Module 8 - Stevedoring, Cargo Handling and Storage

 Container Terminal Operations

Container handling facilities can vary from general user berths with no cranes where
containers are loaded and discharged using ships gear, to highly sophisticated automated
terminals where direct human involvement is removed from the operational area. The
volume of containers handled at a particular port will dictate the nature of the facility that
is required and the type of equipment that will be necessary to ensure the terminal will
operate as efficiently as possible.

Ref: IAPH Guidelines for Port Planning and Design – Section 2.3.2 Container
Terminal Characteristics

Over time container storage and handling has moved towards large terminals called
“hubs” which then distribute units via rail and road networks or by sea on small feeder
service container ships. The “hub and spoke” approach. This allows very large container
vessels to load and discharge a huge volume of containers in a very short time and can
handle multiple vessels simultaneously to maximise throughput. As vessels get larger the
number of ports that have the ability to handle such vast quantities of containers
diminishes to a point where main trunk routes have been established between selected
terminals (ports) and distribution to significant regional areas is undertaken by feeder
services. For example, Australia is unlikely to see ultra large container vessels of say
18,000 TEU capacity given their length beam and draft is beyond the acceptable
parameters for most ports and the volume of trade does not warrant the use of such large
vessels. The main container ports of Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane generally only
handle container vessels of Post-Panamax size which are between 5,000 and 10,000 TEU
capacity.
Container vessels have grown significantly in size over the last 25 years from around
4,000 TEU in 1990 to the current maximum of around 18,000 TEU’s. The following table
gives an idea of how vessels have grown over time.

Year Average Ship Size Largest ship in world fleet

(TEU) (TEU+ max. draft)
1980 975 3,000 - 11.6m
1990 1,355 4,400 - 14.0m
2000 1,741 7,000 - 14.5m
2010 2,191 13,500 - 15.5m
2015 18,000 - 14.5m

This growth in vessel size has caused difficulties for ports trying to remain in the
container trade and having to provide facilities that can accept such large ships. There are
a number of factors that need to be considered by ports before they make a determination
on whether or not they should or can accept large container vessels:
1. Is the approach channel of sufficient width and depth to handle larger vessels.
 2. Is the swing basin of sufficient depth and diameter to allow large vessels to turn
off the berth. For example Melbourne container terminal can only accept vessels
up to around 300m in length due to the limited size of the swing basin.

3. Is there sufficient quay line to accept larger vessels or will there be a queuing
issue if other smaller ships want to continue using the facility that is occupied by
one large vessel.

4. More tug capacity may be required to handle larger ships.

5. Given the increasing width of container vessels will the shore cranes have
sufficient outreach to work the full width of the vessel.

6. Large storage areas will be required to hold increasing numbers of containers.

7. More terminal equipment will be required to handle increasing numbers of

containers
It can be seen there is a significant cost involved with providing facilities to cater for the
ever increasing size of container vessels. Taking into consideration the ports ability to
attract such vessels and the hope that trade will continue to grow, ports potentially take on
considerable risk when contemplating enormous expenditure on port expansion. This is
one of the driving factors behind port privatisation where investment funding can be
sourced thereby relieving government agencies of such major undertakings.
The increasing cost of labour to operate a container terminal has prompted some
organisations to develop fully automated facilities where humans are removed from the
operational area and all cranes, gantries and unit carriers are operated remotely. In
addition to reducing operating costs, productivity can improve once the variable nature of
human input is removed and processes are streamlined. There is also the added benefit of
reducing the likelihood of injuries given there are no people allowed within the terminal
working area whilst operations are underway.
Ref: IAPH Guidelines for Port Planning and Design – Section 2.3.2 Container
Terminal Characteristics.

 Bulk terminals
Facilities loading or discharging bulk materials generally fall into two categories;

o General bulk berths where a number of smaller, different cargoes are handled.
o Dedicated terminals where large volumes of one commodity are handled.

