complaints
O The reduction
received in turnover
daily is listed below. is most probably
State logical O linked
Monday to a reduction
8 in foot traffic.
implications of 5.2 Customer
O Tuesday access 16 Second issue
findings The temporary shopping
O Wednesday 13 entrance is unsafe
and
O restricts
Thursday customer 17 access.
OO Friday
Customers are 21not happy with the
temporary shopping entrance, which
O Saturday 25
is evidenced by the number of
complaints received by the tenants
Use the present and the security guards.
tense
Line graph O Customers are concerned for their safety Graphics
section 15.7.2.2 because of the slippery walkway, the section
15.7
presence of construction machinery and
the lack of parking for the disabled.
O At peak shopping times, the entrance
Figure 1: Number
is badlyofcongested.
customer complaints received
per day
O The access problem is worsened by
construction workers also using the
entrance.

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

5.3 Staff parking Third issue

O Complaints about staff parking appear to
be exaggerated, but further monitoring of
the situation is advisable.

6 RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Reduction in income First issue
Make specific O The Springacres Shopping Centre recommen-
dations (if Management should consider reducing requested) the tenants’ rental
by 10 per cent for each during the construction period.
conclusion
6.2 Customer access Second issue
O The temporary entrance should be monitored
between 16:00 and 18:00 Use 'should' from
Mondays to Saturdays to assist to express the
flow of foot traffic and to ease recommendations
the congestion.
O A non-slip substance should be painted on the
temporary entrance floor.
O Trucks and graders should operate at the entrance only
between 8:00 and 9:00.
O Parking for people with disabilities should be put in place
immediately.
O A customer complaint and suggestion box should be
erected and forms given to tenants. This
will give the Centre Management feedback
on how best they can accommodate the
customers.

6.3 Staff parking Third issue

O Staff parking should be monitored during the
remainder of the construction period. If the
situation worsens, this should be reported to
management immediately
6.4 Monitoring committee
O A committee should be appointed to
implement and monitor the proposed actions and
to assess the costs.

Source: Adapted from a report by Communications student Andrew White

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. The correct order of headings for a formal report is:

a Terms of Reference, Procedure, Conclusions, Findings,

Recommendations b Terms of Reference, Findings, Procedure,

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Recommendations, Conclusions c Terms of Reference, Procedure,

Findings, Conclusions, Recommendations
2 This formal set of headings must always be used for formal reports.
Answer True or False and explain your answer.
3 The Conclusions section of a report is where you: a give your personal
opinion on the matter b draw assumptions and inferences on the matter
c make recommendations.
4 Answer True or False:
a In a less
formal or
informal
report, a more
relaxed style
can be used. b
In formal
reports,
Recommendati
ons must
always be
included. c
The longest
section of a
report is
normally the
Conclusion(s).
d Note form may be used when writing reports.
5 Decide whether the following statements are Procedures, Findings,
Conclusions or Recommendations by ticking in the appropriate column in
the table.

P F C R

1. The most likely cause of the accident is carelessness on the part

of the machine operator.

2. Additional staff should be recruited as soon as possible.

3. Questionnaires were sent out to all members of the society.

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

4. At least one member of the staff in each department should be

trained in First Aid.

5. 75 per cent of the staff questioned welcomed the proposal to

introduce a staff canteen.

6. The plant should be relocated to Norwood.

7. Land costs in the north are on average 20 per cent less than in
other areas.

8. The activities of our major competitors were investigated.

9. High-quality automotive components are being exported to

Europe and North America.

10. This is an excellent time for a subsidiary office to be set up in

East London.
6 In what way are formal and informal reports different?
7 What is included in the introduction of a formal report?
8 What is included in the summary section of a formal report?
9 Which verb tense is generally recommended for:
a findings? b
conclusions?
c recommendations?
10 Describe how information should be organised in the findings section of a
report.
11 Identify one essential characteristic of effective:
a findings? b
conclusions?
c recommendations?
12 Name three important guidelines to consider when writing a heading for
graphics.
13 For what type of data are the following graphs specifically suited?
a pie b bar c
line d
pictographs

APPLICATION

1. You work for a well-known insurance company. You have been instructed
by your area manager to investigate an insurance claim by a local farmer.
He has experienced an alarmingly high percentage of stock losses over

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the past year. The situation on his farm needs to be investigated before
an insurance payout can be made.
Your report follows below. You need, however, to rearrange it into suitable
report format, under appropriate headings. Do not make any changes to
the content: concentrate on reorganising the information under Findings,
Conclusions and Recommendations.

It was found that cattle losses represented the largest portion of the claim. Between
January 20__ and November 20__, 68 per cent of the original Hereford herd had been
stolen by cattle thieves. The cattle had not been kraaled at night, but were grazing in fields
approximately two kilometres from the homestead. There were no herdsmen nearby. Only
half of the stolen cattle had been branded. One can conclude that few precautionary
measures, if any, had been taken against theft. Not more than 5 per cent of the total value
of the claim should be paid to the claimant in the case of the claim for lost cattle.
The claimant also lost 38 per cent of his Merino flock during the second half of 20__: 24 per
cent of the sheep died as a result of an outbreak of a parasitic infection, 8 per cent were
killed by a roving leopard which was later caught by officers of Nature Conservation and
the remaining 6 per cent died of exposure during a sudden cold snap in August 20__.

The claimant had inoculated his sheep against all known infections in February 20__ and
again in October 20__ and the sheep were kept in a jackal-proof camp. Therefore, it is
concluded that the sheep losses were beyond the farmer’s control and for this reason it is
recommended that the full portion of the claim relating to sheep losses be paid out.

2 It is often necessary to put statistical information into words. While

statistics provide precise information, you can help your reader if you
summarise the information in sentences using approximate figures.
The following are extracts from the results of a questionnaire completed by
150 employees. 100 questionnaires were returned. Rewrite the statistics
as words by completing the sentences.

Question: Which hours would you prefer to work?

■ 7:30–16:00 6
■ 8:00–16:30 70 (present working hours )
■ 9:00–17:30 2
■ Flexi-hours 22 (three years previously, the survey recorded 12/100)
2.1 Findings: Almost ... of the respondents were satisfied with the ...
working hours ... . Less than ... would prefer a change to ... . There
was ... demand to change the hours to 9:00–17:30. Almost a quarter
of the respondents would like to change to ...; this figure has almost
... since the last survey three years before.
2.2 Conclusions: It appears that ... staff are happy with the ... working
hours. However, the popularity of the flexi-hours has ... recently.

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

2.3 Recommendations: The existing working hours should be ... . A

further survey should be ... in 12 months’ time.
3 Report writing in practice
3.1 You work in the Administrative Department of Right Insurance, a
large organisation that provides insurance and other financial
services. The administration manager is Mr Tandi Hasan.
All new staff employed by Right Insurance are given a probationary
period of six months, and after this time their work and attitude are
assessed. If they are suitable, they are employed permanently. One
employee, Robert Smith, is reaching the end of his probationary
period. Because he has worked closely with you, Mr Hasan has asked
you to write a report on his progress. You are not asked to make any
recommendations. You have made these notes.

Robert Smith
Friendly – gets on well with most people – keen
Hardworking – reliable
Can work on his own. Good with figures.
Computer skills improving – still needs more practice
Punctuality not always good – has been late several times – but improving Good
health
Write a suitable report.

3.2 You work in the Customer Services Department of Shopaway Stores

in Westville, Durban. This store is part of a large chain that sells a
wide range of goods through a variety of departments. The store has
a reputation for selling high-quality goods at reasonable prices. It
prides itself on its polite and efficient staff. The customer services
manager is Ms Lily Sing.
A number of customers who visit your branch bring babies and young
children with them and this causes congestion, because there is little
room for prams and pushchairs. In addition, the young children are
sometimes noisy when they become bored.
Your branch of Shopaway Stores has never offered a childcare centre
before and Ms Sing has asked you to investigate whether this might
be a good idea. You are to write a report on your findings. You have
been told not to worry about the financial aspect at the moment, but
to consider the main issues involved. Through your investigations,
you made the following notes:

Notes about possible childcare centre for Shopaway Stores

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

7,3 per cent of the customers have at least one child under three years of age in their
care – spoke to random selection and most say they would use a childcare centre
depending on how much it cost.

Spoke to 20 people who do not shop at Shopaway – they might use the store if there
were a childcare centre.

Strict laws about provision of a childcare centre – size of room, trained staff, facilities
etc. Need to apply and be approved first (staff must be trained too).
Have to find a good space – needs to be close to entrance – easy to get to – big enough to have
large numbers of children – must have toilets, running water, need to appoint qualified staff
(link with local college).

A lot of other shops have a childcare facility – can be noisy – should be separated from store.

Important to check out insurance position.

Looks like a good idea – if finances are available!

Write a suitable report.

4 Graphic information
This section involves visual communication. Figures have been supplied that
must be translated into visual items. Make the information clearer and
more easily understood but take care not to distort the meaning of the
figures.
4.1 Provide a bar graph to represent the following data: The National
Bank initiated a study to assess the ages of customers using
automatic tellers during a 24-hour period.
Age: 16–25 : 35 Age: 46–55 : 83
26–35 : 47 56–65 : 45
36–45 : 55 over 65 : 20
4.2 Refer to Table 1, below. Illustrate the information using a line graph.
Remember to give your graph a heading.
Table 1: Number of Management student registrations at Mid-West University (1994–2014)
Years Numbers
1994 50
1999 130
2004 220
2009 380
2014 470
4.3 Illustrate the data in Table 2 using a multiple bar graph. Table 2: Number
of employees in production, warehousing and sales at Tyson

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 Chapter 15 Report Writing

Department No. of employees

Production:
Foundry 800
Machine Shop 200
Inspection 100
1 100
Warehouse:
Warehouse 250
Transport 200
Management 50
500
Sales:
Home Sales 250
Export Sales 100
Admin 50
400
Total employees 2 000

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 Chapter 1 6

Meetings

OBJECTIVES

The meeting is potentially the most useful communication tool in an

organisation, because it facilitates discussion and decision-making on
matters of common interest. During a meeting, people are able to make
suggestions, voice criticisms and express opinions. Like most
communication media, however, meetings are also a potential source of
communication failure and breakdown. A meeting may also become
sterile and unproductive, and needs skills to make it work.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
■ understand what preparations are required for meetings
■ distinguish between public, business and non-profit association meetings,
and between general and committee meetings
■ know the meaning of specific meeting terminology
■ describe the duties of the chairperson, secretary and treasurer before,
during and after a meeting
■ participate effectively in meetings
■ draw up the notice, agenda and minutes of a meeting according to formal
meeting procedures.

16.1 DEFINITION OF A MEETING

A generally accepted definition of a meeting is that it involves a group (two or

more) of people sharing information, reaching decisions or resolving a
particular problem through discussion.
When participants cannot be in the same room, online conferencing facilities
are available to enable members who are at different sites to participate in
meetings. Examples are facilities provided by Skype (http://www.skype.com)
and GoToMeeting (http://www.gotomeeting.com).
A successful meeting is one in which:
■ the objectives are met
 Chapter 16 Meetings

■ an open forum for discussion is created while at the same time structure and
order are maintained
■ members keep to the point
■ decisions are clearly and unambiguously stated
■ time is monitored and controlled
■ members experience a sense of satisfaction with what has been
accomplished; in other words, the meeting has passed the ultimate test –
results have been achieved.
As the definition shows, chairing a meeting involves much more than simply
running the meeting. The process starts much earlier, with the planning and
preparation that takes place beforehand. It also continues after the meeting,
until the decisions taken have been implemented.

16.1.1 Why the formalities?

When important decisions are made, a safeguard needs to be built into the
decision-making process to ensure that the decisions:
■ are taken by the correct parties
■ are recorded correctly (avoiding distortion)
■ remain available for reference by any interested party.

Formal meeting procedure creates a set pattern of:

■ preparation and planning – work is done before a meeting
■ participation – the actual business of the meeting is conducted
■ implementation – agreed actions are carried out and agreed decisions
implemented.
This pattern is designed to fulfil the objective of safeguarding decisions and
their implementation.

16.1.2 The nature of a legal meeting

Three elements must be present before the decisions taken at a meeting can
be regarded as legally effective and binding:
■ The meeting must be held in accordance with the constitution and
regulations of the organisation concerned.
■ The meeting must be properly convened – that is, a formal notice, meeting
the demands of time and completeness as laid down in the constitution,
must have been served on every member entitled to attend the meeting.
■ The meeting must be properly constituted. This means that:
❏ the correct person must be in the chair

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

❏a quorum must be present (the minimum number of members that

must be present before valid resolutions can be passed).

