READINGS

IN THE
PHILIPPINE
HISTORY

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THE PHILIPPINES: AN OVERVIEW
The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an island nation located
in Southeast Asia, with Manila as its capital city. The Philippine Archipelago comprises
7,641 islands in the western Pacific Ocean. The country reflects diverse indigenous
Austronesian cultures from its many islands, as well as European and American influence
from Spain, Latin America and the United States. Filipinos are mostly of Austronesian
descent. Some Filipinos are partly of American, Spanish, Chinese and Arab ancestry.
A former colony of Spain and the United States, the Philippines has many affinities
with the Western world including Spain and Latin America due to three centuries of Spanish
colonial rule. Roman Catholicism is the most predominant religion consisting of more than
80% of the population, making it the 4th largest Catholic nation in the world. Muslims, on the
other hand, form a significant minority throughout the country. Filipino and English are the
official languages. Around 12 vernacular languages are considered co official in their
respective provinces. However, only Filipino and English are used as the official media of
instruction within the whole archipelago.

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION
The Philippines constitutes an archipelago of 7,641 islands with a total land area of
approximately 300,000 square kilometers (116,000 sq. mi.). It lies between 116° 40’ and
126° 34’ E. longitude, and 4° 40’ and 21° 10’ N. latitude, and borders the Philippine Sea on
the east, the South China Sea on the west and the Celebes Sea on the south. The island of
Borneo ties a few hundred kilometers southwest and Taiwan directly north. The Moluccas
and Sulawesi are to the south, and Palau is to the east beyond the Philippine Sea.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
The Philippines is divided into 3 island groups: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. These
are divided into 17 regions, 81 provinces, 131 cities, 1,497 municipalities, and 41,994
barangays.
On July 24, 2006, the State of the Nation Address of President Arroyo announced the
proposal to create five economic super regions to concentrate on the economic strengths in a
specific area.

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REGION DESIGNATION
Region 1 Ilocos Region
Region 2 Cagayan Valley Region
Region 3 Central Luzon Region
Region 4A CALABARZON Region
Region 4B MIMAROPA Region
Region 5 Bicol Region
Region 6 Western Visayas Region
Region 7 Central Visayas Region
Region 8 Eastern Visayas Region
Region 9 Zamboanga Peninsula Region
Region 10 Northern Mindanao Region
Region 11 Davao Region
Region 12 SOCCSKSARGEN Region
Region 13 Caraga Region
CAR Cordillera Administrative Region
NCR National Capital Region
ARMM Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao

RELIGION
The Philippines is one of only two majority Roman Catholic countries in Asia (the
other being East Timor). The Philippines was labeled as “The Only Christian Nation in Asia”.
About 94% of Filipinos are Christians, where 81% belong to the Roman Catholic Church, 2%
composed of Protestant denominations and 11% either to the Philippine Independent Church
(Aglipayan), Iglesia ni Cristo and others. While Christianity is a major force in the culture of
the Filipinos, indigenous traditions and rituals still influence religious practices.
Approximately 5% of Filipinos are Muslims, and are locally known as "Moros",
having been dubbed this by the Spaniards due to their sharing Islam with the Moors of North
Africa. They primarily settled in parts of Mindanao, Palawan and the Sulu archipelago, but
are now found in most urban areas of the country. Most lowland Muslim Filipinos practice
normative Islam, although the practices of some Mindanao's hill tribe Muslims reflect a
fusion with animism. There are also small populations of Buddhists, Hindus, Sikhs, and
animists, which, along with other non-Christians and non-Muslims, collectively comprise 5%
of the population.

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CULTURE
The Philippines is rich in culture. Filipino culture is a fusion of pre-Hispanic
indigenous Austronesian civilizations of the Philippines mixed with Hispanic and American
cultures. It has also been influenced by Chinese and Islamic cultures.
The Hispanic influences in Filipino culture are largely derived from the culture of
Spain and Mexico because of over three centuries of Spanish colonial rule through Mexico
City. These Hispanic influences are most evident in literature, folk music, folk dance,
language, food, art and religion, such as Roman Catholic Church religious festivals. Filipinos
hold major festivities known as barrio fiestas to commemorate their patron saints.
One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish surnames
among Filipinos. This peculiarity, unique among the people of Asia, came because of a
colonial decree for the systematic distribution of family names and implementation of the
Spanish naming system on the inhabitants of the Philippines. A Spanish name and surname
among most Filipinos does not always denote of Spanish ancestry. Only about 1% to 2% of
the population (mostly Filipinos of Spanish and Mexican origin) would qualify as Hispanic
by ancestry.
There are also significant amounts of Spanish influence in the country, such as names
of countless streets, towns, and provinces, which are named in Spanish. Spanish architecture
also made a major imprint in the Philippines. This can be seen especially in the country's
churches, government buildings and universities. Many Hispanic style houses and buildings
are being preserved, like the Spanish colonial town in Vigan City, for protection and
conservation. Kalesa is a horse-driven carriage introduced by the Spaniards and was a major
mode of transportation during the colonial times. It is still being used today. Filipino cuisine
is also heavily influenced by Mexican and Spanish cuisine.
The Chinese influences in Filipino culture are most evident in Filipino cuisine. The
prevalence of noodles, known locally as mami, is a testament to Chinese cuisine. Other
Chinese influences include linguistic borrowings and the occasional Chinese derived
surnames.
The use of the English language in the Philippines is contemporaneous and is
America's visible legacy. The most played sports in the Philippines are basketball and
billiards. There is also a wide influence of American Pop cultural trends, such as the love of
fast food and movies. Many street corners boast fast food outlets. Aside from the American
commercial giants such as McDonald's, Pizza Hut, Burger King and KFC, local fast-food
chains have also sprung up, including Goldilocks, Jollibee, Greenwich Pizza and Chowking.

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Modern day Filipinos also listen to contemporary American music and watch American
movies. However, Original Pilipino Music (also known as OPM) and Philippine movies are
also widely appreciated.
Filipinos honor national heroes whose works and deeds contributed to the shaping of
the Filipino nation. José Rizal is the most celebrated illustrado, a Spanish-speaking reformist
visionary whose writings contributed greatly in nurturing a sense of national identity and
awareness. His novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, originally written in Spanish,
are required readings for Filipino students and provide vignettes of colonial life under the
Spanish rule.
As with many cultures, music (which includes traditional music) and leisure activities
are important aspects of the Filipino society. In fact, Filipinos are one of the world’s greatest
singers. As per foreign saying “When Filipinos are born, they don’t cry, they sing”. Various
sports are also enjoyed including boxing, basketball, badminton, billiards, football (soccer)
and ten-pin bowling being popular games in the country.

GOVERNMENT
The Philippine form of government was “Democracy”. Filipinos elect their president.
The president is the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and serves
a six-year term. There have been 17 presidents that have led the Philippines as follows:
Emilio Aguinaldo, Manuel Quezon, Jose P. Laurel, Sergio Osmeǹa, Manuel Roxas, Elpidio
Quirino, Ramon Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal, Ferdinand Marcos,
Corazon Aquino, Fidel Ramos, Joseph Estrada, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, Benigno Aquino
III, Rodrigo Duterte and Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos.
Ferdinand Marcos is the longest-serving president, having been in office for 20 years,
57 days. He is the only president to have served more than two terms. The shortest term is
Sergio Osmeǹa, who spent 1 year and 300 days in the office.

ECONOMY
The economy is based on agriculture, light industry, and services. The country
produces bananas, rice, coconuts, corn, fish, mangos, pineapples, sugarcane, pork, and beef.
The Philippines’ economic freedom score is 64.1, making its economy the 73rd freest in the
2021 Index. Its overall score has decreased by 0.4 point, primarily because of a decline in
trade freedom. The Philippines is ranked 12th among 40 countries in the Asia–Pacific region,
and its overall score is above the regional and world averages.