General Bulk Berths – are facilities located within a port area that are able to load or
discharge bulk materials, either directly to road or rail transport or to/from small
stockpiles situated on or adjacent to the wharf. In some cases bulk cargoes are handled at
general berths where other commodities are stored however only small quantities are
stockpiled as space is generally at a premium and storage costs will be too high for low
value bulk commodities.
Flexibility at general bulk berths is important to ensure various bulk commodities can be
handled and stored without cross contamination. This can be achieved by segregating
different types of cargo within storage sheds or simply having separate stockpiles in open
areas, being careful to prevent mixing from stormwater run-off or particularly from wind-
blown particles.
Loading is generally achieved using conveyors which can be portable to allow remote
storage leaving room for other cargo handling equipment. A typical loading operation
would be trucks or front loader equipment loading the bulk commodity into a receiver
which feeds a conveyor and loads the cargo onto the vessel.
Discharge is generally undertaken using ships cranes or shore based cranes which can
travel on rails over the length of a vessel. The commodity will be discharged from the
cranes into hoppers which in turn will load road truck or train wagons for transport to a
stockpile or directly to a processing plant.

Dedicated Bulk Terminals – are facilities often owned and operated by cargo owners such
as mining companies or large processing plants. They handle large volumes of cargo and
are generally dedicated to just one commodity, but could be divided into various grades.
Examples are iron ore, coal and grain.
Loading terminals have berths dedicated specifically to bulk carriers and will generally
have deep water so they can handle large vessels to maximise throughput and efficiency.
There will generally be one or two loading units capable suppling cargo at very high rates
so that vessel time in port is minimised. The high loading rates can present problems for
vessels in terms of structural strength, particularly in relation to cargo distribution where
hold loading sequences need to be carefully planned to prevent unnecessary stresses on
the ship.
 Ref: IMO - Blu code : code of practice for the safe loading and unloading of bulk
carriers (Including Blu manual)

In the case of commodities such as bulk coal or iron ore, large grabs are used to remove
the cargo from a vessel, several cranes being used to minimise port time. The cargo is
dumped into a hopper which feeds a conveyor system that takes to a stockpile to await
distribution to a processing facility.

Grain is discharged from a vessels hold using vacuum units which transports the cargo to
large silos for storage and distribution.

Ref: AMSA Website - www.amsa.gov.au

1. AMSA Marine Order Part 34 - Solid Bulk Cargoes
2. AMSA Information Sheet - Loading and Unloading of Solid Bulk Cargoes

 Oil terminals
Bulk oil terminals are typically placed in remote locations to minimise the effect on local
communities in the event of an emergency. The wharf infrastructure is generally a very
simple structure that only needs to be able to provide a safe mooring arrangement for
tankers and support pipelines that connect the vessel to the storage tanks located in the
tank farm.
 Bulk oil terminals and the handling of cargoes at these facilities is highly regulated to
minimise the likelihood of an accident that can have catastrophic consequences. The
vessel loading and discharge processes are conducted under enclosed and very control
conditions to prevent accidental spillage or exposure to sources of ignition.
Security is an important feature at tanker terminals where restricted zones are established
to limit access to personnel directly involved in the cargo operation or those who have the
necessary authorisation. Passes are required to enter such areas and security staff are on
hand to ensure all regulations are appropriately enforced.
In the event of a fire the wharf facility is equipped with monitors that are capable of
delivering large quantities of water or foam to the vessel or wharf manifold. The quantity
of foam that is required to be stored at a terminal and be additionally available from local
back-up supplies is determined by local regulators in accordance with international
guidelines.

Ref:
1. The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals – International
Chamber of Shipping – Part 3: Terminal Information

 Dangerous cargoes
Dangerous cargoes are a regular feature of cargo operations at a port and special
arrangements need to be in place to ensure they are handled and stored correctly to
prevent accident or injury. The International Maritime Organisation produced a document
called the IMDG Code which lists all known dangerous substances currently carried on
ships and provides information on how they should be packaged, stored and handled.
Ref: IMO – IMDG Code.

