

Advance Database Database systems are complex, difficult,

and time-consuming to design
What is Database?  Substantial hardware and software
start-up costs
 In computing, a database is an  Damage to database affects virtually all
organized collection of data stored and applications programs
accessed electronically. Small  Extensive conversion costs in moving
databases can be stored on a file form a file-based system to a database
system, while large databases are system
hosted on computer clusters or cloud  Initial training required for all
storage. programmers and users
Information vs Data As the volume of your data increases, so does
Information the need for a database management system
(DBMS), which is a computerized system that
 processed, structured, and organized helps orchestrate large quantities of
data presented into something useful. information.
 what is conveyed or represented by a
particular arrangement or sequence of A DBMS can improve your data processes
things. and increase the business value of your
organization’s data assets, freeing users
Data across the organization from repetitive and
time-consuming data processing tasks.
 bit of information
 data are a collection of discrete values The result? A more productive workforce,
that convey information better compliance with data regulations, and
 a vital piece of information better decisions.
How does data stored in computer? What is a Database Management System
(DBMS)?
Data is copied from the computer's main
memory (random-access memory or RAM), A database management system is a software
and then written to the hard disk. The drive is tool used to create and manage one or more
the mechanical device that writes the data to databases, offering an easy way to create a
the disk. database, update tables, retrieve information,
and enhance data. A DBMS is where data is
Advantages
accessed, modified and locked to prevent
 Reduced data redundancy conflict.
 Reduced updating errors and increased A database management system also provides
consistency tools to administer the database schema –
 Greater data integrity and which dictates the structure of the database
independence from applications itself. In many cases, the database
programs management system will be seen only by the
 Improved data access to users through database developer, because the developer
use of host and query languages will provide a different front-end for the
 Improved data security customer. This front-end could be considered,
 Reduced data entry, storage, and by the most technical definition, to be a
retrieval costs database management system in its own right
 Facilitated development of new — however, it is more likely to go by another
applications program name, such as a customer relationship
management (CRM) tool.
How does data stored in computer?
Advantage of DBMS
Data is copied from the computer's main
memory (random-access memory or RAM), 1. Improved data sharing:
and then written to the hard disk. The drive is
 The DBMS helps create an environment
the mechanical device that writes the data to
the disk. in which end users have better access
to more and better-managed data.
Disadvantages
  Such access makes it possible for end  For example, end users
users to respond quickly to changes in
Most Common Database Management
their environment.
Systems (DBMS)
2. Improved data security
MySQL
 The more users access the data, the
 MySQL (/ˌ maɪ ˌ ɛs ˌ kjuː ˈ ɛl/) is an
greater the risks of data security
open-source relational database
breaches.Corporations invest
management system (RDBMS). Its
considerable amounts of time, effort,
name is a combination of "My" , the
and money to ensure that corporate
name of co-founder Michael Widenius's
data are used properly.
daughter My, and "SQL" , the
 A DBMS provides a framework for better
abbreviation for Structured Query
enforcement of data privacy and security
language
policies.
MariaDB
3. Better data integration:
 MariaDB is a community-developed,
 Wider access to well-managed data free and open source relational
promotes an integrated view of the database management system. It is a
organization’s operations and a clearer fork of MySQL. MariaDB was originally
view of the big picture. developed by Ulf Michael Widenius,
 It becomes much easier to see how founder of MySQL AB and current lead
actions in one segment of the company developer and CTO of MariaDB.
affect other segments. MariaDB is also included in numerous
4. Minimized data inconsistency: Linux distributions, such as CentOS,
Debian and RHEL. Developer: MariaDB
 Data inconsistency exists when different Corporation Ab and MariaDB
versions of the same data appear in Foundation. Latest MariaDB release:
different places. MariaDB 10.7.3. MariaDB license: GPL
 For example, data inconsistency exists version 2.
when a company’s sales department
stores a sales representative’s name as PostgreSQL
“Bill Brown” and the company’s  PostgreSQL is a free, open source
personnel department stores that same relational database management system
person’s name as “William G. Brown, ” (RDBMS). It was initially developed as a
or when the company’s regional sales successor of the Ingres database,
office shows the price of a product as developed at the University of California,
$45.95 and its national sales office Berkeley. Developer: PostgreSQL
shows the same product’s price as Global Development Group. Latest
$43.95. PostgreSQL release: PostgreSQL 14.2.