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 The Philippine economy remained in the ranks of the moderately free this year. The
regulatory environment is overly bureaucratic and costly for both businesses and investors.
Of special concern are weaknesses in the judicial system and the government’s failure to
counter ongoing corruption effectively.

HISTORY
Ferdinand Magellan first landed in the Philippines in 1521. The name Philippines
comes from Philip II who was the king of Spain during the 16th century when the country
became a Spanish colony.
The Philippines was granted to the United States in 1898 following the Spanish-
American War. In 1935 the Philippines became self-governing, but their independence was
delayed by World War II and the invasion of Japanese troops.
The islands were liberated by U.S. forces in 1944-45, and the Republic of the
Philippines was proclaimed in 1946, with a government patterned on that of the United
States.
In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos was elected president. He declared martial law in 1972,
which lasted until 1981. After 20 years of rule, Marcos was driven from power in 1986.
Corazon Aquino became president and instituted a period of democratic rule in the country.

BIODIVERSITY
No doubt the Philippines is one of the richest biodiversity countries in the world. The
Philippines ranks 23rd among the most plant species-rich countries of the world, hosting
13,500 plant species, or 5 per cent of the world total. Almost one-fourth of all these plant
species are endemic to the country. The islands are home to many species of flowering plants
and ferns, including hundreds of species of orchids. Tall grasses have replaced the forests,
which have disappeared due to logging, mining, and development.
Throughout the year, numerous flowers of various colors and fragrance bloom on the
hillsides, meadows, and family gardens. The "Queen of Philippine Flowers" is the famous
sampaguita, the national flower. It is a star-shaped, snow-white, sweetly-scented flower.
Other flowers which are worth mentioning are the aurora, the amarilla (marigold), bandera
española, cadena de amor, dama de noche, gumamela (hibiscus), kamuning, kalachuchi,
jasmin, and ylang-ylang. In the forest blooms the pung-apling, one of the world's largest
flowers, with a diameter of one foot.
One hundred and seventy thousand animal species can also be found in the country.

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The Philippines are inhabited by more than 230 species of mammals, 98 are endemic,
including monkeys, squirrels, lemurs, mice, pangolins, chevrotains, mongooses, civet cats,
and red and brown deer, among others.
Among the many rare species that can be found in the Philippines are:
 the Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius philippensis, endemic to the Philippines and is the
world’s smallest prosimian)
 the White-Winged Flying Fox (Pteropus luecopterus, one of the world’s rarest
mammals)
 the Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi, one of the world’s largest eagles)
 the Pygmy Goby (Pandaka pygmea, one of the world’s smallest freshwater fish)
 the Philippine Sailfin Lizzard (Hydrosaurus pustulatus, one of the rarest lizard species
in the world)
 the binturong, or Asian bear cat
 the tamaraw, a species of small water buffalo found only on Mindoro, is critically
endangered
Hundreds of species of birds live in the Philippines, either for all or part of the year,
including peacocks, pheasants, doves, parrots, kingfishers, sunbirds, tailorbirds, weaverbirds,
and hornbills. The biggest bird is the Eastern Sarus Crane, known as tipol in Luzon and
labong in the Visayas. It is a wading bird with very long legs and neck. When full grown, it is
five and half feet tall with a wing span of seven feet. Other remarkable birds in the country
are: (1) the Philippine or monkey eating eagle, the world's largest eagle, which is now the
National Bird; (2) the kalaw, called the "clock of the moun tains" by the Spanish colonizers
because it always makes a loud call at noon in the mountains; (3) the katala, which can talk
and sing like a human; (4) the Palawan peacock, a dancing bird with gorgeous plumage; and
(5) the limbas, a hawk which screams repeatedly as it scars into the sky; "Tik-wee, tik-wee,
tik wee!"
Both the world's largest fish and the world's two smallest fish are found in the
Philippines. The huge whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is called "pating bulik" (striped shark)
by fishermen because of its black stripes. It is about 50 feet in length and weighs several tons
and was first sighted in 1816 at Mariveles Bay. The pygmy goby fish (Pandaka Pygmaea) and
tabios - two of the world's smallest fish, were found in Philippine waters. The pygmy goby
fish has a length of 9.6 millimeters about the size of a grain of rice. It was found in 1925 by
Dr. Albert Herre, an American scientist, at Malabon River, and rediscovered in 1951 by H.R.

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Rabanal, Inocencio Ronquillo, and Artemio Sarenas, Filipino marine biologists. The tabios,
about 3 to 4 millimeters in length, was found in Lake Buhi, Camarines Sur.
Of the world's 60,000 species of shells, some 20,000 are available in the Philippines.
The world's rarest and most expensive shell, called "Glory of the Sea" (Conus gloriamaris),
and the Golden Cowrie, another rare shell, are both found here. Also present in Philippine
waters are the world's largest shell, Tridacna gigas, and the world's smallest shell, Pisidium.
The early Filipinos used shells to trade with merchants from China, and today the Philip pines
is one of the world's richest sources of shells.
The world's largest natural pearl, the "Pearl of Allah," was found in 1934 by a Muslim
Filipino diver who gave it to his datu. In 1936, the datu gave it to Wilburn Dewal Cobb, a
Californian, who cured the datu's sick son. The "Pearl of Allah" is said to be 350 years old
and measures 91/2 by 51/2 inches in size and is 14 pounds in weight. It was valued at US$3.5
million.
With minerals, many minerals (metallic and non-metallic) are found in the country.
Metallic minerals like nickel, copper, iron, and gold are relatively abundant. Minerals may be
used as precious metals (gold and silver), or as base metals (copper and nickel) for industry,
or as construction materials (limestone, adobe) and for numerous other purposes. In Masinloc
(Zambales) exists "the biggest deposits of high-quality chromite in the world."
In recent years a vast deposit of nickel was discovered in the little island of Nonoc,
off the coast of Surigao del Norte. According to mining engineers, this nickel deposit is one
of the largest in the world and the largest in Asia.

OTHER FACTS ABOUT PHILIPPINES:

 The Philippines has three groups of islands Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
 The northernmost island is Y'Ami, and the southernmost island is Saluag.
 The largest island is Luzon, followed by Mindanao and Samar.
 The Philippines has the world's longest discontinuous coastline (34,600 km.)
 There are 61 bays and harbors and 20 straits.
 Manila Bay is the largest bay in the Philippines and the finest harbor in Asia.
 San Juanico Strait is the world's narrowest strait. It lies between Samar and Leyte.
 The Philippine Deep (37,732 ft.), some 90 km. northeast of Mindanao, is the world's
deepest sea.
 There are seven major mountain ranges in the Philippines.
 The highest mountain is Mt. Apo (9,690 ft.) in Mindanao.

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  There are 132 main rivers. The longest river is the Cagayan River (20,000 km.) in
Luzon.
 There are 59 lakes. The largest lake is the Laguna de Bay in Luzon.
 There are 50 volcanoes, 13 of which are still active.
 Mt. Mayon in Bicol has the world's most perfect cone.
 Taal Volcano in Batangas is the world's smallest volcano.
 There are four fertile plains the Central Plain and Cagayan Valley in Luzon and
Agusan and Cotabato Valleys in Mindanao.
 The Central Plain is the "rice granary" of the Philippines.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE

The geography and ecological diversity of the Philippines, in addition to the Chinese,
American and Spanish influences the country received, have had profound effects on the
cultural development of its people – giving rise to the evolution of approximately 110
ethnolinguistic groups that endow the Filipino people with their varying customs and
traditions. There are 110 indigenous groups or ethnic in the Philippines (National
Commission on Indigenous People (NCIP), 2020).
Though the national language is Filipino (based largely on Tagalog, the language of
the largest ethnolinguistic group and the language most widely used in Manila), there are at
least 87 other regional languages and a host of dialects in use by the various ethnolinguistic
groups throughout the country. English is widely spoken and understood and is the language
used for most business and legal transactions. As a matter of fact, 95% of its population
speaks English that makes the Philippines market as being the “Third largest English-
speaking nation” after the US and the UK. Hokkien, Cantonese and Mandarin are spoken by
older members of the Filipino-Chinese community.
Here are some Positive Filipino Traits and Values:
1. Bayanihan or the spirit of communal work and cooperation with the goal of achieving
a goal
2. Filipinos love to prepare great tasting food
3. Most Filipinos have strong family ties
4. The Filipino people are respectful
5. Many Filipinos are hardworking and resourceful
6. The Filipino people are passionate
7. The Filipinos are religious