16.2 TYPES OF MEETINGS

Meetings may be divided into three main categories: public meetings,

business meetings and meetings of non-profit associations.

16.2.1 Public meetings

These are attended by members of the general public and are usually convened
for the express purpose of discussing matters of common concern. Notice of
such meetings is given in newspapers, magazines and posters, or on radio.

An example of such a meeting is a political meeting.

Other types of meeting have access qualifications. In other words, employment,

membership, or some other entry qualification is required for attendance.

16.2.2 Business meetings

Business meetings are held by profit-earning organisations. These meetings
range from internal departmental meetings to board meetings, and annual
general meetings in the case of public companies (companies that have shares
traded on the stock exchange).

Shareholders of public and private companies, company employees, employees

in partnerships, and members of close corporations attend these meetings.

16.2.3 Meetings of non-profit associations

Such meetings are held by schools, private clubs, sports associations and
welfare associations, for example. Access is restricted to those who qualify to
attend, for example parents, members or stakeholders.

The examples in this book centre on sport and student associations, because
these are more likely to be familiar to its readers. However, the principles
discussed are applicable to all meetings.

Business meetings and meetings of non-profit associations can be further

classified into general meetings and committee meetings. Table 16.1 shows the
different types of general meeting, which are attended by all
members/qualifying persons.
Table 16.1 Types of general meeting

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 Chapter 16 Meetings

Types of meetings Function

General meeting To determine the policy of an organisation

Annual general meeting To submit reports of chairperson, treasurer

and auditors
To elect office-bearers

Inaugural meeting To set up an organisation

Special or extraordinary general meeting To deal with one specific purpose or matter
only

16.3 TYPES OF COMMITTEES

A committee consists of a group of persons appointed, assigned or elected by a

body or company to see to its interests and to ensure the proper functioning of
the body it represents. There are several types of committee (see Table 16.2).
Table 16.2 Types of committee

Types of committees Function

Executive committee Is empowered to act for the general meeting

as laid down in the constitution

Standing committee Has specific and permanent responsibilities,

eg finance

Ad hoc committee Is formed for one specific purpose, then

disbanded

The executive committee usually consists of the following office-bearers:

Executive Committee

Chairperson

Vice-chairperson

Committee members Treasurer

Independent

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

Secretary Co-opted members auditor

Figure 16.1 Office-bearers of the executive committee

16.4 IMPORTANT TERMS USED AT MEETINGS

To participate meaningfully in a meeting, members need to understand and

use the terminology associated with meetings. Some typical examples are
listed below:

adjournment – postponement

affiliate – to adopt as a member of a branch, or to become closely

connected, or to associate

agenda – ‘things to be done’; order of business

amendment – alteration made or proposed to be made

attendance – list of members present

register ballot – a system of secret voting usually by means of a mark on a

prepared paper. The paper is then folded and deposited into
a box or other container

casting vote – a second vote given to the presiding officer at a meeting. This
avoids the deadlock that would otherwise ensue when the
numbers voting on each side are equal

chairperson – anyone who has been chosen to act as the leader of a group
and to preside at meetings; occupies the chair of authority

committee – a body to which others have committed or delegated a

particular duty

dissenting vote – a vote against a motion

constitution – regulations, rules, laws that govern an institution

co-opt – elect onto a body by votes of existing members

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 Chapter 16 Meetings

due notice – a written notification sent by post to the last registered

address of the person concerned at the commencement of
the period of notice required

honorary member – a person elected to privileges of membership without payment

of entrance fee or subscription. This is in recognition of
individual standing, or of some past services rendered to the
organisation

minutes – a record of the things done and the decisions reached at a

meeting; they are not intended to be a verbatim account of
the proceedings

Continue ➝

motion – a proposal moved at the meeting, which becomes a resolution when seconded
and agreed to or resolved upon

point of order – an appeal to the chairperson for his or her ruling on a matter concerning
the conduct of a meeting

precedent – a parallel case in the past that would tend to allow similar action in the future

resolution – a formal decision taken at a meeting suspension

of members – termination of membership by expulsion unanimous

– all of one mind, agreeing in opinion

Latin terminology used at meetings

addendum – appendix, addition (plural addenda or addendums) ad hoc –

arranged for a particular purpose; special ex officio – by virtue of one’s office in

camera – in private

mutatis mutandis – after making the necessary changes

nem con – (nemine contradicente) with no
one dissenting; unanimously (said after a vote
on a motion)

proxy – a legal document enabling one person to authorise another person to perform
certain functions on his or her behalf

quorum – smallest number of members who must be present at a

meeting to enable proceedings to be valid

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

verbatim – word for word

16.5 THE ROLE OF THE CHAIRPERSON AND OTHER OFFICE-BEARERS

You are already familiar with the terms chairperson, treasurer and secretary
and know that they perform specific functions. But what are their exact
functions?

To provide you with a clear picture, look at the following diagram of a

meeting as seen from above:
D
A A A A A A A A A A A
A

B C

A A
A A A A A A A A A A

Figure 16.2 Schematic seating plan of office-bearers

A – Members; B – Chairperson; C – Treasurer; D – Secretary

As you can see, the secretary (D) is seated separately from the rest of the
meeting. This is not always the case. The only reason for doing this is to free
him or her of distractions that could occur as a result of sitting next to someone.
The seating arrangement shown in the diagram works best when the minuting
secretary is experienced, and familiar with the type of business dealt with at
the meetings and the way the chairperson runs the meetings. In all other cases,
it is best for the secretary to be seated next to the chairperson. The secretary
can then ask for clarification of points when needed.

16.5.1 The chairperson

The role of the chairperson varies according to the kind of meeting held. The
chairperson’s primary role is to facilitate interaction and to direct the group
towards the meeting’s objectives. The democratic leadership style is the most
effective style, because it is likely to elicit the best contributions from the
participants (see section 2.5.4, pages 33 and 34).

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 Chapter 16 Meetings

16.5.1.1 The powers and duties of the chairperson

The powers of the chairperson:

■ to preserve and maintain order and to decide on any points of order

submitted
■ to eject person(s) obstructing the business of the meeting
■ to adjourn the meeting if it is so disorderly as to prevent the business of the
meeting from taking place.
The main duties of the chairperson:
Before the meeting:
■ Ensure that the meeting has been properly convened and constituted.
■ Draw up the agenda with the help of the secretary.
■ Prepare and be fully informed on all matters to be discussed.
During the meeting:
■ Call the meeting to order and declare it formally open.
■ Make sure that the meeting runs according to legal and
constitutional requirements.
■ Deal with items on the agenda in the order set.
■ Confirm the minutes of the previous meeting and sign them.
■ Maintain order and see that the meeting is conducted in the proper
manner.
■ Clarify and restate points that may not be clear to all members.
■ Summarise and draw conclusions from discussions.
■ Enact the role of facilitator, rather than participant, in debates.
■ Ensure the recording and exact wording of any proposals or decisions, as
well as the names of proposers and seconders.
■ Decide when a motion has been sufficiently discussed and can be put to the
vote.
■ Supervise the voting procedure.
■ Use the casting vote, if necessary.
■ Identify any action to be taken and delegate responsibilities.
■ Adjourn or close the meeting.

After the meeting:

■ Ensure that a full written record of the meeting is produced by the
secretary and circulated to each member for agreement before the next
meeting
■ Follow up on decisions and recommendations taken at the meeting and
make sure they are carried out.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

16.5.2 The secretary

The secretary is the recording officer and the custodian of the records. She or
he keeps the minute book, the attendance register and the correspondence
file.

16.5.2.1 The duties of the secretary

Before the meeting:

■ Draw up the agenda with the chairperson.

■ Send out the notice of the meeting and agenda, if necessary, to all members
in good time (see section 16.7.1, page 382 for information about notice
periods).
■ Prepare all documents and correspondence to be dealt with at the meeting,
in the order in which the items appear on the agenda.
■ Circulate documents among members, if necessary.
■ Arrange the venue and materials required.
During the meeting:
■ See that all members sign the attendance register.
■ Read the apologies of those who could not attend the meeting.
■ Collect copies of all reports for later filing.
■ Make notes on all proceedings.
■ Record all motions, proposers, seconders and resolutions.
■ Record the number of votes.
■ Record the names of those responsible for further action and the due dates.

Unless it is a very small committee meeting, the secretary takes no part in the
debates of the meeting, nor does she or he vote.
After the meeting:
■ Prepare the minutes, usually within seven days, but preferably the next day.
■ Send copies of the minutes to the chairperson to be checked.
■ File a copy of the checked minutes and send copies to the chairperson and
other members.
■ Attend to all correspondence.

16.5.3 The treasurer

The treasurer takes care of the finances of the organisation. She or he keeps
accurate records of all monetary transactions. The treasurer may have powers
concerning the funds belonging to the committee, and takes care of payments.

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 Chapter 16 Meetings

16.6 PARTICIPATION IN MEETINGS

The guidelines below provide direction for effective participation in meetings.

Observing these guidelines helps to ensure that the meeting’s objectives are
met and results are achieved.

Guidelines for participation in meetings

■ Prepare – read all documentation, including the minutes of the previous meeting, and
the agenda. Pay special attention to proposals. Prepare for and make notes on
important matters.
■ Be on time.
■ Listen actively to the chairperson and speakers (see Chapter 4).
■ Do not interrupt – indicate your desire to speak to the chairperson. Address all
comments through the chairperson.
Continue ➝
■ Be relevant – confine your input to the agenda items only.
■ Be concise – do not take up time with unnecessary comments.
■ Be objective in considering all matters – do not confine yourself to how an item affects you.
■ Be constructive in your evaluation of suggestions and proposals.
■ Ask for clarification if you are uncertain about any issue.
■ Do not be aggressive, rude or belittling.
■ Diarise all tasks allocated to you.

SUMMARY

Meetings are used as a means of making decisions, sharing information or

resolving a particular problem. A formal meeting procedure needs to be
followed to ensure that the decisions are taken by the right parties and
are recorded correctly. Meetings are divided into three main categories:
public meetings, which can be attended by members of the general public,
business meetings, which are held by profit-making organisations, and
meetings of non-profit associations, such as sport and welfare
associations.

In order to participate meaningfully in a meeting, one needs to understand

and use the terminology associated with meetings. Typical examples are
listed in section 16.4. The role and duties of the chairperson, secretary and

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

treasurer must be understood, especially if one is elected to one of these

positions. Finally, one should participate appropriately during meetings
to facilitate the achievement of results.

16.7 MEETING DOCUMENTATION

All formal meetings require three primary documents: a notice, an agenda and
minutes.

16.7.1 Notice of a meeting

■ The purpose of this formal notice is to ensure that all persons entitled to
share in the decision-making process are given proper opportunity to do so.
■ The form of the notice may vary from a formal document drawn up in legal
style to a friendly email, but the essential elements must be included. This
document is prepared by the secretary, in consultation with the
chairperson.
■ Notice is given a minimum of 21 days before an annual general meeting. If
notice is sent via the postal services, allow additional time. For other
meetings, the notice period is a minimum of 7–14 days.
A notice should contain the following items:
■ a heading – giving the name of the organisation and type of meeting
■ the address of the venue
■ the day and date of the meeting
■ the time of the meeting
■ an indication of who is invited
■ the signature and designation of the person sending out the notice
■ the telephone number(s) and address of the person sending out the notice
(this could be the address of the organisation) ■ the date that the notice was
posted ■ the purpose of the meeting.

The notice may include or be accompanied by the following:

■ a request for items to be included on the agenda
■ an agenda for the meeting.

Here is an example of a formal notice, which could be sent by email:

ABC SPORTS CLUB

NOTICE OF MEETING

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Notice is given that the monthly committee meeting of the above club will be held in
the clubhouse lounge on Wednesday 25 March 20__ at 18:30.

Z Zenzile
SECRETARY
Telephone: 041 789 3456 ( business )
041 587 5132 ( home )
O83 381 7777 (cell)
Zzenzile111@gmail.com

16 March 20__

ABC SPORTS CLUB

Usually the secretary’s Tel: 041 587 5132 21 Govan Mbeki Avenue
phone number or PORT ELIZABETH
the phone number
of the club/organisation 6001
1 February 20 __

Dear Member

Subject heading starts NOTICE OF ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

with ‘Notice of‘ and
includes the type of The fifth Annual General Meeting of the above club
meeting will be held in the clubhouse lounge on Wednesday
Always indicate the 25 March 20 __ at 18:30.
number of the AGM
The minutes of the previous meeting are enclosed.