 The probability of data inconsistency is PostgreSQL license: PostgreSQL
greatly reduced in a properly designed license.
 The probability of data inconsistency is
Designing Database Requires
greatly reduced in a properly designed
Engineering Skills, Why?
database.
 What is a database engineer? Database
5. Improved data access
engineers, also known as data
 The DBMS makes it possible to produce engineers are responsible for designing
quick answers to ad hoc queries. and implementing digital databases.
 From a database perspective, a query is They use computing tools to create new
a specific request issued to the DBMS databases or adjust the function and
for data manipulation—for example, to capacity of existing databases.
read or update the data. Simply put, a Database engineers design efficient
query is a question, and an ad hoc database engine processes for sorting
query is a spur-of-the-moment question. and accessing information. They use
 The DBMS sends back an answer programming knowledge to build data
(called the query result set) to the pipelines and integrate new information
application. into existing databases.
Database engineer duties include: Database engineers make updates to
databases to improve their efficiency and
Determining business requirements:
increase the speed of the database engine.
Because data engineers are responsible for They identify data sets or specific operations
creating completely new databases, they first that have a negative impact on database
have to meet with clients to determine what function, then make adjustments as necessary.
kind of database infrastructure they need. They
Automating database tasks:
discuss the purpose of the database and set
essential specifications for how the database To make it easier for users to interact with a
should work. database, database engineers identify common
database commands and find ways to
Developing database architecture:
automate or simplify those tasks. They create
Database engineers develop the digital macros that automatically initiate each part of
architecture and database engine that allows the data pipeline or immediately generate a
the database to operate. They create spaces certain type of data set when users perform a
for data storage, add categories and establish specific action. Function.
rules for entering or editing new information
Entity Relationship Diagram
entries.
 According to Jacqueline Biscobing,
Programming database algorithms:
Senior Managing Editor, News. An entity
Programming, creating algorithms and using relationship diagram (ERD), also known
code is a standard part of building and as an entity relationship model, is a
updating a database. Database engineers graphical representation that depicts
create original database programs and adjust relationships among people, objects,
existing code to customize database features. places, concepts or events within an
information technology (IT) system. An
Setting data storage rules: ERD uses data modeling techniques
Database engineers determine what happens that can help define business processes
to new information and where the database and serve as the foundation for a
stores various data sets. They establish data relational database.
pipelines and rules that make it easier for users Importance of ERDs and their uses
to pull data sets and properly store new
information.  ERD visualizes the relationships
between entities like people, things, or
Allocating computing resources: concepts in a database. An ERD will
To build a new database or expand upon an also often visualize the attributes of
existing one, database engineers determine these entities.
what hardware and software resources they  By defining the entities, their attributes,
need to complete computing tasks. They also and showing the relationships between
allocate these resources to different parts of them, an ER diagram can illustrate the
the database based on storage and computing logical structure of databases. This is
needs. useful for engineers hoping to either
document a database as it exists or
Analyzing data sets: sketch out a design of a new database.
Database engineers analyze patterns in data
and look for trends to improve database
operations and provide insights to their clients Why Make an ERD?
about how to best use their existing data.  An ER diagram can help businesses
Merging databases into a shared system: document existing databases and
thereby troubleshoot logic or
When a client needs to combine data sets from deployment problems or spot
multiple sources, data engineers determine inefficiencies and help improve
how to cohesively merge them into the same processes when a business wants to
system by integrating categories and adjusting undertake business process re-
data entry styles to one consistent method. engineering. ERDs can also be used to
Optimizing database efficiency: design and model new databases and
make sure that engineers can identify
 any logic or design flaws before they 're
implemented in production.
Types of ERD
 Document an existing database
structure Traditional ERD
 Debug, troubleshoot, and
The traditional Chen ERD is like a flowchart
analyze Design a new database
with connected symbols for entities,
 Gather design requirements
relationships, and attributes. Since its first
 Business process re-engineering introduction by Chen in the 70s, others have
(BPR) proposed different cardinality notations, but the
Why Make an ERD? basic symbols used and how they ' re
connected tend to look the same.