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 Here are some Negative Filipino Traits and Values:
1. “Bahala na” Attitude. Roughly translated as “come what may”, this is the Filipinos’
own version of fatalism, the belief of trusting in Divine providence or leaving
everything to the hands of fate. It is a Filipino’s way of avoiding rationalization or
good reason. While this trait can sometimes be helpful in time of adversity, the
mentality of “what goes around, comes around,” can also keep us from finding ways
out of tough situations.
2. Procrastination or “Mañana Habit”. This is the Filipino habit of leaving for tomorrow
what can be done today. They tend to postpone their actions for a later time thus
reducing accomplishments. Filipinos are fond of saying “bukas na lang” or “sa
susunod na lang” due to laziness. This arises from a slack mentality that a problem
will eventually go away by itself.
3. Crab Mentality. Filipinos tend to possess this mentality especially when they feel
insecure. In a way, crab mentality also promotes an unhealthy competition. Instead of
doing things that could help one to develop and become better than his competitors,
Filipinos devote so much of their time gossiping and back-biting. It is their way of
deviating people’s attention on their inadequacy by focusing on other people’s faults.
4. Lack of self- discipline. We have laws and regulations in order to achieve a
harmonious community. However, most Filipinos have this penchant of disregarding
the rules in order to prioritize what they want. There’s a theory that explains why
Filipinos lack discipline or fail to implement rules, and it is something that is
ingrained in our very culture. Being oppressed by various colonizers for such a long
time made our ancestors defiant of the rules they believed to be discriminatory; thus,
creating a mentality of “self-righteous disobedience.”
5. Filipino Time. Related to the mañana habit, Filipino time refers to the Filipinos’ own
unique brand of time, which is known to be minutes or hours behind the scheduled or
standard time. This behaviour drives time-observant foreigners to get frustrated
because Filipinos tend not to observe punctuality at all. It’s a dreadful habit that needs
to be stopped as it hinders productivity and progress. Not to mention that you’re not
only wasting your own time but other people’s time as well.

GASTRONOMY
There is a Filipino saying that if you want a 100% sure profitable business in the
Philippines then it must be food related. Filipinos love to eat. Filipinos generally eat at least 5

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times a day, 3 complete meals and 2 snacks. Philippine cuisine is a mixture of various
influences such as Mexican, Spanish, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, and Arab.
A complete meal is normally a combination of rice (steam or fried) and at least one
viand. Fried rice (using leftover rice) is usually served during breakfasts.
Most common cooking methods in the Philippines are adobo (cooked in soy sauce,
garlic and vinegar), sinigang (boiled with a tamarind base), nilaga (boiled with onions),
ginataan (cooked using coconut milk), and pinaksiw (cooked in ginger and vinegar) all using
one of these: pork, chicken, beef, fish and sometimes vegetables.
Provinces in the Philippines have their own specialties and dishes that they truly brag
about. These regional delicacies are usually prepared during fiestas (local festivity to honor
a saint) and some serve as main source of income for localities that are even exported
to other countries. Famous regional specialties are:
Batangas: Kapeng Barako – very strong coffee
Bicol: Bicol Express – cooked with lots and lots of pepper
Bulacan: Chicharon – pork rinds
Cebu: Lechon – roasted pig
Ilocos Region: Pinakbet – boiled vegetables with bagoong (fermented anchovy paste)
Jumping salad – small, live shrimps marinated in vinegar
Laguna: Buko pie – coconut pie
Pampanga: Longganisa – sweet and spicy sausage
Tocino – sweetened-cured pork
Kare-kare
National Dish: Adobo, different places, different version

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PHILIPPINE FLAG
The national flag of the Philippines is a horizontal bicolor flag with equal bands of
royal blue and crimson red, with a white, equilateral triangle at the hoist.
In the center of the white equilateral triangle is the golden sun, with 8 rays and 3 five-
pointed stars in each corner. The 8 rays represented the first 8 provinces that courageously
defied and revolted against the Spaniards – Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac,
Batangas, Laguna and Nueva Ecija.

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MAP OF THE PHILIPPINES

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NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF THE PHILIPPINES
Symbols represent a wide variety of things. When people see a particular symbol,
they associate it with something meaningful or standard. With this, each country has its own
national symbols to identify themselves from others and to unite its citizens through
nationalism.
According to National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), official national
symbols of the Philippines represent the country’s traditions and ideals and convey the
principles of Philippine sovereignty and national solidarity.
Here are the official national symbols of the Philippines:
1. National Flag

The Philippines national flag, as defined by the National Historical Commission of

the Philippines, is made of silk, had a white equilateral triangle at the left containing a
sunburst of eight rays at the center, a five-pointed star at each angle of the triangle, an upper
stripe of blue and a lower stripe of red. The sun stands for liberty; the sunburst of eight rays
for the first eight provinces to take up arms against Spain; and the three stars for the three
island groups of the Philippines – Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The white triangle signifies
Filipino hope for equality; the upper blue stripe stands for peace, truth, and justice; while the
lower red stripe stands for patriotism and valor.

2. National Anthem: “Lupang Hinirang”

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 The Philippine national anthem is entitled “Lupang Hinirang” and composed
by Julian Felipe. “Lupang Hinirang” was first played publicly on June 12, 1898 during the
proclamation of Philippine Independence. Its lyrics were adopted from the
Spanish poem, Filipinas, which was written by José Palma.

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3. National Flower: Sampaguita

The Philippine national flower is called “sampaguita” which is generally known as the
Arabian Jasmine. Its white color symbolizes purity, simplicity, humility, and strength.

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4. National Tree: Narra

The Philippine national tree is called “narra” generally known as rosewood. It was
made official by Gov. Gen. Frank Murphy through Proclamation No. 652 s. 1934. In
fact, under the DENR Memorandum Order dated February 5, 2013, cutting of Narra needs to
be approved by the DENR Central Office, particularly by the Office of the Undersecretary for
field Operations.

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5. National Bird: Philippine Eagle

The Philippine national bird is called the “Philippine eagle” scientifically known as
Pithecophaga jefferyi. It was made official in 1978 by former President Ferdinand Marcos
through Proclamation No. 1732.

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6. National Gem: Philippine Pearl

The Philippine national gem is called “Philippine Pearl” as declared by Former

President Fidel V. Ramos through Proclamation No. 905 s. 1996. It is scientifically known as
Pinctada Maxima. In fact, world’s largest pearl was discovered by a Filipino diver in a giant
Tridacna (mollusk) under the Palawan Sea in 1934.

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7. National Sport: Arnis

Arnis is to the Philippines like Japan’s Karate and Korea’s Taekwondo. It’s both a
martial art and a sport whose origins are still largely unconfirmed because of lack of
documentation. It’s known by two other names: Kali and Eskrima, and makes use of both
bladed weapons, batons/sticks, and bare hands. It became a national symbol in 2009 when
then-Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed Republic Act 9850 into law.

Now, you may be wondering: where or when in this list will the name Dr. Jose Rizal
appear? What about things like anahaw and mangoes? Sadly, these cannot be included in the
list above as they are listed by the NCCA as national symbols because there is no law that has
been signed declaring them as such.

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 Here is the list of unofficial symbols:
1. Dr. Jose Rizal: National Hero

Long recognized in the country’s history books as our National Hero, Dr. Jose
Protacio Rizal Mercado y Alonzo Realonda’s status as our national hero has not been the
subject of debate for the common Juan. Scholars, however, still argue about who should be
given the title: Jose Rizal, Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Aguinaldo, Apolinario Mabini, Marcelo
H. del Pilar, Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat, Juan Luna, Melchora Aquino, and Gabriela Silang
were listed down by former President Fidel V. Ramos as those worthy of being given the title
of National Hero. This list has not been acted on since being submitted by the National
Heroes Committee on November 22, 1995.