Yours faithfully

Z Zenzile (Ms)
SECRETARY

The following example illustrates an informal notice using the letter format,
which could be sent by email:
16.7.2 The agenda
The agenda is a numbered list of items to be dealt with at the meeting in the
given order. The agenda briefly sets out the planned procedure for the meeting.
It is attached to the notice, so that members receive both together. It is
generally drawn up by the secretary, together with the chairperson.

16.7.2.1 Purposes of the agenda

■ It enables members to consider the items of business to be discussed and to
plan their contributions before the meeting.

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■ It ensures that the meeting runs smoothly and follows the prescribed order.
■ It ensures that no item is overlooked.
■ It avoids unproductive discussion about the priority of items.

The first purpose will not be served unless the agenda is clear, specific and unambiguous.
An agenda consists of the following items:
Heading
This looks similar to the heading of the notice. It is often headed Agenda and
includes:
■ the name of the association
■ the type of meeting to be held
■ the venue, day, date and time of the meeting.

Fixed items
■ Welcome
■ Apologies for absence – may be accompanied by reasons
■ Minutes of the last meeting – to recap on what was decided at the previous
meeting and to clear up any discrepancies
■ Matters arising from the previous minutes – any matters from previous
minutes that need to be discussed further
■ Correspondence – refers to both letters received and letters sent.

Particular items
■ Routine matters such as unfinished business
■ Reports and papers such as the chairperson’s report or the treasurer’s report
■ Motions – formal suggestions that need to be voted on
■ Topics for discussion – worded as specifically as possible
■ Any other business or general – gives members an opportunity to raise other
matters, usually minor, for brief discussion or as information for other
members
■ Date of the next meeting. This is an optional item as the date might not yet
be available ■ Closure.
Ending
The agenda ends, like the notice, with:
■ the name of the person compiling the agenda – usually the secretary – and
his or her designation

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ABC SPORTS CLUB

Agenda of the monthly committee meeting to be held at 12:30 on Monday
6 August 20 __ in the clubhouse lounge.
AGENDA
1 Opening and welcome
2 Attendance register
3 Apologies
4 Minutes of previous meeting
5 Matters arising
6 Correspondence
7 New business
7.1 Cost and location of new tennis courts
8 General
9 Date of next meeting (optional item)
10 Closing

Z Zenzile (Ms)
SECRETARY

14 Green Street
SUMMERSTRAND
6001
Tel: 041 587 5132
Cell: 083 381 7777
16 July 20 __

■ the telephone number and/or address of the secretary

■ the date the agenda is posted.

An example of a monthly meeting agenda is provided on the next page:

The next example illustrates a combined notice and agenda for an Annual
General Meeting.

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ABC SPORTS CLUB

Tel: (041) 587 5132 21 Govan Mbeki Avenue
Cell: 083 381 7777 PORT ELIZABETH
6001

1 February 20__

Dear Member

NOTICE OF ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

Continue ➝
16.7.2.2 Agenda with a time column

Item Time Minutes

1 Opening and welcome 09:00 2 –5 minutes

2 Attendance 09:05 2 –5 minutes

3 Apologies 09:10 2 –5 minutes

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The number of the The fifth Annual General Meeting of the ABC Sports Club
AGM is given will be held on Wednesday 25 March 20__ in the club
house lounge at 18:30.

The minutes of the previous meeting are enclosed.

Yours faithfully

Z Zenzile (Ms)
SECRETARY

AGENDA
1 Opening and welcome
2 Attendance register
3 Apologies
Note: Minutes of 4 Minutes of previous AGM
previous AGM 5 Matters arising
6 Chairperson’s report
Items 6, 7 and 8 are
AGM items only 7 Financial statements
8 Election of office-bearers
9 New business
9.1 Cost and location of new tennis courts
For motions, provide
a subheading, the full
10 Motion
wording of the motion 10.1 Appointment of new coach
in inverted commas, It is proposed ‘that Ms S Starbuck be appointed
and the names of the
as coach of the Women’s A Netball side’.
proposer and seconder
Proposer: Mr J Swift
Seconder: Ms T Little
11 General
12 Closing

Here is an example of an extract from an agenda with a time column:

4 Minutes of previous meeting 09:15 7 minutes

5 Matters arising 09:22 7 minutes

16.7.2.3 Chairperson’s agenda

A chairperson’s agenda is usually more detailed. It includes a time column
(time duration per item on agenda), a column for important details (such as

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data, statistics and figures) and an action column (notes about actions that
should be completed).

An example of an extract from a chairperson’s agenda is illustrated below:

Agenda Time Details Action

1 Opening and welcome 09:00 Dr A Nel guest speaker

2 Attendance 09:05

3 Apologies 09:10 Dr D Louw Louw: send get-well

(indisposed) card Coetzee: visit in
Mr Z Coetzee hospital
(operation)

16.7.2.4 Agenda of a special/extraordinary meeting

A special/extraordinary meeting is called to deal with an issue, for example an
emergency, which must be handled as soon as possible. The matter cannot be
delayed until the next scheduled meeting. A special meeting agenda consists
of five items only. Routine items such as Minutes of Previous Meeting are dealt
with at the next scheduled meeting. The example shows an agenda with five
items. The heading and the secretary’s details have been omitted:
1 Opening and welcome
2 Attendance register
3 Apologies
4 Point for discussion
4.1 Resignation of cricket coach 5
Closing

16.7.2.5 Motions
A motion is a formal proposal that a member submits (normally in a written
form) to a meeting for discussion and approval. Such a motion consists of two
parts – a motion proper and the motivation.
If a motion is precisely worded and well motivated, it stands a better chance of
being accepted. If the meeting accepts such a motion in principle but alters its
wording slightly, it is known as an amended motion.

The figure below illustrates the process followed in the proposal and discussion
of a motion:

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Note Proposal

Formalisation into words

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terminology O

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used for the

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recording of M

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motions o

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Figure 16.5 The process followed in the proposal and discussion of a motion

The following is an example of a motion for submission on the agenda:

7 Motions
7.1 Change of emblem
Note the use of Motion 1: ‘That the emblem of the ABC Tennis club
passive voice,
verb to be
be replaced by a strelitzia’.
(incomplete verb) Proposer: X Madwara
in the motion
Seconder: H Bouwer
Motivation: The strelitzia is a flower indigenous to the
Eastern Cape and ties up with the Eastern
Cape Tennis Association badge, which con
sists of a strelitzia set against two tennis
racquets.

The motion is numbered only if more than one motion is proposed.

If the motion is accepted, it is recorded in the minutes as a resolution and is legally
binding.
An example of a motion recorded in the minutes is provided below:

7 Motion
Motion 7.1 Change of emblem
introduced by
‘that’. Actual words
The proposal ‘that the emblem of the ABC Tennis Club
of motion placed be replaced by a strelitzia’ was accepted/defeated.
in inverted commas.
Past tense used Proposed by: X Madwara
Seconded by: H Bouwer

Voting procedures
There are several methods of voting to determine the outcome of a motion.
Here is a list of the main methods:

■ Voting by voice – also known as voting by acclamation. Each member votes

by saying ‘aye’ or ‘nay’; ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
■ Voting by show of hands – the simplest and most commonly used method.
The chairperson usually counts those in favour first and then those against
the motion.
■ Voting by division – members supporting opposing sides of the vote
congregate on different sides of the room.

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■ Voting by ballot – a blank slip of paper on which the member casts her or
his vote in writing. If the ballot is not conclusive the first time round, the
process will be repeated until a clear outcome has been reached.

■ Voting by proxy – proxy refers to a person who has been appointed to act in
another person’s place.
■ Casting vote – in a deadlock a chairperson may have a casting
(deciding) vote if the constitution allows for this.
It is of the utmost importance that the constitution be strictly upheld with regard to
voting procedures, otherwise voting or the resolutions can be declared null and void.

ABC CLUB
PROXY

I .......................................................... being a member of the above club, appoint

........................................................ as my proxy to vote on my behalf at the fifth
Annual General Meeting to be held on Wednesday, 5 December 20 __ in the
clubhouse.

Signed at ............................ on this .................... day of ...........................

Signature ...................................... Witness ...........................................

16.7.2.6 Proxy
A member may, by means of a written proxy, grant permission to another
member to take part in the proceedings of a meeting or vote on his or her
behalf.
Here is an example of a proxy:

16.7.3 Minutes of a meeting

The minutes of a meeting are a written record of the meeting’s proceedings
and resolutions. They are a summary written by the secretary from notes
taken during the meeting. Copies are usually sent to the members shortly after
the meeting (see Chapter 3, page 53, for information on note-taking).

Minutes are not intended to be a verbatim (word-for-word) account of the

proceedings. They are essentially intended to record what is decided or to be
done, not what is said.

The secretary is responsible for keeping and safeguarding the minute book and
other related records. The chairperson who presided over the meeting has the

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power to sign the minutes, thus accepting them as a correct record of the
proceedings of the meeting. She or he usually does this at the next meeting
after the minutes have been read or taken as read.

16.7.3.1 Uses of minutes

■ Minutes provide an official record of decisions reached. Once they are
confirmed, the record of decisions can be altered only by formal action.
■ They represent the history of an organisation or body and are thus useful to
new office-bearers who may not be familiar with the work done in the past.
■ They may serve as a legal document and should therefore be accurate.
■ They act as a reminder of the subjects previously discussed so that meetings
need not be taken up with repetitions.
■ They ensure that proposed actions and responsibilities are not forgotten.

16.7.3.2 Information to be included in minutes

■ the name of the organisation and details of the type of meeting
■ the day, date, time and place of the meeting
■ the names of the office-bearers and officials.

■ the names of those who attended the meeting or sufficient names to indicate
the attendance of a quorum, and apologies for absence (if lengthy, the
attendance list can be attached separately)
■ a statement that the chairperson declared the meeting duly constituted and
the time that the meeting began
■ confirmation of minutes from the previous meeting
■ matters arising from the previous minutes
■ the dates or other suitable identification of correspondence or documents
dealt with in the meeting
■ accurately identified motions and amendments
■ the exact wording of resolutions passed
■ subjects discussed (these should be given a title and sufficient description to
indicate what they were about)
■ full details of all contracts and financial matters
■ full details of appointments and authorised actions
■ a statement that the chairperson declared the meeting closed or the
proceedings terminated and the time that the meeting ended ■ the signature
and designation of the chairperson.
Minutes should be:
■ factual – opinionated debates should be left out

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■ logical – they follow the sequence and numbering of the items on the agenda
and the chronological order in which the proceedings occurred
■ written in formal register
■ written in reported speech (see section 17.4, page 409)
■ written in the past tense – as they are a record of matters that have already
happened
■ full – all decisions reached (and other points that members need to
remember) are recorded.
To select the specific details that should be recorded for items under Matters
Arising, New Business and General, ask yourself:

■ What is to be implemented (or has been decided)? – the decision

■ Who is to see to the implementation? – the person responsible
■ Whose suggestion/idea is it, where applicable? – the proposer
■ How is it to be implemented, where applicable? – the implementation plan
Continue ➝
■ When is the due date? – the deadline
■ Where is it to take place, if applicable? – the venue ■
How much will it cost, if applicable? – the price.
The minutes may also include appendices such as copies of reports or papers
delivered at the meeting.

An example of the format of a formal set of minutes is provided below as a

general guideline. The example shows an action column. The initials of the

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person(s) responsible for a task, together with the deadline for completion, are
recorded in

the action column:

ABC SPORTS CLUB Action

column
Minutes of the monthly committee meeting
held in the clubhouse lounge on Wednesday
Use past 25 August 20__ at 18:30
tense and 1 Opening and welcome
the third
person
The chairperson opened the meeting at 18:35
and welcomed all members. A special word of
Time at which the welcome was extended to Ms S Watson, who
meeting opened had been ill.
is recorded
2 Attendance register
Start with
chairperson and
Ms S Mxenge (Chairperson)
end with minuting Ms T Naidoo (Treasurer)
secretary Mr J Richards
Ms S Watson
Mr H Williams
Ms Z Zenzile (Secretary)

Recording the reason 3 Apologies

for non-attendance is Apologies were received from Ms R Kumile,
optional who was on a training course.