In Australia, AMSA requires all dangerous cargoes to be documented and ships and port
authorities advised in advance of their arrival. This allows ports to make preparations for
the receival of dangerous goods which may necessitate closing off some areas which
could affect other cargo operations.
Ref: AMSA Marine Order 41(Carriage of dangerous goods) 2009 – AMSA website -
www.amsa.gov.au

For example, the handling of explosives at a port is a relatively common occurrence and
procedures need to be strictly followed in accordance with the IMDG Code and local
regulatory requirements. In Tasmania, prior to handling explosives, the Department of
Workplace Safety requires a risk assessment to be conducted and a restricted area to be
established that aligns with the blast radius of the explosives to be handled. It also
requires compliance with Australian Standard 3846-2005 - The Handling and Transport
of dangerous Cargoes in Port Areas.
Ref : AS 3846-2005 The Handling and Transport of dangerous Cargoes in Port Areas

Ports authorities need to know the specific location of dangerous goods that are stored
within a port area. Typically this will require advice from the stevedore or container
terminal operator stating the nature of dangerous goods held in containers, the container
number, cargo IMO number and class and the containers exact location within the
terminal. Apart from possibly checking that the required horizontal and vertical
separations have been achieved it is vitally important that the port authority is aware of
 the existence and location of dangerous goods so that emergency agencies can be advised
in the event of an accident or incident. In some cases, following the release of a
dangerous substance from a container, the local fire department may want to declare a
restricted zone around the affected area which could create a problem for other shipping
movements and cargo operations within the port.

 Roll-on Roll-off
Roll-on roll-off cargo operations provide a very simply process with limited human input
which is quick, simple and very efficient. It is used extensively in northern Europe where
large numbers of trucks and containers need to be moved rapidly from country to country
over relatively short distances. In Australia the main Ro-Ro operation is across Bass Strait
where three daily services between Tasmania and Melbourne carry most of the unitised
cargo moving in and out of the state. There is a high initial capital cost, in terms of
equipment, however once up and running terminal operating costs are relatively low
compared with normal container terminals. A considerable terminal area is required for
this type of cargo operation as vessels are completely discharged prior to starting loading
outbound cargo that has previously been stored at the terminal. This means the stevedore
will require sufficient space to store two full loads of trailers and containers to be able to
maximise efficiency.
Ro-Ro terminals are generally leased out on long term arrangements where the port
authority can levy a fixed annual rental plus a volume charge based on the number of
units handled. The type of ships that operate a ro-ro service are generally around 120m to
200m in length, highly manoeuvrable and on a regular service between selected ports.
This allows the vessels masters to apply for exemptions to pilotage which can save time
and reduce ship operating costs.
The main safety concern with this type of operation is the vessels stability where, due to
the large vehicle deck area, any ingress of water can have a detrimental effect on stability
causing the vessel to list heavily. An additional problem is movement of trucks and
trailers which can occur when the vessel is exposed to adverse weather conditions and
cargo lashings have not been adequately applied.

 General Cargo
A general cargo berth is the name given to a facility that can handle a variety of cargoes
such as bulk, containers, breakbulk and project cargo and will generally have limited
shore craneage available with a reasonable amount of space provided adjacent to the
wharf to facilitate cargo storage. Bulk loading equipment and cranes will generally be
moveable to allow them to be stored clear of the main working area and if necessary
create space for stevedores to handle cargo using ships equipment.
General berths may need to have a high deck strength to cope with very heavy items, with
high point loadings, being shipped through a port for specific projects. They may also
need to be able to accept quarter ramps from large ro-ro vessels that typically load and
discharge large pieces of machinery used in such industries as mining.
Ref: Break Bulk Shipping Study – Shipping Australia Ltd. www.shippingaustralia.com.au
 Environmental Considerations
Ports are required to handle a large variety of cargoes some of which are dusty, dangerous
and have unpleasant odours. Cargo handling can be noisy with truck and trailer
movements, forklifts and other lifting equipment producing engine noise along with high
pitched reversing signals, let alone the crashing of containers as they are landed on a
concrete surface or onto the back of trailers. All this activity can have a detrimental effect
on the surrounding environment and adversely affect people who may be living close to a
port where such activities are conducted. This is one of many reasons why ports have
progressively moved from city centre locations to more remote industrial sites to ensure
there is an adequate separation between its operations and domestic dwellings.
Environmental restrictions are getting more prohibitive forcing ports and port operators to
minimise noise and dust emissions through the introduction of improved technology and
the implementation of monitoring equipment to signal when a cargo operation needs to be
shut down due to its adverse effects on the environment. Reducing the level of dust or
cargo fallout has the added benefit of reducing the possible harmful effects of cargo
operations on the health of stevedoring personnel.
Spillage of cargo into the water between a vessel and the berth has been a long term issue
for bulk handling facilities particularly at the port of discharge where spillage from grabs
is an all too common feature. More stringent environmental legislation and penalties have
forced stevedores and port authorities to improve bulk handling methods and take greater
care to prevent spillage of cargo into the marine environment.
Bulk cargoes stored on wharves or dedicated storage areas can suffer from run-off during
periods of rain and in some cases result in product being flushed into port waters.
Improved drainage, filtering and collection ponds will help to reduce the likelihood of
cargo being washed from stockpiles.
In some cases solid cargo items can be lost over the side of a vessel which can cause a
safety problem for vessels navigating in the area particularly small recreational craft. An
example is the loss of logs whilst loading cargo on the deck of a vessel where careless
handling can cause logs to roll over the side where they can quickly be taken away by
tidal flow.
Fumigation is undertaken when quarantine regulations require a ships hold or cargo to be
fumigated to remove unwanted pests or as a precautionary measure. The use of fumigants
is not significant therefore they don’t generally present a problem when released to the
local environment particularly due to the rapid rate of mixing with air. The main concern
is for human health and special precautions need to be taken to ensure people do not come
into contact with chemicals during the fumigation process.