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2. Anahaw: National Leaf

Often referred to as the National Leaf, the anahaw or round-leaf fountain palm is not
part of the country’s national symbols. Normally seen in the countryside as a roofing
material, anahaw leaves are seen as decorative pieces/plants in the metro.

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3. Mango: National Fruit

A common sight in Philippine wet and dry markets, the mango has long been seen as
the National fruit. As popular as it is for making desserts, there is no law that proclaims it as a
national symbol.

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4. Carabao: National Animal

If common men have dogs as their best friend, then the carabao or Philippine water
buffalo is the Filipino farmer’s best friend. They’re beasts of burden, able to do almost
everything that needs to be done on the rice fields, including carrying the farmer and his
goods. But, without any laws to recognized them, they’ll remain an unofficial symbol of the
country.

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5. Bahay Kubo: National House

The humble bahay kubo or nipa hut is still seen in some parts of the country,
particularly in the provinces. While it has long been a symbol of Filipino homes, it has not
been recognized as a national symbol.

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6. Bangus: National Fish

Bony, yet prized for its belly fat, which almost everyone fights for on the dinner table.
The bangus or milkfish has long been seen as the country’s national fish, yet without a law,
it’s status will never be official.
Other things have been cited over time as a national symbol, yet have never been
recognized.
 The battle has raged on between which should be recognized as the National Dance:
Tinikling or Cariñosa.
 A still-to-be-settled debate has also raged online between those who love sinigang
(sour soup) and those who love adobo as to which should be recognized as the
national dish.

REGIONAL MAP OF THE PHILIPPINES

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 List of Cities and Municipalities Nicknames in the Philippines

City/Municipality Region Nickname

Amadeo Calabarzon Coffee Capital of the Philippines
Angeles Central Luzon City of Angels
Angono Calabarzon Art Capital of the Philippines
Apalit Central Luzon Blacksmith Capital of the Philippines
Bacolod Western Visayas City of Smiles
Bacoor Calabarzon Marching Band Capital of the Philippines
Balanga Central Luzon Banga Capital of the Philippines
Summer Capital of the Philippines
Baguio City CAR
City of Pines
Barotac Nuevo Western Visayas Football Capital of the Philippines
Bocaue Central Luzon Fireworks Capital of the Philippines
Cabanatuan Central Luzon Tricycle Capital of the Philippines
Cadiz Western Visayas City of Whales
Cagayan De Oro Northern Mindanao Golden City of Friendship
Calamba Calabarzon Hot Spring Capital of the Philippines
Carles Western Visayas Alaska of the Philippines
Cebu City Central Visayas Queen City of the South
Dagupan Ilocos Region Bangus Capital of the Philippines
King City of the South
Crown Jewel of Mindanao
Davao City Davao Region
Durian Capital of the Philippines
Chocolate Capital of the Philippines
Donsol Bicol Region Whale Shark Capital of the Philippines
General Luna Caraga Surfing Capital of the Philippines
Most Loyal and Noble City
Iloilo City Western Visayas Former Queen City of the South
City of Love
Imus Calabarzon Flag Capital of the Philippines
Kidapawan Soccsksargen Fruit Capital of the Philippines
Strawberry Capital of the Philippines
La Trinidad CAR
Salad Bowl of the Philippines

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Liliw Calabarzon Tsinelas Capital of the Philippines
Special Science and Nature City of the
Los Bańos Calabarzon
Philippines
Makati NCR Business Capital of the Philippines
Mandaluyong NCR Tiger City of the Philippines
Manila NCR Pearl of the Orient
Marawi ARMM Islamic City
Marikina NCR Shoe Capital of the Philippines
Muntinlupa NCR Emerald City of the Philippines
Naga Bicol Region Queen City of Bicol
Navotas NCR Fishing Capital of the Philippines
Paete Calabarzon Woodcarving Capital of the Philippines
Parańaque NCR Bay City of the Philippines
Passi Western Visayas Sweet City at the Heart of Panay
Pateros NCR Balut Capital of the Philippines
Puerto Galera Mimaropa Poor Man’s Boracay
Puerto Prinsesa Mimaropa Eco-Tourism Capital of the Philippines
Quezon City NCR City of Stars
Roxas Western Visayas Seafood Capital of the Philippines
San Fernando Central Luzon Christmas Capital of the Philippines
San Juan NCR Tiangge Capital of the Philippines
San Mateo Cagayan Valley Munggo Capital of the Philippines
Santo Tomas Central Luzon Coffin Capital of Central Luzon
Sitangkai ARMM Venice Capital of the South
Heritage Town
Taal Calabarzon
Vigan of the South
Tacloban Eastern Visayas Home of the Happiest People in the World
Tagum Davao Region Music Capital of the South
Tuguegarao Cagayan Valley Premier Ibanag City of the North
Asia’s Latin City
Zamboanga City of Flowers
Zamboanga City
Peninsula Convention Capital of the Philippines
Sardines Capital of the Philippines

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CHAPTER/ MODULE 1: LEARNING HISTORY
Learning Objectives:
 To understand the meaning of history as an academic discipline and to be familiar
with the underlying philosophy and methodology of the discipline.
 To examine and assess critically the value of historical evidence and sources.
 To appreciate the importance of history in the social and national life of the
Philippines.

Lesson 1: Meanings and Relevance of History

To make sense of history, it is necessary to first understand what it is all about. Many people
think that history is merely lists of names, dates, places, and “important” events. However,
History or the study of history is more than just knowing and memorizing facts.

It is a historian’s duty to draw insights from the ideas and realities that have shaped the lives
of men and women and the society. And in understanding these ideas, a historian (or, in fact,
a student of history) can comprehend how situations happened, identify their elements, and
think of how these situations can solve today’s predicaments, and help them plan for the
future.

The study of history, therefore, is the study of the beliefs and desires, practices, and
institutions of human beings.

WHY STUDY HISTORY?

An examination of the past can tell us a great deal about how we came to be who we are. It
means looking at the roots of modern institutions, ideas, values, and problems.
Looking at the past teaches us to see the world through different eyes- appreciating the
diversity of human perceptions, beliefs, and cultures. Different and/or new perspectives will
enable us to analyze critically the present contexts of our society and beings.

THE DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER

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History was derived from the Greek word historia which means “knowledge acquired
through inquiry or investigation”. History as a disciplined existed for around 2, 400 years and
is as old as mathematics and philosophy. This term was then adapted to classical Latin
where it acquired a new definition. Historia became known as the account of the past of a
person or a group of people through written documents and historical evidence. That meaning
stuck until the early parts of the twentieth century. History became an important discipline.
It became the historian’s duty to write about the lives of important individuals like
monarchs, heroes, saints, and nobilities. History was also focused on writing wars,
revolutions, and other important breakthroughs. It is thus important to ask: What counts as
history? Traditional historians lived with the mantra “no document, no history”. It means that
unless a written document can prove a certain historical event, then it cannot be considered as
a historical fact.

But as any other academic disciplines, history progressed and opened up to the possibility of
valid historical sources, which were not limited to written documents, like government
records, chroniclers’ accounts, or personal letters. Giving premium to written documents
essentially invalidates the history of other civilizations that do not keep written records.
Some were keener on passing their history by word of mouth. Others got their historical
documents burned or destroyed in the events of war or colonization. Restricting historical
evidence as exclusively written is also discrimination against other social classes who were
not recorded in paper. Nobilities, monarchs, the elite, and even the middle class would have
their birth, education, marriage, and death as matters of government and historical record. But
what of peasant families or indigenous groups who were not given much thought about
being registered to government records? Does the absence of written documents about them
mean they were people of no history or past? Did they even exist?