If an item in the 4 Minutes of previous meeting

minutes of the The minutes of the previous meeting held on
previous meeting has 22 July were taken as read.
not been minuted
correctly, it has to 4.1 Ms Watson pointed out that her apologies
be corrected before had not been noted.
the minutes can be
approved 4.2 Mr Richards reported that the new
clubhouse would cost R350 000 and not
R250 000.

Continue➝
After correction of the errors, the minutes Action were approved and
signed by the chair column
person. Confirmation of the minutes was proposed
by Ms Naidoo and seconded by Mr Williams
5 Matters arising
Reported speech
usage requires a 5.1 Correspondence received from XYZ Sports subject followed by Club
an appropriate verb Ms Zenzile reported that the XYZ Sports and the conjunction Club
had accepted the invitation to the

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‘that’
Inter-Provincial Tournament to be held from 4 to 6
November. Ms Zenzile undertook to make hotel
bookings for 20 visitors. She
would report her progress to the chairper ZZ
son before 14 September. 14 / 9
5.2 New facilities
Use full sentences Mr Richards reported that the plans for the new facilities had
been drawn up and sent to the quantity surveyors
for costing prior to submission to the committee.
The facilities would include: two squash courts, a
circuit room and showers. The equipment suppliers,
Sportage, would be submitting a list
of suggested equipment and prices to him JR before 7 September.
7/9

6 New Business
Each item under
New Business has a 6.1 Purchase of new tennis balls
number and Mr H Williams reported that he had subheading obtained three quotations for
purchasing
tennis balls. The following quotations (per dozen Tip-top
balls) include VAT:
Price Shop A: (expensive)
Shop B: (average)
Shop C: ( cheapest )
Decision: phrased in
the active voice. Per The committee decided to order 12 dozen ten -
son responsible nis balls from Shop C. Mr H Williams would HW
Deadline deal with the matter before 5 September. 5/9

7 Motions
7.1 Appointment of coach
The proposal ‘that Ms S Starbuck be appointed as coach of the
Women’s A
Use the past tense Netball team’ was accepted. Proposed by:
Mr J Richards Seconded by: Ms S Watson

Continue ➝

8 General
8.1 Fund-raising walk
Ms T Naidoo reminded members of the fund-
raising walk to be held by Greyhounds Sports
Club at the Westbourne Oval at 9:00 on 3
September 20__.

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If all items on the 9 Closure

agenda of the meeting
There being no further business to discuss, the
have not been dealt
chairperson closed the meeting at 20:00.
with in the allotted
time, the words
adjourned or ___________ ____________
postponed are used Chairperson Secretary
instead of closed
___________
Date

SUMMARY

All formal meetings require three primary documents: a notice, an agenda and
minutes.

The purpose of the notice is to ensure that all persons entitled to share in the
decision-making process are given the opportunity to do so. The notice consists
of a number of important elements.

The agenda briefly sets out the projected procedure and business for the
meeting. It enables members to consider the items of business to be discussed
and to plan their contributions before the meeting. The agenda is attached to
the notice, so that members receive both together. It is generally drawn up by
the secretary, together with the chairperson. The chairperson usually has a
more detailed agenda.

A motion is a formal proposal that a member submits to the meeting for

discussion and approval. It usually consists of two parts: the actual motion and
the motivation behind it.

The minutes of a meeting are a written record of the proceedings and

resolutions of a meeting. They are written by the secretary from notes taken
during the meeting. Copies are sent to the members shortly after the meeting.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Name and differentiate between the three types of meeting.

2 Name any three types of general meeting and their particular function.
3 Answer True or False to each of the following:
3.1 A standing committee has specific and permanent responsibilities.
3.2 An executive committee is formed for one specific purpose and then
disbanded after it has served its function.

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3.3 An ad hoc committee is empowered to act for the general meeting as

laid down in the constitution of the organisation.
4. Give the terms for the following:
4.1 all in agreement
4.2 word for word
4.3 a second vote to the presiding officer 4.4 a vote against a motion
4.5 in private.
5 Match each of the following terms to the appropriate definition:
5.1 quorum A elect onto body by votes of existing
members
5.2 co-opt B formal decision
5.3 ad hoc C smallest number of members who must
be present for a meeting to take place
5.4 agenda D arranged for a specific purpose
5.5 resolution E order of business
6 Provide five guidelines for participation by members in a meeting.
7 What is the purpose of the notice of a meeting?
8 What is an agenda?
8.1 List the main reasons for having an agenda for a meeting. 9
What is meant by ‘voting by proxy’?
10 Answer True or False to each of the following statements. Give a reason
for your answer:
10.1 Minutes are a word-for-word account of the proceedings of a meeting.
10.2 Minutes are written in the past tense.
10.3 Minutes are circulated as soon as possible after the meeting.
10.4 Minutes can be altered after the chairperson has signed the minutes.
10.5 The secretary has sole responsibility for the correctness and
completeness of the minutes.
APPLICATION

1 You have been appointed chairperson of a group. You have to run an

Annual General Meeting. What would your duties be? What would the
duties of the secretary and the treasurer be?
2 Refer to Figure 16.2 on page 379.
2.1 Drawing on your knowledge of styles of leadership (Chapter 2),
indicate how the seating plan could be arranged to accommodate an
autocratic leader and a democratic leader. Pay particular attention to
the position of the chairperson.

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3 Identify the small group member role (group task role, group maintenance
role, individual role) in each of the following scenarios:
3.1 A participant cracks jokes and is generally uncooperative.
3.2 A participant is supportive and constructive and encourages
participation by all members of the group.
3.3 A participant focuses on completing the task and discourages
discussion that is general. He or she is very aware of time passing.
4 The informal notice and agenda below have been incorrectly drafted.
4.1 Redraft them to conform with the requirements for meeting
documentation.

Box
123

CAPE
TOWN

8000
17 September 20__
Dear member

The next monthly

meeting of our club is to
be held on Monday, 25
September. The minutes
of the previous meeting
are enclosed.

Yours sincerely
R Strelitz

Agenda
1 Opening and
welcome
2 Minutes of
previous meeting
3 Matters arising
4 Points for
discussion a Tour b

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Equipment c
Advertising
5 General
5 Draft the formal notice of meeting and agenda for the AGM of your club,
the Student Social Club. Make sure that the date for your meeting fits in
with due notice requirements (see page 382 for information about notice
periods). The chairperson has received the following motion, which is to be
included on the agenda:

MOTION

Increase in club subscriptions

‘That annual subscriptions be increased by R25,00 to R100,00’.

Proposer: L Godwana
Seconder: P van Niekerk

Motivation
Subscriptions have not been increased for five years. Current subscriptions barely cover the
club’s running expenses. If the club is to continue to offer a service to students, an increase in
subscriptions is necessary.

You also need to place an item on the agenda under New Business regarding
the lease of the club’s premises.

6 You are the secretary of your institution’s Ballroom Dance Club. The
committee has been requested to call a special meeting of all members to
discuss the building of a dance centre on the campus.
6.1 Draft the informal notice and agenda of the meeting.
7 You are the secretary of the Student Social Club. At the committee meeting
of your club that took place at 19:00 on Friday, 27 October 20__, these were
the items on the agenda:

1 Opening and welcome

2 Attendance register
3 Apologies
4 Minutes of previous meeting
5 Matters arising
5.1 End-of-year party
6 New business
6.1 Club marketing
7 General

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8 Closing
Here are the notes that you took during the meeting:

1 Meeting opened at 19:05

2 P Sesing in chair, R Smith, U Mbandla, S Pillay, R Naidoo, and me
3 B Green – hospital
4 Minutes of meeting of 25/9 taken as read
Correction – R Smith said Refreshments Committee met Sept 10 not 05
5 S Pillay reported – end-of-yr party – 15 Dec – at Top Spot – R500 per couple
6 R Naidoo to take charge of marketing – to devise advert to market club – present ad at
next meeting (25 Nov)
7 U Mbandla – reminder about book sale – 5 Nov outside library from 9 a.m.
8 Close – 20:10

7.1 On the basis of the above notes, draft a full set of minutes, using formal
minuting format.
8 Before the AGM of the Stylish Students’ Society, IM Kyute submitted a
motion to the chairperson in which she suggested that a prize should be
awarded for the best-dressed student every week. The motion was
seconded by UR Smart.
8.1 Write the motion as it would have been submitted to the chairperson.
8.2 Rewrite the motion as it would appear in the minutes of the meeting
if the society had voted against it.
9 Present at the meeting of the Global University Engineering Society (or
Management or Hospitality or any other suitable society) are chairperson
Erna Scheepers, Vuyisa Beyi, Mandisa Mali and Grant Smith. The item
under discussion on the agenda is as follows:

6 New Business
6.1 Recruitment of new members

Below is a transcript (a word-for-word record) of the discussion about this item.

9.1 Read through the transcript and then underline or highlight the
details that should be recorded. Refer to pages 391– 392 for
information about the selection of details for minutes.
9.2 Draft the minute for this item only. Headings and other items are not
required.

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Chairperson:
The next item on the agenda is about recruiting new members.
Membership has fallen dramatically in recent months and we need
to do something about increasing membership.

Vuyisa: Everything’s about the Internet these days. I think we should set up
a website. Two pages should be sufficient – home page and contact
page. I’m willing to do it.

Chairperson: What a good idea. Could you circulate a draft of the web pages, say,
two days before the next meeting on 2 November? Then members
can give their feedback at the meeting.

Vuyisa: Sure, I’ll circulate the draft on 31 October.

Mandisa: What about advertising in the student newspaper?

Grant: Nice idea – everyone reads it.

Chairperson: Mandisa, could you approach the publishers for details about costs
and deadlines and report back to the next meeting?

Mandisa: Fine.

10 Group assignment: in groups of five or six, decide on a club or business.

Then complete the following tasks.
10.1 Set up and type out an agenda for a monthly committee meeting.
Include one item under Matters Arising and two items of New
Business.
10.2 Type out a formal notice of meeting.
10.3 Allocate the position of chairperson.
10.4 Role-play the meeting (refer to page 379 for information about the role
of the chairperson and page 381 for information about participation in
meetings). All members should take notes.
10.5 Each member writes up the minutes of the meeting. Members should
compare minutes to ensure that an accurate record is produced.

Note: The meeting could be filmed to assess whether:

a correct meeting procedure was followed b the
chairperson enacted the role appropriately c
members participated appropriately.

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11 In groups of three or four, discuss ways in which the chairperson of a

meeting could ensure the following:
11.1 Members arrive punctually for the meeting.
11.2 Discussions are participative.
11.3 The time frame for agenda items is adhered to.
11.4 Members keep to the point.
11.5 The objectives of the meeting are met.
12 Tension and conflict are often experienced in meetings. This can be
exciting and energising, but they can also impact negatively on the team’s
progress and morale (see section 2.8.2 for strategies to deal with conflict).
12.1 How would you, as Chairperson, manage the following potentially
negative situations?
a During the discussion of a particular item on the agenda, two
participants whisper and pass notes to each other.
b One of the participants dominates the discussion in a
patronising and somewhat aggressive tone.
c During the discussion on the choice of a venue for the
forthcoming conference, one of the participants says nothing but
rolls her eyes. d One of the participants responds in the
following way:
Anna: ‘But that’s unfair. How can you expect us to have the A
team kit ready by 17 May? You are ignoring all the obstacles
we’ve had to face and making my department look incompetent.’

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Grammar in Use

OBJECTIVES

For messages to be truly professional, they also need to be correct in

terms of grammar, spelling and punctuation. Assistance with spelling
and punctuation can be found with spell-check or various online guides,
but grammar help is more difficult to find. This chapter focuses on
grammar in written messages. Using a question-and-answer format, the
chapter reviews many of the issues that language users raise. This leads
to a brief discussion of some of the errors that are commonly found in
business documents in the South African setting.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to revise your messages for:
■ sentence structure
■ subject–verb agreement
■ pronoun concord
■ correct use of the past tenses
■ direct and reported speech
■ countable and uncountable nouns with articles
■ the use of prepositions
■ correct noun plural formation
■ correct use of the apostrophe
■ an appropriately polite tone.

INTRODUCTION

These grammar questions are frequently raised by speakers of all languages

in South Africa who want to improve their professional communication in the
business world.

Q How can I improve my English?