 Stevedoring equipment
Equipment used by stevedores is generally of a specialised nature where it is required to
handle a large variety of commodities both on vessels and ashore. Various types of cargo
and terminal operations have their own particular type of equipment to facilitate safe and
efficient cargo handling.
Containers terminals
Dedicated container terminals are designed to load and discharge container vessels with
maximum efficiency and provide large storage areas with good access to road and rail
transport. To achieve this the following equipment is used:
Container cranes are getting larger and more efficient to meet the demands of
increasingly larger container vessels. The main issue is vessel breadth where cranes are
required to reach further from the quay line to load/discharge boxes at the outer side of
the ship. For example, large container vessels used to be of Panamax size with a beam of
32 metres which meant they could have 13 containers across its width. Nowadays large
vessels up to 400m long and 59m beam are in operation which are capable of carrying 24
containers across.

Multiple units are used to load and discharge containers simultaneously.

Containers are moved between cranes and stacking areas using trailers hauled by prime
movers, often carrying multiple containers at a time.
An alternative transport process is the use of straddle carriers which have an advantage
over trailers in that they can “stack” containers two or three high in the storage area.

Containers are moved from storage areas to road or rail transport using gantry cranes
either rail or type mounted.
Other equipment used to move containers, particularly at smaller terminals where large
expensive pieces of equipment can’t be justified due to the low volume of cargo handled,
are:
Forklifts – Using tines located under the container to lift it clear of the ground or over
other units.

Top Lifters – Lock onto the top of containers and move them in a similar manner to a
forklift.
 Top Lifter

Reach Stacker

Reach stackers – Lock onto the top of containers and, as the name implies, can reach
above a stack of containers, up to about 7 high.
Ref: There are a large number of examples of container terminal equipment available
on the internet.

General cargo
Loading general cargo on a vessel is generally not about achieving high efficiency rates
as required at a container terminal. It’s more about achieving good secure storage and
maximising available space on a vessel.
Cargo is loaded and discharged using either shore based cranes, which can take a
multitude of forms, or ships equipment which are generally swinging cranes but can also
be gantry type.
Shore based cranes can run on rail lines:

Or mobile cranes that can be move from berth to berth and handle multiple types of
cargo:
Multiple attachments such as spreaders for containers or grabs for bulk cargoes can be
used on swinging cranes.
Ships cranes are much the same as shore based cranes, the main difference being they
come with the vessel therefore stevedores won’t be charged for using them whereas they
may incur a hire charge for shore cranes owned by the port authority.

General cargo in moved to and from the ships side using forklifts, trailers, and highly
specialised pieces of equipment such as multi-axle trailers used to transport very heavy
cargo units.
 In Australia, the standard of cargo handling equipment used by stevedores is controlled
by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) through Marine Order 32.
Ref: AMSA Marine Order 32 (Cargo handling equipment) 2011 – AMSA website