This loophole was recognized by historians who started using other kinds of historical
sources, which may not be in written form but were just as valid. A few examples are oral
traditions in forms of epics and songs, artifacts, architecture, and memory. History thus
became more inclusive and started collaborating with other disciplines as its auxiliary
disciplines.

Other Definitions of History:

History is defined as a documented record of man and his society, (Gray, 1956).

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  As a field of study, history is a study of man and his achievements from the
beginning of written records to the present.
 As a literary form of history is an effective presentation of the unfolding events. But
as a type of literature history falls under non- fiction work.
 History comes from social history which defines it as a record of events showing the
evolution of man and his society from the earliest and from the age of barbarism to
what he is today.

Understanding History

Why don’t we learn from history? (An excerpt from Lidell Hart, 1971)
What is the objective of history? One would simply answer, quite simply - “truth”. It is a
word and an idea that has gone out of fashion.

The object might be more cautiously expressed thus: to find out what happened while trying
to find out why it happened. It seeks the casual relations between events.

History has limitations as a guiding signpost; although it can show us the right direction, it
does not give detailed information about the road conditions. But its negative value as a
warning sign is more definite. History can show us what to avoid, even if it does not teach us
what to do - by showing the most common mistakes that mankind is apt to make and to
repeat.

A second object lies in the practical value of history. The knowledge gained from the study of
true history is the best of all education for practical life. The study of history embraces every
aspect of life. It lays the foundation of education by showing how mankind repeats its errors
and what those errors are.

Importance and Uses of History

Given are the uses of history as summarized by Foray and Salevouris (1988). Some of these
are interestingly explained by B.H. Lidedell Hart (1971).
1. History provides a source of personal and social identity.
2. History helps us understand the problems of the present.

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 3. History – good history – corrects misleading analogies and “lessons” of the past.
4. History can help one develop tolerance and open-mindedness.
5. History helps us better understand all human behaviors and all aspects of the
human condition.
6. History provides the basic background for many disciplines.
7. History can be a source of entertainment.
8. History, when studied, can teach many critical skills.

SELF ASSESSMENT 1

Below is a definition of history by Zeus A. Salazar (1999). Examine it carefully then answer
the questions following the definition.

“Ang KASAYSAYAN ay SALAYSAY hinggil sa nakaraan o nakalipas na may SAYSAY –

kahulugan, katuturan, at kabuluhan – sa SARILING LIPUNAN at KULTURA o kabuuang
kinabibilangan. Ito ay iniuulat gamit ang mga konsepto at kategorya ng sariling kultura.”

What does the author mean or imply by “Ang kasaysayan ay salaysay… na may
saysay sa sariling lipunan at kultura”?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

The statement. “Ito (referring to kasaysayan) ay iniuulat gamit ang mga konsepto at
kategorya ng sariling kultura, implies who should write a people’s history. What issues would
emerge from (1) a history of people written and interpreted by an “outsider” (a
foreign historian); and, (2) a history of people analyzed and presented by an “insider” (a
local historian)?
History written by an outsider:
___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
History written by an insider:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SELF ASSESSMENT 2
As a student of history, reading a historical account is not simply like reading novel or a
comic book. A learner should also know how to distinguish which of those sentences or
paragraphs that make up the narrative are facts or opinions. Although a historian attempts to
present a history free from biases, it cannot be avoided the personal opinions or
interpretations of people, places, or events are integrated in a particular historical account.

Below are excerpts from books and newspapers. Label each passage either as FACT (F) or
OPINION (O). If a passage combines fact and opinion, write (FO) and underline that part of
the passage that you think is an opinion or judgement.

1. “His” [Apolinario Mabini] writings, his behavior throughout his life, short as it
was, demonstrated extraordinary moral integrity, intense and uncompromising patriotism.” –
Roxas-Lim (200)
2. “Swimmer Miguel Molina finished fourth in the 400 – meter individual medley…,
while the men’s trap shooters missed the bronze by seven birds…” – Tempo Sports News,
Bancod, December 4, 2006
3. “President Marcos, an unscrupulous politician, craftily planned KBL strategy
before, during, and after the elections, if need be to steal the results in his favor. No effort

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was spared in the use of “guns, goons, and gold” to intimidate or entice voters to support the
Marcos-Tolentino ticket.’ – Zaide (1999)
4. “anyone who has visited Jolo can immediately see that beyond the town looms a
dominating peak, Mt. Tumatangis, a place held sacred by the Tausugs as the burial grounds
of its sultans. The busy pier is called the “Chinese Pier”,” obviously used in the early times
by Chinese trading vessels.” – Patanne (1996)
5. “Yay Panlilio [was] a pre-war newspaperwoman. As early as April 1942, she began
serving as G-2 agent in Manila for the USAFFE headquarters. [A military citation to her
credit reads]: “Through her untiring efforts and selflessness…in supplying…information
concerning Japanese… activities… many American lives were saved.” – Baclagon (1968)

Lesson 2: Historical Sources

With the past as history's subject matter, the historian's most important research tools are
historical sources. In general, historical sources can be classified between primary and
secondary sources. The classification of sources between these two categories depends on the
historical subject being studied. Primary sources are those sources produced at the same time
as the event, period, or subject being studied. For example, if a historian wishes to study the
Commonwealth Constitution Convention of 1935, his primary sources can include the
minutes of the convention, newspaper clippings Philippine Commission reports of the U.S.
Commissioners, records of the convention, the draft of the Constitution, and even
photographs of the event. Eyewitness accounts of convention delegates and their memoirs
can also be used as primary sources. The same goes with other subjects of historical study.
Archival documents, artifacts, memorabilia, letters, census, and government records, among
others are the most common examples of primary sources.

On the other hand, secondary sources are those sources, which were produced by an author
who used primary sources to produce the material. In other words, secondary sources are
historical sources, which studied a certain historical subject. For example, on the subject of
the Philippine Revolution of 1896, students can read Teodoro Agoncillo's Revolt of the
Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan published originally in 1956. The
Philippine Revolution happened in the last years of the nineteenth century while Agoncillo
published his work in 1956, which makes the Revolt of the Masses a secondary source. More
than this, in writing the book, Agoncillo used primary sources with his research like

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documents of the Katipunan, interview with the veterans of the Revolution, and
correspondence between and among Katipuneros.

However, a student should not be confused about what counts as a primary or a secondary
source. As mentioned above, the classification of sources between primary and secondary
depends not on the period when the source was produced or the type of the source but on
the subject of the historical research. For example, a textbook is usually classified as a
secondary source, a tertiary source even. However, this classification is usual but not
automatic. If a historian chooses to write the history of education in the 1980s, he can utilize
textbooks used in that period as a primary source. If a historian wishes to study the
historiography of the Filipino-American War for example, he can use works of different
authors on the topic as his primary source as well.

Both primary and secondary sources are useful in writing and learning history. However,
historians and students of history need to thoroughly scrutinize these historical sources
to avoid deception and to come up with the historical truth. The historian should be able to
conduct an external and internal criticism of the source, especially primary sources which can
age in centuries. External criticism is the practice of verifying the authenticity of evidence by
examining its physical characteristics; consistency with the historical characteristic of the
time when it was produced; and the materials used for the evidence. Examples of the things
that will be examined when conducting external criticism of a document include the quality
of the paper, the type of the ink, and the language and words used in the material, among
others.

Internal criticism, on the other hand, is the examination of the truthfulness of the evidence. It
looks at the content of the source and examines the circumstance of its production. Internal
criticism looks at the truthfulness and factuality of the evidence by looking at the author of
the source, its context, the agenda behind its creation, the knowledge which informed it, and
its intended purpose, among others. For example, Japanese reports and declarations during
the period of the war should not be taken as a historical fact hastily. Internal criticism entails
that the historian acknowledge and analyze how such reports can be manipulated to be used
war propaganda. Validating historical sources is important because the use of unverified,
falsified, and untruthful historical sources can lead to equally false conclusions. Without
thorough criticisms of historical evidences, historical deceptions and lies will be highly

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probable.