 Chapter 17 Grammar in Use

A The way to improve your English is to read and speak the language as
often as possible. It is also important to be alert to the language usage of
others. Take note of how their usage of a particular sentence pattern
might be different from yours. Then keep looking out for that pattern
until you have worked out the correct usage.
Every communicator should own a good dictionary, a thesaurus and a
guide to English usage. These can be obtained from any academic
bookshop. MS Word offers some support, as do numerous online sites.

Q Yes, but isn’t there a short cut?

A In a way, there is a short cut. Keep your sentences simple and fairly short
(15–18 words on average), as discussed in Chapter 7. Long sentences are
very difficult to control. They are also more difficult to understand. When
writers keep their sentences short and use simple words, many of the
problems of language usage are reduced.
In addition, use numbered or bulleted points whenever this is
appropriate, such as for the supporting details in a direct plan message,
or the findings in a report. In this way, smaller units are managed, rather
than connected sentences in a paragraph. It is then easier for you to get
the grammar correct and easier for your audience to read your document.

Q When should I check my language usage?

A The revising/editing stage of writing is the time to check your grammar. If
you worry about sentence structure while you are composing your
message, the flow of your thinking and writing will be interrupted. Once
you are happy with the content and organisation of your message, you
can proceed to the final stage – checking grammar, punctuation and
spelling.

Q What should I look out for?

A This question needs an extensive answer. It will, therefore, be answered
in sections that deal with complete sentences, concord, tense, articles,
prepositions, plural formation, apostrophes and tone. Your first concern
should be to write complete sentences.

17.1 COMPLETE SENTENCES

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Q What is a complete sentence?

A In English, every sentence must have at least one subject with its verb. A
sentence with one subject and one verb is called a simple sentence.
For example:
One company employs many people.
If a sentence does not contain a verb with a subject, it is not a sentence.
For example:
Thanking you is not a sentence, because there is no subject.
A useful structure is to start your sentences with the subject.
For example:
More than 500 students in the Arts Faculty attended orientation this year.
Alternatively, you can place an adverb or an adverbial phrase before the
subject:
This year, more than 500 students in the Arts Faculty attended orientation.
If you want to link the sentence to something that has gone before, start with
a transitional expression before the subject.
However, we are not sure that this will continue.
A complex sentence has a main clause and at least one subordinate clause.
Each subordinate clause depends on the main or another clause in the
sentence. Subordinate clauses, therefore, have to be connected to the clauses
on which they depend. This is done by means of connectors such as who,

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whom, that, when, Don’t forget that each sentence starts with a capital letter
and ends with a full stop.

what, as, because, why, although, since.

main clause subordinate clause

The university will be at full capacity when enrolment has reached 11 000
students.

(This sentence has two clauses. The dependent clause is connected to the main
clause by when .)

It is incorrect to write:

subordinate clause subordinate clause

As we all know that cellphones are expensive.

This sentence has two subordinate clauses, connected by means of as and that .
It has no main clause.

The sentence can be corrected as follows:

subordinate clause main clause

As we all know, cellphones are expensive.

OR

subordinate clause subordinate clause main clause

As we all know that cellphones are expensive, we will not be able to provide
one for you this year.

17.2 CONCORD

Q I’ve heard that concord is important, but what is concord?

A Concord means that certain grammatical items agree with each other.
Check that all subjects and verbs are in concord, and that pronouns are
correctly used. This is explained below.

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17.2.1 Subject–verb concord

A singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural
verb:
She sells computers for a living. (Add ‘-s’ to the verb if the subject is singular.
This applies to the third person only.)
They sell computers for a living. (No ‘-s’ if the verb is plural.)
With all verbs except be, the question of number concord arises only in the
present tense (see section 17.3 below).

A collective phrase/clause acting as subject counts as singular. So: To

treat staff inconsiderately is unacceptable.

The following pronouns are singular and take singular verbs:

Each, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no one,
nobody, one, another, anything, either, neither Either of the men is an
excellent choice for manager.

Each organisation has its own problems.

Everyone is entitled to a day off.

17.2.2 Notional concord

Sometimes, the singular form of a noun can be treated as plural:
The public are getting tired of these demonstrations.
This happens when the verb agrees with the notion or idea of plural in the
group noun public, rather than the actual singular form of the noun. Note,
however, that a group noun can also be treated as singular:
The public is getting tired of these demonstrations.
17.2.3 Concord with coordinated subjects
When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases coordinated by ‘and’,
the verb is in the plural.
Monday and Tuesday are very busy for me.
Professionalism and dedication are considered important in this company.
But,
Macaroni and cheese is easy to make
Bacon and egg is my favourite breakfast.

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In these examples, the singular verb is used because the nouns coordinated
by ‘and’ are thought of as one item.

17.2.4 Pronoun concord

A pronoun that refers back to a singular noun phrase is in the singular; one
that refers back to a plural noun phrase is in the plural.
She lost her books. They lost their books.
Incorrect: Each student must look after their books.
Correct: Students must look after their books.
Correct: Each student must look after his or her books. (But this can become
clumsy; therefore, the first correct version is better.)
Use a pronoun only once you have established the referent (person or object
to whom or which the pronoun refers):
Thank you for ordering 10 printers from us. We will deliver them to you in
the morning.
Remember that in English, a woman is referred to by the pronouns she, her
and hers and a man by he, him and his.

17.3 TENSE

Q What are the different past tenses in English and when should each be
used?

A The past tenses used most often are:

Past simple: I studied ...
Past continuous/progressive: I was studying ...
Present perfect: I have studied ...
Past perfect: I had studied ...
17.3.1 Past simple (‘I studied‘)
This tense fulfills the following main functions:

■ It refers to completed actions of short duration. For example:

I read your report last week last week now future

■ It refers to events or actions of longer duration that took place in the past.
For example:

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I studied at Top College between 2011 and

2014.now future
2011 2014
■ It refers to repeated actions in the past. For
example: He attempted the course several times.
now
future
■ It is a ‘narrative’ tense in that it is used in stories to tell about events and
states of affairs in the past. For example:
Once upon a time, there was a sangoma who lived deep in the bush. One
day, a young girl went to see her to ...

The past simple tense is the most widely used tense to express ‘pastness’ in
English. It is usually used in conjunction with adverbs/ adverbial phrases of
time, such as yesterday, last week, a few days ago and so on.

17.3.2 Past continuous/progressive (‘I was studying‘)

The progressive is used to suggest action which is in progress, but which is
also temporary in nature.

The past progressive is seldom used in English on its own. Instead:

■ It is used together with the past simple to refer to an action that was going
on when another action occurred. For example:
I was reading your report when the telephone interrupted me.
now
future
telephone
■ It is used to refer to an action that was happening at the same time as
another action. For example:
While I was reading the report, I was making notes in the margin.
reading now
future
making notes
■ It is used to refer to an action that occurred at a specific point in time in the
past. In such cases, it is usually used with adverbs/ adverbial phrases such
as at that moment. For example:
At that moment, the delegates were filing into the hall.
were filing now

future
moment

( This last rule also applies to the use of the present continuous tense. )

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■ It is important to note that in English duration can also be expressed by

the past simple together with an adverb/adverbial phrase of time, such as
for many years, throughout the day and continuously. For example: She
stayed at her desk throughout the day.

17.3.3 Present perfect (‘I have studied’)

This tense is used to express:
■ past actions that still have a connection with the present. For example:
Jane has handed in her report and is ready to begin her next assignment.
They have worked together since 2012.
The connection between the action conveyed in the present perfect and the
present (now) is shown diagrammatically as follows:

Past Now Future

The meaning conveyed in the first example is that the handing in of the
report has connections with the present, because the report is now in her
supervisor’s hands and Jane is ready to begin her next assignment. In the
second example, the meaning conveyed is that they have worked together
from 2012 up until now (and are still working together).
Because of its link with the present, the present perfect is not used with
adverbs/adverbial phrases of time referring to a definite past such as
yesterday, last week, in 2013 and so on.
Incorrect: She has completed the project last week.
Correct: She has recently completed the project and is now ready to start
another.
Correct: She completed the project last week.
■ The present perfect can be used to describe life experiences, for
example: I have been to China.

I have visited the Cango Caves.

17.3.4 Past perfect (‘I had studied’)
The past perfect is used:
■ in conjunction with the past simple and refers to a time that occurred
before the time that is referred to in the past simple. For example:
The economy was very bad that year. Many businesses had gone
insolvent by the time conditions improved.

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The past simple can also be used for both events, in which case a
conjunction is used to show which event was the earlier one. For
example:
Many businesses went insolvent before conditions improved.
■ in reported speech to distinguish different past event times. For example:

The receptionist said that the CEO had just left the office.
The connection between the past perfect and the past simple is shown
diagrammatically as follows:

Past CEO left said Now Future

Adapted from Pretorius (1994)

For a full discussion of the English tense system, refer to a guide such as
Leech and Swartvik (2003).

17.4 DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

Q How do we give information about what people say or think?

A When we talk or write about what someone else has said, we use direct
speech for their exact words, or reported speech when we make slight
changes.

17.4.1 Direct (or quoted) speech

Saying exactly what someone said is called direct speech. What a person
says appears within quotation marks and should be verbatim or word for
word.

He said, ”I will see you at the meeting.” or ”I

will see you at the meeting,” he said.

Usually, double quotation marks are used.

17.4.2 Reported (or indirect) speech

Reported speech does not use quotation marks to enclose what the person
said and it has a similar wording to the original. However, certain changes
are made.

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17.4.2.1 Tense changes

When we report speech, the tense usually changes to the past tense. This is
because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in
the past when the person spoke. The tense changes are shown below.

Direct speech Reported speech

Present simple Past simple

She said, ‘It is time to start the meeting.’ She said that it was time to start the
meeting.

Present continuous Past continuous

She said, ‘I am looking forward to the She said that she was looking forward to
meeting.’ the meeting.

Present perfect Past perfect

She said, ‘I have been a member since She said that she had been a member since
January.’ January.

Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous

She said, ‘I have been phoning the She said that she had been phoning the
contractor every day.’ contractor every day.

Past simple Past perfect

She said, ‘I attended the meeting.’ She said that she had attended the
meeting.

Past perfect NO CHANGE

She said, ‘The meeting had already started She said that the meeting had already
when he arrived.’ started when he arrived.

Past perfect continuous NO CHANGE

She said, ‘I had already been speaking for She said that she had already been
five minutes.’ speaking for five minutes.

Sentences in the passive voice also change tense, for example:

She said, ‘I was informed earlier.’ She said that she had been informed
earlier.

17.4.2.2 Modal verb changes

Modal verb forms also change sometimes:

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■ will changes to would

■ can changes to could

Note: There is no change to: could, would, should, might and ought.

■ must changes to had to

■ shall changes to should
■ may changes to might.

17.4.2.3 Time changes

If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, it must be changed to
fit in with the time of reporting.

Here are some examples of expressions of time:

Direct speech Reported speech

this (afternoon) that (afternoon)

today yesterday

these (days) those (days)

now then

(a week) ago ( a week) before

last weekend the weekend previous

before/the weekend

next (week) the following (week)

17.4.2.4 Pronoun changes

In reported speech, the pronoun usually changes to the third person, for
example
‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’, ‘they’.

17.4.2.5 Reporting verbs

‘Said’, ‘told’ and ‘asked’ are the most common introductory verbs used in
reported speech. However, there are many other verbs that can be used, which

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make the reported speech more interesting. Examples include: ‘ordered’,

‘advised’, ‘suggested’, ‘invited’.

17.4.2.6 Use of ‘that’ in reported speech

The subordinating conjunction ‘that’ is usually used to introduce the reported

Note: ‘That’ is not used in questions. Instead, we use ‘if’ or ‘whether’.

words.

For example: He said, ‘I will be late for the meeting’. becomes: He told me that
he would be late for the meeting.
For example: Thandi asked, ‘Can you attend the meeting for me?’ becomes:
She asked me if I could attend the meeting for her.

17.4.2.7 Reported speech in minute writing

The following are examples of notes taken by a secretary during a meeting,
6 New Business
6.1 Henry got 3 quotes for tennis balls today.
which are then converted into reported speech. Note the tense, pronoun and
time changes of minutes (see page 394).

Here are the notes as they appear in the secretary’s notebook.