 When documenting a system or
process, looking at the system in Common ERD Symbol
multiple ways increases the An ER diagram has three main components:
understanding of that system. ERD entities,relationships and attributes
diagrams are commonly used in connected by lines.
conjunction with a data flow diagram to
display the contents of a data store.  Entities, which are represented by
They help us to visualize how data is rectangles. An entity is an object or
connected in a general way, and are concepts about which you want to store
particularly useful for constructing a information.
relational database. o A weak entity is an entity that
must defined by a foreign key
The History of Entity Relationship Diagrams
relationship with another entity
Peter Chen developed ERDs in the 1970s and as it cannot be uniquely identified
published his proposal for entity relationship by its own attributes alone.
modeling in a 1976 paper titled "The Entity-  Relationships, which are represented
Relationship Model: Toward a Unified View of as diamond shapes, show how two
Data". Peter Chen was a computer scientist entities share information in database.
who worked on improving database design. His o In some cases, entities van be
entity relationship model was a way to visualize self-linked.\
a database that unified other existing models  Attributes, which are represented by
into a single understanding that removed ovals. A key attribute is the unique
ambiguities. Prior to ERDs, there were three distinguishing characteristic in entity. For
data models for databases: the network model, example, an employee’s social security
the relational model, and the entity set model. number might be the employee’s key
Each had their own strengths and weaknesses, attribute.
but none provided a complete view of the o A multivalued attribute can have
database. With an ERD, Chen could provide a more than one value. For
unified framework for database modeling. Peter example, an eemployee entity
Chen ' s work was greatly influenced by can have multiple skill values.
scientists and engineers who came before him, o A derived attribute is based on
specifically Charles Bachman, who worked on another attribute. For example,
visualizing databases in the 1960s and his data an employee’s monthly salary isa
structure diagrams became known as based on the employee’s annual
Bachman diagrams. Chen ' s entity relationship salary.
model is in many ways the foundation for later  Connecting lines, solid lines that
practices like Unified Modeling Language or connect attributes and show the
UML in information systems. In the 1980s, relationships of entities in the diagram.
another computer scientist named James  Cardinality specifies the numerical
Martin, worked to further refine Chen ' s ER attribute of the relationship between
model and introduced what' s known today as entities. It can be one- to- one or many-
the IE notation. IE notation uses Crow ' s foot to-many.
to express cardinality (one to many
relationship) instead of Chen ' s notation to Styles of Cardinality
epxress the same. Cardinality is the mathematical sense just
means the number of values in a set. In
relationship to databases and ERD, cardinality contain entities and relationships, but
specifies how many instances of an entity offer no details on specific database
relate to one instance of another entity. columns or cardinalities. It's a general,
Ordinality is also closely linked to cardinality. high-level view of database design.
While cardinality specifies the occurrences of a  Logical ERD or data model: This model
relationship, ordinality describes the adds more detail to the conceptual
relationship as either mandatory or optional. In model by defining additional entities that
other words, cardinality specifies the maximum are operational and transactional.
number of relationships and ordinality specifies  Physical ERD or data model: This model
the absolute minimum number of relationships. serves as the actual design or blueprint
of the database with lots of technical
In other words, there will be multiple instances
details including defining cardinality and
of each entity in a database. Cardinality allows
showing primary and foreign keys of
you express the number of each entity that can
entities instead of just their abstract
be associated with another entity. For example,
semantic names. For this type of ERD,
in an employee database, a manager will have
attributes will often be listed to represent
multiple employee reports (in a one to many
the columns of the real database table.\
relationship), but an employee will only have
one ID number (a one to one relationship). There are two reasons to create a database
There are three main types of relationships in a diagram. You're either designing a new
database expressed using cardinality notation schema or you need to document your existing
in an ER diagram. structure.
Three main types of relationship in a Here's an example of a very basic database
database expressed using cardinality structure generated from data
notation in ER diagram.
One-to-one
One-to-many
Many-to-many
There are many notation styles that express
cardinality. Information engineering style,
IE notation or crow’s foot notation
Information engineering style
There are many notation styles that express
cardinality. Information engineering style,
IE notation or crow’s foot notation.
Chen style
There are many notation styles that express
cardinality. Information engineering style,
IE notation or crow’s foot notation.
Bachman style
ERD Models
Entity Relationship Models can also vary based
on the level of abstraction visualized. There are
usually three models people refer to based on
the level of detail you want to show: conceptual
ERD, logical ERD, and physical ERD.
 Conceptual ERD or data model: This
model has the most abstraction and
least amount of detail, as such it's
appropriate for large projects that need
a higher level view used by business
analysts. A typical conceptual ERD will