One of the most scandalous cases of deception in Philippine history is the hoax Code of
Kalantiaw. The code was a set of rules contained in an epic, Maragtas, which was
allegedly written by a certain Datu Kalantiaw. The document was sold to the National
Library and was regarded as an important precolonial document until 1968, when American
historian William Henry Scott debunked the authenticity of the code due to anachronism and
lack of evidence to prove that the code existed in the precolonial Philippine society Ferdinand
Marcos also claimed that he was a decorated World War II soldier who led a guerilla unit
called Ang Maharlika. This was widely believed by students of history and Marcos had war
medals to show. This claim, however, was disproven when historians counterchecked
Marcos's claims with the war records of the United States. These cases prove how deceptions
can propagate without rigorous historical research.

The task of the historian is to look at the available historical sources and select the most
relevant and meaningful for history and for the subject matter that he is studying. History,
like other academic discipline, has come a long way but still has a lot of remaining tasks to
do. It does not claim to render absolute and exact judgment because as long as questions are
continuously asked, and as long as time unfolds, the study of history can never be complete.
The task of the historian is to organize the past that is being created so that it can offer
lessons for nations, societies, and civilization. It is the historian's job to seek for the meaning
of recovering the past to let the people see the continuing relevance of provenance, memory,
remembering, and historical understanding for both the present and the future.

Philippine historiography underwent several changes since the precolonial period until the
present. Ancient Filipinos narrated their history through communal songs and epics that they
passed orally from a generation to another. When the Spaniards came, their chroniclers
started recording their observations through written accounts. The perspective of historical
writing and inquiry also shifted. The Spanish colonizers narrated the. history of their colony
in a bipartite view They saw the age before colonization as a dark period in the history of the
islands, until they brought light through Western thought and Christianity. Early nationalists
refuted this perspective and argued the tripartite view. They saw the precolonial society as a
luminous age that ended with darkness when the colonizers captured their freedom. They
believed that the light would come again once the colonizers were evicted from the

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Philippines. Filipino historian Zeus Salazar introduced the new guiding philosophy for
writing and teaching history: pantayong pananaw (for us-trom us perspective). This
perspective highlights the importance of facilitating an internal conversation and discourse
among Filipinos about our own history, using the language that is understood by everyone.

SELF ASSESSMENT 3. Write true if the statement is true. Otherwise, write false in the
space provided.
1. History is the study of the past.
2. Historical sources that were not written should not be used in writing history.
3. The subject of historiography is history itself.
4. History has no use for the present, thus, the saying “past is past” is true.
5. History is limited to the story of a hero versus a villain.
6. Only primary sources may be used in writing history.
7. There are three types of sources: primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.
8. External criticisms is done by examining the physical characteristics of a source.
9. Internal criticisms is done by looking at a source’s quality
of paper and type of ink, among others.
10. The historians are the only source of history.

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CHAPTER/ MODULE 2: CONTENT AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF
SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Learning Objectives:
 To familiarize oneself with the primary documents in different historical periods
of the Philippines.
 To learn history through primary sources.
 To properly interpret primary sources through examining the content and context
of the document
 To understand the context behind each selected document.
 To interpret historical events using primary sources.
 To recognize the multiplicity of interpretation than can be read from a historical text.
 To identify the advantages and disadvantages of employing critical tools in
interpreting historical events through primary sources.
 To demonstrate ability to argue for or against a particular issue using primary sources.

In the preceding chapter, we have discussed the importance of familiarizing oneself about the
different kinds of historical sources. The historian's primary tool of understanding and
interpreting the past is the historical sources. Historical sources ascertain historical facts.
Such facts are then analyzed and interpreted by the historian to weave historical narrative.
Specifically, historians who study certain historical subjects and events need to make use of
various primary sources in order to weave the narrative. Primary sources, as discussed in the
preceding chapter, consist or documents, memoir, accounts, and other materials that were
produced at the period of the event or subject being studied.

Using primary sources in historical research entails two kinds of criticism. The first one is the
external criticism, and the second one is the internal criticism. External criticism examines
the authenticity of the document, or the evidence being used. This is important in ensuring
that the primary source is not fabricated. On the other hand, internal criticism examines the
truthfulness of the content of the evidence. However, this criticism requires not just the act
establishing truthfulness and/or accuracy but also the examination of the primary sources in
terms of the context of its production. For example, a historian would have to situate the
document in the period of its production, or in the background of its authors. In other words,

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it should be recognized that facts are neither existing in a vacuum nor produced from a
blank slate. These are products of the time and of the people.

In this chapter, we are going to look at a number of primary sources from different historical
periods and evaluate these documents content in terms of historical value, and examine the
context of their production. The primary sources that we are going to examine is Emilio
Jacinto's "Kartilya ng Katipunan and afterwards you will be examining selected primary
sources; these are: Manunggul Jar, Dasalan at Tocsohan, and Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga
Pilipino.

Needless to say, different types of sources necessitate different kinds of analysis and contain
different levels of importance. You are going to explore that in this chapter.

Lesson 1: The KKK and the Kartilya ng Katipunan

The Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KAK) or
Katipunan is arguably the most important organization formed in the Philippine history.
While anti-colonial movements, efforts, and organizations had already been established
centuries prior to the foundation of the katipunan, it was only this organization that
envisioned a united Filipino nation that would revolt against the Spaniards for the total
independence of the country from Spain.

Previous armed revolts had already occurred before the foundation of the Katipunan, but
none of them envisioned a unified Filipino nation revolting against the colonizers. For
example, Diego Silang was known as an Ilocano who took up his arms and led one of the
longest running revolts in the country. Silang. however, was mainly concerned about his
locality and referred to himself as El Rey de Ilocos (The King of locos). The imagination of
the nation was largely absent in the aspirations of the local revolts before Katipunan. On the
other hand, the propaganda movements led by the illustrados like Marcelo H. del Pilar,
Graciano Lopez Jaena, and Jose Rizal did not envision a total separation of the Philippines
from Spain, but only demanded equal rights, representation and protection from the abuses of
the friars.

In the conduct of their struggle, Katipunan created a complex structure and a defined value
system that would guide the organization as a collective aspiring for a single goal. One of the

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most important Katipunan documents was the Kartilya ng Katipunan. The original title of the
document was "Manga Aral Nang Katipunan ng mga A.N.B." or "Lessons of the
Organization of the Sons of Country" The document was written by Emilio Jacinto in the
1896. Jacinto was only 18 years old when he joined the movement. He was a law student
at the Universidad de Santo Tomas. Despite his youth, Bonifacio recognized the value and
intellect of Jacinto that upon seeing that Jacinto's Kartilya was much better than the
Decalogue he wrote, he willingly favored that the Kartilya be distributed to their fellow
Katipuneros. Jacinto became the secretary of the organization and took charge of the short-
lived printing press of the Katipunan On 15 April 189 Bonifacio appointed Jacinto as a
commander of the Katipunan in Northern Luzon. Jacinto was 22 years old. He died of
Malaria at a young age of 24 in the town of Magdalena, Laguna.

The Kartilya can be treated as the Katipunan's code of conduct. It contains fourteen rules that
instruct the way a Katipunero should behave, and which specific values should he uphold.
Generally, the rules stated in the Kartilya can be classified into two. The first group contains
the rules that will make the member an upright individual and the second group contains
the rules that will guide the way he treats his fellow men.

Below is the translated version of the rules in Kartilya:

 The life that is not consecrated to a lofty and reasonable purpose is a tree without a
shade, if not a poisonous weed.
 To do good for personal gain and not for its own sake is not a virtue.
 It is rational to be charitable and love one's fellow creature, and to adjust one's
conduct, acts and words to what is in itself reasonable.
 Whether our skin be black or white, we are all born equal: Superiority in knowledge,
wealth and beauty are to be understood, but not superiority by nature.
 The honorable man prefers honor to personal gain; the scoundrel, gain to honor.
 To the honorable man, his word is sacred.
 Do not waste thy time: wealth can be recovered but not time lost.
 Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor before the law or in the field.
 The prudent man is sparing in words and faithful in keeping secrets.
 On the thorny path of life, man is the guide of woman and the children, and if the
guide leads to the precipice, those whom he guides will also go there.