Here are the notes, rewritten in the minutes. The secretary has used
8 General
8.1 Fund-raising walk
Toni – fund raising walk at Greyhounds – Westbourne Oval – 3 September – join in

6 New Business
6.1 Quotation for tennis balls
Mr H Williams (title, family name, third person) reported (introductory verb in the
past tense) that (use of ‘that’ before reported words) he (personal pronoun in the
third person) had obtained (past perfect tense) three quotations for purchasing
tennis balls that day/on 25 March 20__ (today becomes that day, but specific date
more suitable for minutes).
reported speech.

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8 General
8.1 Fund-raising walk
Ms T Naidoo (title, initial, family name, third person) reminded (introductory verb in
the past tense) members of the fund-raising walk to be held by Greyhounds Sports
Club at the Westbourne Oval at 9:00 on 3 September 20__. She also encouraged
(simple past tense) members to participate (more formal word than join in).

Here is another example taken from the minutes on page 395. The secretary’s
original notes are in the box below.

In the minutes, the secretary has used reported speech:

17.5 NOUNS AND ARTICLES

Q What is meant by ‘countable’ and ‘uncountable’ nouns? A

Nouns can be divided into:
■ those that are separate units and can be counted, such as girl, boy, desk,
letter. These nouns can take the plural form
■ those that are thought of as continuous or mass entities and cannot be
counted.
These include:
❏ mass nouns, typically substances, such as butter, water, smoke, oil

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❏ abstract nouns, which name qualities – honesty; or feelings –

■ Uncountable nouns are singular.

Note: Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, with, usually, some difference
in meaning:
I’d like a cake.

I’d like some cake.

I’d like three ice-creams for three children.

love.
Because most uncountable nouns are singular, it is correct to write:

We conducted some research (not some researches). He

gave advice on study methods. (not advices or an advice)
We have a lot of homework (not homeworks) today.
In English, nouns are often preceded by an article. English has two articles,
the indefinite article a (a book) or an (an eye) and the definite article the
(the book).

Here are the general rules for the use of articles:

■ The indefinite article is used when the noun is first mentioned.

We need to call a meeting about our sales figures.
■ The definite article is used to refer to a specific example that has already
been established.
(The meeting should include representatives from all the regions.

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■ The indefinite article is used with countable nouns, (a plate, a pen an

elephant); never with uncountable nouns (not a homework or an
information).
■ The definite article can be used with countable and uncountable nouns
(the plate fell, or the homework was difficult).
■ The indefinite article is used to express indefinite meaning of singular
countable nouns:
a message a manager a test
She sent a message to her parents at home. The message said that she
needed more money.
■ Some is used to express indefinite meaning both of plural
countable nouns and of uncountable nouns. Plural countable nouns:

(some) messages(some) managers ( some)

Uncountable nouns: tests
(some) gold (some) knowledge ( some)
milk
■ Sometimes with uncountable nouns it is not necessary to use the definite
article (the) or some. For example, Career counselling offers advice and
information about various career options.

17.6 PREPOSITIONS

Q What is the role of prepositions in distinguishing between time and place?

A In business messages, it is often necessary to refer to time and place. Below
are some guidelines for the main ways prepositions are used to express time
and place.
17.6.1 References to time
Clock time: at 10:00, at noon
Days: on Monday, on the following day
Other periods: in/during the morning/April/the winter/the 21st century
For periods identified by their beginning and ending points, between or from
... to/ until is used.
Between 1948 and 1994, many people feared that change would never take
place.

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From 1948 to/until 1994, many people feared that change would never take
place.
The difference between in time and on time can best be understood by looking
at an example:
We got to the movies in time to buy a Coke before the show started. (We had
enough time and even some to spare.)
We got to the movies on time, just as the film was just starting. (We got there
at the exact time required.)

17.6.2 References to place

Q Are there any other guidelines on the use of prepositions?
A When we refer to places, the way we see an object often determines the
choice of prepositions. We can also divide prepositions into at-type, on-
type and in-type prepositions. When we refer to places, the choice of
preposition is often determined by the way we see an object, as follows:

17.6.2.1 At-type prepositions

The place is seen as a point (identified quite generally, without being thought
of in terms of length, width or height).
1 We went to town.
2 We remained at home.
3 I have come from the taxi rank. 4 They stayed away from home.

If x is a point, then:

to at (away) from away from

• •
1 2 3 4
17.6.2.2 On-type prepositions
The place is seen as a line (in terms of length, but not breadth or height).

on(to) on off off across, over along

•
•
1 2 3 4 5 6

1 The car drove back onto the road.

2 The company headquarters was at a town on the Vaal River.

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3 The taxi turned off Admiralty Drive into University Way.

4 The ship sank off the coast of Sri Lanka.
5 He walked across the street.
6 The power was off in houses along Smith Street.
17.6.2.3 On-type prepositions: surface
The place is seen as a surface (in terms of length and width, but not height or
depth). The surface is often seen as the top of some object, such as a table or
a counter.

on(to) on off off across, over through

•
•
1 2 3 4 5 6

1 The book fell onto the floor.

2 Read the label on the bottle.
3 The book fell off the table.
4 We visited a remote place right off the map.
5 They walked across the veld.
6 He looked through the window.
17.6.2.4 In-type prepositions: area
The place is seen as an area (usually an area of ground or territory enclosed
by boundaries).
in(to) in out of out of through

• •

1 2 3 4 5

1 Crowds poured into the city for the elections.

2 They had found a suitable apartment in Hillbrow.
3 The goods were smuggled out of the country.
4 He stayed out of the district.
5 We walked through the town.
17.6.2.5 In-type prepositions: volume
The place is seen as a volume (in terms of length, width and height).
in(to) in out of out of through

• •
1 2 3 4 5

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1 He ran into the house.

2 The book is in my briefcase.
3 She got out of the water.
4 He was out of the room when it happened.
5 The wind blew through the trees.
When a building is thought of as an institution rather than simply as a
place, use at.
She is studying at the university.
You can buy stamps at the post office.
Slightly adapted from Leech & Svartvik (2003:94–95)

17.6.3 Preposition ‘help list’

Over-work results in (not to) stress. results in

He is prejudiced against women. prejudiced against

With regard/reference to your letter of 21 May 20__. with reference to

I saw the book advertised in your catalogue. advertised in

I would like to ask about your printing service. ask about

Please deliver the goods to the following address. deliver to

Sandy works for ABC Radio/the government. works for

This idea is different from (not to) that one in several respects. different from

His opinion is similar to mine similar to

This idea corresponds to that one. corresponds to

I have done the work in accordance with your instructions. accordance with

Share the work between the two of you. share between two

Continue ➝
Share the work among the three (or more) of you. share among three

We need to talk about the matter. talk about

What are your views on the matter? views on

Could you please look into the matter? look into

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We voted against/for the motion. voted against/for

The rules provide for a casting vote. provide for

The committee members were provided with stationery. provided with

17.7 PLURAL FORMATION

Q How are plurals formed in English?

*Exceptions to note are: woman – women; man – men; child – children; memorandum –
memoranda (or memorandums); addendum – addenda (or addendums); criterion – criteria

A In English, the plural* is formed by adding ‘-s’ to the word (girl – girls),
sometimes with spelling changes (lady – ladies). Writers often forget to
write plurals correctly – probably because in their own language plurals
are formed in a different way. Therefore, check the plural words in your
message for the ‘-s’ and adjust the spelling, if necessary.

17.8 THE APOSTROPHE

Q When should the apostrophe be used?

A There are two reasons to use the apostrophe in English:
■ to indicate that a letter has been omitted(she is – she’s, or it is – it’s).
When two words are joined together, this is referred to as a contraction.
■ to indicate possession (the book of the boy becomes the boy’s book or the
inquiries of the students becomes the students’ inquiries).
■ As the examples show, the possessive – ownership – is indicated by:

❏ adding an apostrophe + s after a singular noun (the boy ’s book

refers to a book belonging to a particular boy)
❏ adding an apostrophe after plural nouns where the plural is formed by
adding ‘s’ (the students’ enquiries refers to enquiries made by more than
one student)

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❏ adding an apostrophe + s after plural nouns where the plural form

does not end with ‘s’ (women – women’s and children – children’s).
In the case of singular nouns that have a final syllable beginning and ending
with ‘s’ such as Moses, the ‘s’ is omitted as it is awkward to pronounce – Moses’
book.
The apostrophe is never used for pronoun possession (the food is his, hers, its,
theirs).
The apostrophe is never used to indicate the plural.

17.9 TONE

Q Why is tone important in business messages?

A Tone is important, because writers should sound pleasant and friendly.
The tone of messages is particularly important when you have to ask the
reader for something or to do something. Examples are job application
letters and letters requesting information. Check that you have worded
your requests in a way that will be seen as polite.
Modal verbs such as could and would are useful for conveying a polite tone.
The past tense form is a courteous way of telling or asking someone to do

■ I would (not will) like to apply for the position of ...

■ Please could you send me ...
■ Please would you let me know if ...
■ I would appreciate it if you would send me the ...
■ I would be glad of the opportunity to attend an interview.
■ I would be grateful if you would let me know ...
something.

At the end of a report, it is usual to make recommendations. A polite way to

word a recommendation is to include the verb should, such as ‘The cost of
extending the buildings should (not must) be investigated’.

17.10 MISCELLANEOUS

Q Is there anything else I should remember?

A Take note of these additional points:

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The report would have (not of) been ready if it had not been for ...
The report could have (not of) been completed if it had not been for ...

Checklist
Before sending your message, check that:

■ sentences are complete

■ subjects and verbs agree
■ pronouns are in agreement
■ verbs convey the intended meaning
■ tense, time and pronoun changes have been made for reported speech
■ articles are used where needed
■ prepositions are correct
■ plurals have been formed correctly
■ apostrophes have been correctly used
■ requests and enquiries have been politely worded ■
spelling and punctuation are correct.
( Check perfect tense formation in any guide to tense usage. )
They were going to (not gonna) sell the idea to their
competitors.

We want to (not wanna) ... proceed with the project immediately.

(The above errors result from focusing on the spoken form rather than the
written form.)
These (not this) books are the ones I need.
( ‘Books’ is plural, therefore, the plural form ‘these’ is needed. )
Some (not other) people work hard; others do not.

( Some ... others is correct usage. )

We were very (not very much) pleased with your report.

Once you are happy that all the technicalities are correct, your message is
ready to be sent.

HERE IS A LIST Of RECOMMENDED READING:

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Fowler, HW 1983. Fowler’s modern English usage. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.
Roma, K & Raphaelson, J 2000. Writing that works. 3rd ed. New York:
HarperCollins. (Note: A text on writing style and written messages, which
contains a section on commonly confused words, with clear explanations)
Strunk W, Jr, & White, E 1999. The elements of style. 4th ed. London: Macmillan.
Useful websites to visit are:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ (Note: Clear explanations and examples with
printfriendly pages available)
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/ (Note: Clear explanations followed by
some applications)
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/ (Note: Comprehensive, with notes on
differences between British and American usage)
Useful web pages to visit are:
http://www.bartleby.com/141 (Note: The online version of William Strunk Jr’s
classic, The elements of style)
http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/grammar_topics.php (Note:
Alphabetically organised. Explanations show differences in form and
meaning)
http://english-zone.com/index.php?ID=2 (Note: Many American examples;
you need to become a member to access all the pages)

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Which two elements are essential in a complete sentence?

2 Which of the following take singular verbs?
a everyone
b we c they
d others.
3 What does concord mean?
4 Which tense is used to tell stories in the past?
5 Which past tense is used for events that happened before other events in
the past?
6 What kind of speech is used in minute writing?
7 Which article can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns?
8 What is the difference between ‘on time’ and ‘in time’?
9 What are the two reasons for using the apostrophe?
10 What kind of verbs help convey politeness?

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

APPLICATION

1 Identify the incomplete/unacceptable sentences in the extract below, and

then make the necessary changes:

You should whisper sentences to yourself. Making sure that each one is complete. Another
method is to say the sentences in your head. To make sure that each one is complete. This
is because the sentence fragment is a serious error. As we all know that this is one clear
indicator of careless writing. Which is unacceptable.