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  Thou must not look upon woman as a mere plaything, but as faithful companion who
will share with thee the penalties of life; her (physical) weakness will increase thy
interest in her and she will remind thee of the mother who bore thee and reared
thee.
 What thou dost not desire done unto thy wife, children, brothers and sisters, that do
not unto the wife, children, brothers and sisters of thy neighbor.

Man is not worth more because he is a king, because his nose is aquiline, and his color white,
not because he is a priest, a servant of God, nor because of the high prerogative that he enjoys
upon earth, but he is worth most who is a man of proven and real value, who does good,
keeps his words, is worthy and honest; he who does not oppress nor consent to being
oppressed, he who loves and cherishes his fatherland though he be born in the wilderness and
know no tongue but his own.

When these rules of conduct shall be known to all, the longed- for sun of Liberty shall
rise brilliant over this most unhappy portion of the globe and its rays shall diffuse everlasting
joy among the confederated brethren of the same rays, the lives of those who have gone
before, the fatigues and the well-paid sufferings will remain. If he who desires to enter has
informed himself of all this and believes he will be able to perform what will be his duties,
he may fill out the application for admission.

As the primary governing document, which determines the rules of conduct in the Katipunan,
properly understanding the Kartilya will thus help in understanding the values, ideals,
aspirations, and even the ideology of the organization.

Analysis of the “Kartilya ng Katipunan”

This primary source also needs to be analyzed in terms of content and context. As a written
document for a fraternity whose main purpose is to overthrow a colonial regime, we can
explain the content and provisions of the Kartilya as a reaction and response to certain value
systems that they found despicable in the present state of things that they struggled against
with. For example, in the fourth and the thirteen rules in the Kartilya are an invocation of the
inherent equality between and among men regardless of race, occupation or status. In the
context of the Spanish colonial era where the indies (indios) were treated as the inferior of

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the white Europeans, the Katipunan saw to it that the alternative order that they wished to
promulgate through their revolution necessarily destroyed this kind of unjust hierarchy.

Moreover, one can analyze the values upheld in the document as consistent with the
burgeoning rational and liberal ideals in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. Equality,
tolerance, freedom, and liberty were values that first emerged in the eighteenth-century
French Revolution, which spread throughout Europe and reached the educated class of the
colonies. Jacinto, an illustrados himself, certainly got an understanding of these values. Aside
from the liberal values that can be dissected in the document, we can also decipher certain
Victorian and chivalrous values in the text. For example, various provisions in the Kartilya
repeatedly emphasized the importance of honor in words and in action. The teaching of the
Katipunan on how women should be treated with honor and respect, while positive in many
respects and certainly a significant stride from the practice of raping and physically abusing
women, can still be telling of the Katipunan's secondary regard for women in relation to men.
For example, in the tenth rule, the document of specifically stated that men should be the
guide of women and children, and that he should set a good example, otherwise the women
and children would be guided in the path of evil. Nevertheless, the same documents stated
that women should be treated as companions of men not as playthings that can be exploited
for their pleasure.

ln the contemporary eyes, the Katipunan can be criticized because of these provisions.
However, one must not forget the context where the organization was born. Not even in
Europe or in the whole of the West at that juncture recognized the problem of gender
inequality. Indeed, it can be argued that Katipunan's recognition of women as important
partners in the struggle, as reflected not just in Kartilya but also in the organizational
structure of the fraternity where a women's unit was established, is an endeavor advanced for
its time. Aside from Rizal's known Letter to the Women of Malolos, no same effort by the
supposed cosmopolitan Propaganda Movement was achieved until the movement's eventual
disintegration in the latter part of the 1890s.

Aside from this, the Kartilya was instructive not just of the Katipunan's conduct toward
other people, but also for the members' development as individuals in their own rights.
Generally speaking, the rules in the Kartilya can be classified as either directed to how one
should treat his neighbor or to how one should develop and conduct oneself, Both are

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essential to the success and fulfillment of the Katipunan's ideals. For example, the Kartilya's
teachings on honoring one's word and not wasting time are teachings directed toward self-
development, while the rules on treating the neighbor's wife, children, and brothers the way
that you want yours to be treated is an instruction on how Katipuneros should treat and regard
their neighbors.

All in all, proper reading of the Kartilya will reveal a more thorough understanding of the
Katipunan and the significant role that it played in the revolution and in the unfolding of the
Philippine history, as we know it.

ASSIGNMENT:
Now, you will be examining the three primary sources entitled:
a. The Manunggul Jar as a Vessel of History
b. Dasalan at Tocsohan
c. Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Pilipino

After reading the primary sources, proceed now in answering the prepared self-assessment
tasks below.

Self-assessment Task 1: Try to complete the information below using the set of words
provided in the box.

The Manunggul Jar was discovered in the early 1960’s in

, Palawan. This burial jar features designs and is
painted with and . The lid of the jar features two human
figures with arms crossed on the chest representing the traditional practice of the
corps riding a boat. This artifact signifies the belief of the early Filipinos in the ___ __.

The Mununggul Jar is a of the Philippines. The jar was found in the
chamber of the , one of the Mununggul caves in Palawan. The jar is found
from about years before the present. It was found by and _________.

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 a. National Treasure b. Afterlife
c. Tabon Cave d. 2800
e. curvilinear f. Manunggul cave
g. Hematite h. Robert Fox
i. Iron j. Miguel Santiago

Self-assessment 2
Using the table below compare the idea of the Marcelo H. del Pilar’s Dasalan at Tocsohan to
the real Cathechism of the Catholic church. Use key phrases/words only.

Dasalan at Tocsohan Cathechism

Conclusion:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Self-Assessment 3
Using the table below compare the Philippine setting before and after the arrival of Spaniards
in the Philippines. Use key phrases/words only.

Before the arrival of the Spaniards After the arrival of the Spaniards
(LIWANAG) (DILIM)

Conclusion:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

LESSON 2: Making Sense of the Past: Historical Interpretation

In this lesson, we will analyze three historiographical problems in Philippine history to apply
what we have learned thus far in the work of a historian and the process of historical inquiry.
Earlier, we have been introduced to history as a discipline, the historical method, and the
content and context analysis of primary sources. Two key concepts that need to be defined
before proceeding to the historical analysis of problems in history are interpretation and

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multi-perspectivity.

History is the study of the past, but a more contemporary definition is centered on how it
impacts the present through its consequences. (Geoffrey Barraclough defines history as "the
attempt to discover, on the basis of fragmentary evidence, the significant things about the
past. He also notes the history we read, though based on facts, is strictly speaking, not factual
at all, but a series of accepted judgments. Such judgments of historians on how the past
should be seen make the foundation of historical interpretation.

The Code of Kalantiaw is a mythical legal code in the epic history Maragtas. Before it was
revealed as a hoax, it was a source of pride for the people of Aklan. In fact, a historical
marker was installed in the town of Batan, Aklan in 1956, with the following text:

"CODE OF KALANTIAW. Datu Bendehara Kalantiaw, third Chief of Panay, born in Aklan,
established his government in the peninsula of Batang, Aklan Sakup. Considered the First
Filpino Lawgiver, he promulgated in about 1433 penal code now known as Code of
Kalantiaw containing 18 articles. Don Marcelino Orilla of Zarugoza, Spain, obtained the
original manuscript from an old chief of Panay which was later translated into Spanish by
Rafael Murviedo Yzamaney.”