2 Choose the correct form of the word in brackets in each of the following
sentences:
2.1 A healthy organisational climate (take/takes) a long time to develop.
2.2 Newspapers and magazines that (carry/carries) news like this should
be censored.
2.3 Reading and listening (is/are) the most important ways in which a
student can progress in (his/her/their) studies.
2.4 This usually (happen/happens) in societies that are fragmented and
disorganised.
2.5 A very large area of this building (is/are) unused.
2.6 The girl handed (his/her) ID document to the security guard.
2.7 We have a market where the majority consistently (wins/win) what
the minority (loses/lose).
2.8 None of us (want/wants) to be retrenched.
2.9 The disagreement between Terri and Gino over their work
(affect/affects) their relationship.
2.10 Here (is/are) several possible reasons.
3 Write down the correct form of the verb given in brackets:

At the moment, parliament (sits/is sitting), and members (will vote/will be voting) by 11:00
tomorrow. It will be a great relief when the vote has been taken, as members (have been
lobbying/lobbied) for a long time to get the law changed. It is feared, however, that the
vote might go the wrong way, as some members, who (have held/ had held) rigid views for
a long time, might vote against it. Fortunately, a significant number, who previously
(held/were holding) unsympathetic views, now (changed/have changed) their minds.

4 Draw timelines to illustrate the verbs in these sentences:

4.1 We had finished our meal when the waitress brought the bill.

466
 Chapter 17 Grammar in Use

4.2 Jacqui studied at Wits from 2011 to 2013.

4.3 Thabo has lived with his aunt for three years.
4.4 We were travelling on the bus to Cape Town when we saw monkeys
on the side of the road.
5 Read the text below. The articles are all printed in bold.
5.1 With a partner, discuss whether the noun that follows the article is
countable or uncountable, and whether definite or indefinite
meaning is conveyed by the article.
5.2 Find an example of an uncountable noun with no article or pronoun.
Your letter, with the water sample, gave us some problems. At first, we did not know
whether there was a solution. However, we sent the sample to a laboratory, and the
answer came back that there is some contamination. We suggest that water supplies in the
area should be tested immediately. We will offer assistance in the testing, if you would like.
Please let us have an answer within a day or two.

6 The prepositions in bold in the following text are all incorrectly used.
Replace each one with the correct preposition.

Andile looked on his bag and realised that he had forgotten a book that he needed. He
rushed for the campus and got there on time before the library closed. He fetched the book,
and then returned to his home on Short Street. He put the book on his bookcase, and then
went to have supper. The meal was shared between Andile and his four flat-mates, after
which they all returned by their rooms to study.

7 Correct any errors in the use of the apostrophe in the following menu:

Menu
Starters
Garlic snail’s
French salad
Chef’s special
Main course’s
Steak, egg and chips
Pap and wors
Pizza’s
Thabos’ meat n’ mash
Desserts’
Fruit salad
Ice cream and chocolate sauce
Meringue’s and cream

467
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

8 Task
In an A5 notebook, start preparing a list of your own problem areas, such as
prepositions. Do this with all other aspects of English usage that you find
difficult.
In this way, you will build up your own personal guide to English usage.

468
 References

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CHAPTER 4

Bone, D 1988. The business of listening. Menlo Park, CA: Crisp Publication.
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CHAPTER 5

Adey, AD & Andrew, MG 1990. Getting it right. Kenwyn: Juta & Co.
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CHAPTER 8

English, J, Basckin, V, De Jager, K & Nassimbeni, M 2012. Professional communication.

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Communication: A Hands-on Approach

CHAPTER 9

Fielding, M 2006. Effective communication in organisations. 3rd ed. Cape Town: Juta &
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CHAPTER 10

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CHAPTER 11

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CHAPTER 12

Bak, N 2004. Completing your thesis: A practical guide. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
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Bak, N 2004. Completing your thesis: A practical guide. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
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CHAPTER 14

Hairston, MC 1992. Successful writing. New York: WW Norton.

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CHAPTER 15

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CHAPTER 16

English, J, Basckin, V, De Jager, K & Nassimbeni, M 2012. Professional communication.

3rd ed. Cape Town: Juta & Co.
Fielding, M 2006. Effective communication in organisations. 3rd ed. Cape Town: Juta &
Co.

475
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

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Hartley, P & Bruckman, C 2002. Business communication. London and New York:
Routledge.
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Pretorius, EJ 1994. ‘In those days we were not knowing many things’: Tense and aspect
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Swan, M 2005. Practical English usage. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

476
 Index
Note: In this Index, numbers in italics refer to pages with illustrations or
tables.
A titles 317 Asch’s blogs, business 214,
experiment 39 audiences 2, 215 audience 217
abbreviations 136, 225, 279,
3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 12, 14, content 215-216, 218
280 acronyms 172,
15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 53, 56,
279, 324 ambiguity
57, 72-75, 76, 77, 84, 85, 86, example 216
107, 192 example 108
87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, plan 216
advertisements, classified
96, 97, 101, 102, 103, 104, format 217 links 217, 219
192 examples 192
105, 108, 110, 112, purpose 218 style 219
advertisements, leader page
114, 121, 122, 123, 127, writing 60-61 body
192-193 example 193
134, 135, 136, 137, 155, language 3, 4, 6 books 269,
agendas 34, 35, 379, 380,
159, 165, 170, 171, 172, 289, 291, 332 citing 290,
383, 384-388 contents
173, 175, 203, 205, 210, 304 referencing 298-300,
385 examples 386-389,
217, 223, 228, 267-268, 306-307 Boolean logic 289,
392 AIDA 172-173, 175,
323, 349 analysis 74-75, 290 brainstorming 27, 37-
193, 194 definition 172
82, 83, 146, 193, 194, 208- 38, 45,
website 179 anecdotes 84,
209, 54 , 55, 83, 183
218, 284 example 319
314, 330-331 brochures 194-196 example
announcements 135, 137,
examples 74-75, 84 196 referencing 303 bullets
151 example 152
knowledge of topic 72 level 57, 74, 89, 120, 121, 173,
apostrophes 280, 403,
of education 73 responses 219, 333, 334, 341,
418-419 appendices 279,
6 size 73-74 social 358 , 359,
302, 333,
variables 73 status 73 403 example
341, 349, 352, 378, 393
websites 75, 76
application for employment 120 C
240, 241, 243, 250, 419
examples 241-242 articles, B capital letters 51, 136, 205,
in-house journal 52. bibliographies 269, 289, 232 , 405 chairperson
313-322 comparison 290, 31, 376, 378, 379, 381, 382,
with blog posts 314 297, 305, 352 blogs 5, 56, 384, 385,
conclusions 320 example 212, 215, 231, 390 , 391, 392
321-322 introductions 326 posts 215, agenda 388
318-319 openings 319- 216, 314 example 388
320 examples 319-320 example duties 379-380
persona 315-316 purpose 220-221 clarity 34, 50, 74, 75, 77, 83,
314 recommendations types 216-217 95, 104, 107, 108, 117,
320 referencing 316 style publishing 215 118, 123, 137, 144, 145,
315 subtitles 317 referencing 304 146, 147, 155, 162, 178,
examples website 302 279, 340, 359 codes 3, 4,
318 6, 12 non-verbal 3, 4, 4, 7,
16, 17, 18, 19-22, 65, 67, 116,
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

135, 181, 182 18-19 communication, contact details 50, 63, 118,
functions 18 rules 4 one-way 8, 135, 138, 143, 198, 210,
verbal 3, 4, 4, 16, 65 134, 135 communication, 227 , 231, 241, 324
cohesion 30, 40, 44, 119, oral see presentations contractions 103, 277, 280,
125, communication, 316 , 418 conversations
271, 318 organisational 5, 5, 6, 17, 102, 213, 215, 217,
example 119-120 9, 135, 136 channels 9, 9 219, 222,
colloquialisms 103, 136, 315 communication, public 8 225 , 226, 229, 251,
committees communication, small-group 315 curricula vitae see
see also agenda, 8, 29-46 CVs CVs 231, 239, 241,
chairperson, meetings, communication, verbal 16- 245-246 checklist 250
minutes, office bearers, 17 complaints 146, 155, entry-level 246
secretary, 225 example 156 example
treasurer refusal of claims 246-249
types 376, 376 committees, 170 experienced employment
executive 376, example seeker 249
376 communication 170-171 responses
40, 63 of bad news 165- 157 example 249-250
167 example 167-168 examples honesty 250
barriers 10, 11, 74, 123 157 websites 250, 251
cultural 12, 19 conciseness 57, 104, 108,
education 14 language 109, 110, 114, 178, 198, D
13-14 needs 13 205, 225, 340 decision-making 30, 32, 33,
past experience 13 of content 108 40 , 43, 63, 331, 374,
perceptual 11-12 physical example 382 denotation 111
15 physiological 16 108 example 111
psychological 16 selection of structure 108 Digg 213
13 contexts 7 environment example dress 20, 251
6 of good news 147 108 code 4
examples 147, 148-149 key concord 280, 402, 403, DVDs 88, 89, 91
elements 3-6 models 1, 10, 405-406 with
11 purposes 7 referencing 303 E
coordinated subjects
communication, business
406 notional 405 email 5, 5, 6, 8, 52, 73, 123,
75,
pronoun 406 subject- 135-136, 138, 149, 152,
78, 104 communication, verb 405 conflict 153, 161, 231, 233, 241,
intercultural management 31, 252 , 302, 326, 382,
10, 19 communication, 41-42 383 attachments 135,
interpersonal accommodation 41 137 of confirmation 164
7-8 avoidance 41 example 165 example 142
models 1, 2 communication, checklist 42 formats 137, 141, 142-143
intrapersonal collaboration 42 guidelines 136 templates
7 communication, mass compromise 42 135-136, 147
8 communication, non- confrontation 41 of thanks example
verbal websites 43 158
18-22 modifying connotation 111, 167
verbal messages example 111

478
 Index

website 179 electronic 383, 393, 399 H

media citing G Harvard in-text citing 304-
example 291 gestures 21, 67, 93, 94 306 examples 304-306
referencing 301- grammar 4, 114, 120, 123, Harvard referencing
303, 307 employment 136, 178, 200, 211, 219, 225, conventions 298-304
advertisement 240 250, 271, 279, examples 298-304
example 240-241 402-421 see also headings 18, 50, 51, 53, 56,
search 238-240 apostrophes, concord, nouns 88, 104, 107, 121, 136,
websites and articles, plurals, 141, 193, 198, 208, 270,
239 prepositions, pronouns, 293, 318, 324, 332, 341,
punctuation, sentences, 342, 349, 355, 356, 383,
enquiries 144, 149, 203, 225,
singulars, speech (direct and 385 , 399
420 examples
indirect), hearing 64, 65
150-151
tenses, verbs, voice
responses 153
checking 403 incorrect 15 I
examples 153, websites 420-421 graphics IEEE in-text citing 308
154-155 eye contact 12, 53, 116, 209, 318,
IEEE referencing
20-21, 67, 86, 93-94, 97, 99, 336, 341-348 example conventions
251 342 types 343-348 graphs
306-308 illustrations 4,
121, 343-347, 358 bar
224, 279, 318,
F graphs 344, 345
347, 347 348, 348
Facebook 8, 9, 137, 212, 213, histograms 345, 345 line
information
214, 215, 222-226, 231, graphs 346, 346
organising 269, 332
254 audience pictographs 346, 347 pie
methods
223 content 224-225 graphs 344, 344 groups,
335
creation of 222-223 small advantages 30
characteristics 31 conflict recording of 269, 290
example 223 selecting 291
‘like’ application 222, 232 within 31, 40-43
definition 40 negative 40 example
posts 225, 232 292
positive 40-41
example sources 269
226 conformity
within 38-40 interviews 5, 5, 17, 239, 241,
purpose 223- 251-254, 301, 316, 332,
224 style 225 definition 29
334 example 317
facial expression 19, 21, 67, disadvantages 30
preparation for 251-252
94 fax 5, 123, 137 cover formal 8
questions 252-253, 254
pages 137, 144, 145 formats formation 30
144 feedback 6, 8, 10, 11, 64, informal 8 examples
92, 94, 97, 134, 217, 263, 254 structure 252
problem-solving 36-38
275, 276 flipcharts 88, invitations 121, 127, 146,
checklist 39-40
94 flow charts 56, 56, 264- 159,
example 36-37
265 196 example 197 to
roles 31-35 guest speaker 159-161
footnotes and endnotes 308
example 308 group maintenance example 160-161
32 group
formality level see register
formats 56, 57, 120, 123, tasks 31-32 J
137-145, 165, 178, individual 32 jargon 14, 105, 114, 225, 324
204-205, 217, 246, 250, leadership 32 values example 106
280, 301, 314, 317, 318, 8 journals see periodicals
323, 324, 349, 352, 356, groupthink 38, 39 K

479
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

keywords 50, 52, 57, 147, example 255-256 35 , 62, 66

265, 289 letters, transmittal see also agenda,
repetition 118 350 chairperson, committees,
examples example 351 minutes, motions,
119 types 265 letters of appointment resolutions, secretary,
example treasurer,
256-257
266 voting
example 257-258
convening 374 definition
letters of resignation 258
373 documentation 382-
L example 259
383 legality of 374-375,
language 3, 4, 5, 12, 49, 75 letters of thanks 158, 255
380 notice of 380, 382-
barriers 14-15 definition 17 example 158
384
language, discriminatory 14 LinkedIn 203, 215,
contents
language, non- 231 listening 84, 94,
383 examples
discriminatory 358 checklist 68
383, 384
113-114 importance 62-63
participation in 381-382
example 113 interference 64
terminology used at
language, non-sexist 112, stages 64, 64
377-378 types 375-376
247 example 112-113 websites 69
meetings, business 375
language, objective 76-77, listening, deliberate 66
meetings, general 375, 376
173, 195, 324, 340 strategies 66-67 listening,
meetings, non-profit associ-
example 77 empathic 67-68,
ation 375
language, subjective 77, 214
access 375
172, listening situation
meetings, public 375 access
173, 178, 195 controlling 68 lists
375 memoranda 5, 121, 123,
example 77 107, 269, 289, 358
131,
leadership styles 32-35 example 107
136-137, 164 , 165, 176
authoritarian 32-33 logos 135, 138, 209, 210, formats 143-144
bureaucratic 33 215, 222, 227
example
democratic 33-34, 379 144
laissez-faire 34-35 M messages 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 18, 63,
transformational 34 magazines see periodicals 74,
websites 35 meaning 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11, 14, 105 , 107, 113, 121,
leaflets 193 16, 17, 18, 19-21, 48, 64, 65, 135, 156 see also
example 194 104, 106, 111, 295, 296, 317, communication checklist
letterheads 135, 138 letters 337, 373, 408, 178, 420 distortion 9
5, 5, 6, 17, 123, 414 media 5, 5, 133, 137, mixed 16, 17 non-verbal
134-135, 170 examples 144, 6, 18, 19 purpose 75-77
139, 140, 141, 222 see also social examples 76 websites 76
173 formats 138 media written 6, 15, 122 messages,
website 179 letters, media releases 323-326 business 77, 102, 122, 147,
covering 231, 241, example 325-326 151, 165, 172,
243 contents format 324 175 , 178, 414, 419
241-242 hyperlinks 326 content 145 planning 146,
examples 242-243, structure 323-324, 323 146 mind maps 54, 55, 122,
244-245 letters, style 324 216,
follow-up 255 meetings 5, 5, 8, 22, 31, 34, 269 minutes 380, 381,
382, 385,

480
 Index

388 , 390, 391-395, example 272-273 unity websites 97 presentations,

412 appendices 393 115 website 120 organising 84-87
contents 391-392 parallel structures 106-107, body 85-86
examples 393-395, 412 119, 141, 177, 240, 318, examples 85-86
uses 391 341, 359 conclusion 86
motions 380, 381, 388-390, examples 107, 119 example
392 examples paraphrasing 54, 86 introduction 84-85
389, 390 292, 295, examples
296, 297 84-85 note cards 87
process 389
periodicals example
citing 304 87
N example presentations, paired 95-97
newspapers see periodicals 291 examples 95-96
nominal group technique 38 referencing 300-301, Prezi presentations 91
note cards 86, 87, 94, 293- 307-308 persuasion 77, problem-solving 29, 30, 36,
294 146, 171, 172, 37, 38, 39, 43, 63, 118,
example 294 175 photocopying 137, 264 websites 38
note-taking 53-56, 57, 62, 294 photographs see pronoun changes 411, 420
66, 269, 288, 292, 293, illustrations pictures see pronouns 102, 103, 107, 112,
296, illustration Pinterest 214, 119, 277, 316, 340, 405,
391 from 230-231 examples 231 406 , 420 pronunciation
reading 53 links 231 14, 15 proofreading 279-280
tips 293-294 plagiarism 54, 219, 269, checklist 280 public
example 272, 282, 292, 295-297, speaking 8, 82-97 see also
294 298, presentations punctuality
317 avoiding 296- 251, 400 punctuation 15,
websites 58 notices 198,
297 please and thank 120, 123, 136, 157, 178, 219,
199 example 198 nouns and
articles 118, 413-414 you 110 example 110 265,
plurals 112, 140, 280, 403, 280 , 302
O 405, 406, 418, 419,
420 positive emphasis Q
office-bearers 376, 376, 378,
111 example 111 questionnaires 279, 332,
379, 391, 392
posture 19, 21, 93, 94 334,
organisations constitution
PowerPoint presentations 336 , 369 questions 6,
374, 380, 390 regulations
87, 66, 68, 83, 85, 92, 94-95, 96,
374 outlines, skeleton 55, 55
88 , 89-90, 210, 217, 222, 224, 250, 251,
overhead projector transpar-
358 content 358 253, 254,
encies 88-89, 358
examples 90 324 , 330, 334, 358
prepositions 57, 403, 414- example 319
418, quorums 375, 378, 392
guidelines 359 P
419 examples 415-417 quotations 85, 272, 292,
help list 417-418 294,
paragraphs 18, 115-120,
presentations 358 delivery 297 , 298, 319, 320
210, 211, 218, 219, 272,
92-97 self-preparation 92
276, examples 272-273, 319
feedback guide 99 handouts
277, 279, 294, 304, 318, referencing 305
87, 91 planning 82-92
320, 324 coherence
purpose 83 questions 94-95 examples 305, 306 R
117 development 115
rehearsing 92 self-
examples 116-117 reading 121, 172, 231, 289,
evaluation 97 topic
preparation 83 venue 91 293

481
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

within a context 47 formats 341 391, 392

improving 49-50 as a introduction 332, 337 responding 65, 266
process 48, 55 purposes 48 example
speed 49 types 50-53 333 S
online 52-53 scanning 50- procedures 332, search engines 289, 290
51, 208 skimming 51, 53, 333-334 secretary 31, 376, 378, 379,
208 study-reading 51-52, example 380, 382, 384, 385, 388,
56 334 purpose 331 391 , 412
websites 58 recommendations 332, duties 380-381 sell, hard
referees 245, 250 reference 338, 419 172 difference from soft sell
lists 289, 290, 297, example 177-178
305, 306, 316, 350 339 examples 172-174
referencing 264, 269, 277, with subject-specific
295, 297-298, 316 language 172
headings 355
conventions 298-308 sell, soft 175
example
details 292 example examples 175,
355-354 summary
316 176-177 sentence order
332, 339
register 101-104, 103, 104, 117 examples 118
example 340
122, 123, 135, 178, 195 sentences 3, 117, 120, 219,
consultative 103, 136, 137, types 328-329
275 length 15, 73, 102,
141, 173, 174, 175, 176, reports, formal 349-351
104, 105, 106, 127, 205, 277,
177 body 350-351
292 , 319, 324, 358, 403
example conclusion 350
example
103 findings 350 106
conversational 136, 141, procedure 350 sentences, complete 57, 102,
174, 210, 212, 213, 219, recommendations 103 , 210, 394, 403-
225, 229 example 102 350 405 sentences, complex
formal 73, 102, 136, 137, preliminaries 349 404 example 404
152, 157, 277, 340, 392 example sentences, simple 403
example 350 sentences, topic 52, 54, 57,
102 115, 294, singulars 405,
reports, investigative
written 102 406, 414, 418, 419 Skype
example 360-366
remembering 65 report 251, 373 slang 101, 136
reports, letter 356
writing 329, 340-341 slides see overhead projector
examples
clarifying instructions 330 transparencies SMS see
example 330 information 356, 357 reports, oral
texting social media 8, 9,
classifying 332-340 358 preparation
121, 130,
compiling 331-332 pre- for 358
202 , 206, 213-221
writing requirements visuals 359 reports, for business communication
330-331 short 352-354 214-215
style 340-341 example 353-354 etiquette 232
reports format 352
conclusions 332, request refusals 146, 168 guidelines 232
337-338 example 169 evaluation 232
example research 52, 83, 289-295, marketing through 233
338 332 reviewing research legal aspects
findings 332, 334 topic 233 policies 233
examples 335, 336-337 289-290 resolutions 374,
principles 214
381, 390,
websites 234

482
 Index

specifics 76, 104-105 274, 314 examples 109, 110, 279

example 105 example 268 website 110
speech, direct 409, 410, 411 tone 51, 110-115, 135, 161, voice, passive 109, 114, 278,
example 409 speech, 167, 175, 178, 210, 211, 341 , 389, 410
reported ( indirect ) 219, 225, 229, 241, 267, examples 109, 110
394 , 409-410, 411, 412 316, 317, 318, 319, 403, website 110
spelling 15, 122, 123, 136, 419 voting 213, 377, 380
178, 210, 211, 219, 225, example 114 procedure 380, 390
229, 250, 265, 280, 359, topic selection 265 proxy 390 example
402, 403, 418, 420 spider
transitional expressions 391
diagrams see mind maps
118,
sponsorship requests 161-
119-120, 123, 272, 404 W
162 example 162-164
examples 118, 283 treasurer
website 164 Web 2.0 tools 206, 320, 326
31, 376, 378, 379, 381 , 385
stereotyping 12, 113 subject websites 52, 138, 206-212,
Tumblr 213, 220 214, 222, 223, 225, 228,
headings 141, 147,
Tweets 5, 6, 226, 227, 228, 234, 238, 251, 290, 291,
153, 166, 175, 293
229 297, 301 ‘about us’
summarising 32, 51, 56-58,
examples 227 210 audience 208 citing
66, 68, 86, 95, 96, 229, 283,
Twitter 8, 9, 213, 214, 215, 304-305, 307 ‘contact us’
290, 293, 294, 333,
226-229, 231 , 232, 210 content 209-210
339, 369
319 audience 228 home page 209-210
examples 56, 274 content 229 definitions example 211-212 links
strategies 57 T 226-227 example of 212 products 210
profile 228 links 229 purpose 209 referencing
tables 56, 121, 177-178, 279, opening account 228 307 site monitoring 212
290, 343 example 290, purpose 228-229 style
tips to think about
343 telephones 5 cellular 5, 229
207-208
203 telephoning 5, 6, 135,
updating 212 website
136,
U 212 WhatsApp 204
164 message
understanding 4, 6, 10, 14, whiteboards 88, 89
forms 199
34, 40, 50, 52, 53, 57, 64, whiteboards, interactive
example 199
65, 66, 67, 105, 121, 146, 91
tenses 277, 280, 338, 403, 178, 277, 298, 315, 331 word choice 105, 157, 306
405, 406, 419
example 105
changes 410, 411 V words 3, 17, 48, 54, 55, 108,
example 410
verb changes 410-411 109, 110, 111, 118, 155,
tenses, past 334, 335, 338,
verbosity 109 166, 167, 168,
390, 391, 392, 394,
examples 172 complex 14
406-409, 410 , 419
109 verbs, precise written 17
texting 6, 8, 203-206, 204
106 example 106 words, instruction 266-
audience 203 content 205
267 writer’s purpose 49,
example 205 formats 204- videos 69, 88, 89, 213, 215,
222, 229, 230 267 example 267
205 purpose 203-204 style
referencing 303 visual aids writing, academic see
205 theses 329 referencing
writing process
307 thesis statement 268- 83, 87-91, 94,
269, 96 referencing 303 writing process 56, 122-124,
voice 21-22, 93, 390 voice, 146 , 263, 314, 340
active 109, 225, 278 conclusion 274-275

483
Communication: A Hands-on Approach

example
275
cover page 282
example
282
drafting 122, 146, 271,
275-276, 314 editing
123, 146, 280-281,
314
example 120 final copy
280-282 example 281
presentation 280 formal
outline 270, 293
evaluation 271
example 270-
271
introduction 273
example 274
personal comments 275,
277-278
examples
278
planning 122, 146, 314
recommendations 274, 320
revising 122-123, 146,
276, 314
checklists 123,
276-277
stages 263-282 writing
style 135 presentation 121
websites 114, 210 writing
style, academic 50,
104 , 263, 277, 279

Y
‘you’ principle 111, 125, 172,
174 , 175, 212,
315 examples 112
YouTube 213

484