It was only in 1968 that it was proved a hoax, when William Henry Scott, then a doctoral
candidate at the University of Santo Tomas, defended his research on pre-hispanic sources in
Philippine history. He attributed the code to a historical fiction writtern in 1913 by Jose E.
Marco titled Las Antiguas Leyendas de la lsla de Negros. Marco attributed the code itself to a
priest named Jose Maria Pavon. Prominent Filipino historians did not dissent to Scott s
findings, but there are still some who would like to believe that the code is a legitimate
document.

Historians utilize facts collected from primary sources of history and then draw their own
reading so that their intended audience may understand the historical event, a process that in
essence, "makes sense of the past. The premise is that not all primary sources are accessible
to a general audience, and without the proper training and background, a non-historian
interpreting a primary source may do more harm than good-a primary source may even cause
misunderstandings; sometimes, even resulting more problems.

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Interpretations of the past, therefore, vary according to who reads the primary source, when
it was read, and how it was read. As students of history, we must be well equipped to
recognize different types of interpretations why these may differ from each other, and how
to critically sift these interpretations through historical evaluation. Interpretations of historical
events change over time; thus, it is an important skill for a student of history to track these
changes to understand the past.
Sa Aking Mga Kabata is a poem purportedly written by Jose Rizal when he was eight years
old and is probably one of the Rizal’s prominent works. There is no evidence to support the
claim that this poem, with the now immortalized lines “Ang hindi magmahal ssa kanyang
salita, mahigit sa hayop at malansang isda was written by Rizal, and worse, the evidence
against Rizals authorship of the poem seems all unassailable.

There exists no manuscript of the poem handwritten by Rizal. The poem was first published
in 1906, in a book by Hermenegildo Cruz.

Cruz said he received the poem from Gabriel Beato Francisco, who claimed to have received
it in 1884, Rizal's close friend, Saturnino Raselis. Rizal never mentioned writing this poem
anywhere in his writings, and more importantly, he never mentioned of having a close friend
by the person of Raselis.

Further criticism of the poem reveals more about the wrongful attribution of the poem to
Rizal. The poem was written in Tagalog and referred to the word "Kalayaan”. But it was
documented in Rizal's letters that he first encountered the word through a Marcelo H. del
Pilar's translation of Rizal's essay El Amor Patrio, where it was spelled as kalayahan.

While Rizal's native tongue was Tagalog. he was educated in Spanish, starting from his
mother, Teodora Alonso. Later on, he would express disappointment in his difficulty in
expressing himself in his native tongue.

The poem's spelling is also suspect-the use of letters "k and "w" to replaced c and u,
respectively was suggested by Rizal as an adult. If the poem was indeed written during his
time, it should use the original Spanish orthography that was prevalent in his time.

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Many of the things we accept as "true about the past might not be the case anymore, just
because these were taught to us as facts when we were younger does not mean that it is
set in stone-history is, after all, a construct. And as a construct, it is open for interpretation.
There might be conflicting and competing accounts of the past that need one's attention and
can impact the way we view our country's history and identity. It is important, therefore, to
subject to evaluation not only the primary source, but also the historical interpretation of the
same, to ensure that the current interpretation is reliable to support our acceptance of events
of the past.

Multi-perspectivity
With several possibilities of interpreting the past, another important concept that we must
note is multi-perspectivity. This can be defined as a way of looking at historical events,
personalities, developments, cultures, and societies from different perspectives. This means
that there is a multitude of ways by which we can view the world, and each could be
equally valid, and at the same time, equally partial as well. Historical writing is, by definition,
biased, partial, and contains preconceptions. The historian decides on what sources to use,
what interpretation to make more apparent, depending on what his end is. Historians may
misinterpret evidence, attending to those that suggest that a certain event happened, and then
ignore the rest that goes against the evidence. Historians may omit significant facts about
their subject which makes the interpretation unbalanced. Historians may impose a certain
ideology to their subject, which may not be appropriate the period the subject was from.
Historians may also provide a single cause for an event without considering other possible
causal explanations of said event. These are just many of the ways a historian may fail in his
historical inference, description, and interpretation. With multi-perspectivity as an approach
in history, we must understand that historical interpretations contain discrepancies,
contradictions, ambiguities, and are often the focus of dissert.

Exploring multiple perspectives in history requires incorporating source materials that reflect
different views of an event in history, because singular historical narratives do not provide for
space to inquire and investigate. Different sources that counter each other may create space
for more investigation and research, while providing more evidence for those truths that
these sources agree on.

Different kinds of sources also provide different historical truths - an official document may

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note different aspects of the past than, say, a memoir an ordinary person on the same event.
Different historical agents create different historical truths, and while this may be a
burdensome work for the historian, it also renders more validity to the historical scholarship.
Taking these in close regard in the reading of historical interpretations it provides for the
audience a more complex, but also a more complete and richer understanding of the past.

Case Study 1: Where Did the First Catholic Mass Take Place in the Philippines?
The popularity of knowing where the "firsts" happened in history has been an easy way to
trivialize history, but this case study will not focus on the significance (or lack thereof) of the
site of the First Catholic Mass in the Philippines, but rather, use it as a historiographical
exercise in the utilization of evidence and interpretation in reading historical events.

Butuan has long been believed as the site of the first Mass. In fact, this has been the case for
three centuries, culminating in the erection of a monument in 1872 near Agusan River, which
commemorates the expedition's arrival and celebration of Mass on 8 April 1521. The Butuan
claim has been based on a rather elementary reading of primary sources from the event.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth century, together with
the increasing scholarship on the history of the Philippines, a more nuanced reading of the
available evidence was made, which brought to light more considerations in gong against the
more accepted interpretation of the first Mass in the Philippines, made both by Spanish and
Filipino scholars.

It must be noted that there are only two primary sources that historians refer to in identifying
the site of the first Mass. One is the log kept by Francisco Albo, a pilot of one of
Magellan's ship, Trinidad. He was one of the 18 survivors who returned with Sebastian
Elcano on the ship Victoria after they circumnavigated the world. The other, and the more
complete, was the account by Antonio Pigafetta, Primo Uaggio intorno al mondo (First
Voyage Around the World). Pigafetta, like Albo, was a member of the Magellan expedition
and an eyewitness of the events, particularly, of the first Mass.

On the 16th of March (1521) as they sailed in a westerly course from Ladrones, they
saw land towards the northwest; but owing to many shallow places they did not approach
it. They found later that its name was Yunagan.

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They went instead that same day southwards to another small island named Suluan, and there
they anchored. There they saw some canoes, but these fled at the Spaniards' approach. This
island was at 9 and two-thirds degrees North latitude.

Departing from those two islands, they sailed westward to an uninhabited island of “Gada"
where they took in a supply of wood and water. The sea around that island was free from
shallows. (Albo does not give the latitude of this island, but from Pigatetta's testimony, this
seems to be the "Acquada or Homonhon, at 10 degrees North latitude.)

From that island they sailed westwards towards a large island names Seilani that was
inhabited and was known to have gold (Seilani- or, as Pigafetta calls it, "Ceylon-was the
island of Leyte.)

Sailing southwards along the coast of that large island of Seilani, they turned southwest to a
small island called "Mazava." That island is also at a latitude of 9 and two-thirds
degrees North.

The people of that island of Mazava were very good. There the Spaniards planted a cross
upon a mountain-top, and from there they were shown three islands to the west and
southwest, where they were told there was much gold. "They showed us how the gold was
gathered, which came in small pieces like peas and lentils.

From Mazava they sailed northwards again towards Seilani. Tney followed the coast of
Seilani in a northwesterly direction, ascending up to 10 degrees of latitude where they
saw three small islands.

From there they sailed westwards some ten leagues, and there they saw three islets, where
they dropped anchor for the night. In the morning they sailed southwest some 12 leagues,
down to a latitude of l0 and one-third degree. There they entered a channel between two
islands, one of which was called "Matan" and the other "Subu."

They sailed down that channel and then turned westward and anchored at the town (la villa)
of Subu where they stayed many days and obtained provisions and entered into a peace-pact

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with the local king.

The town of Subu was on an east-west direction with the islands of Suluan and Mazava.
But between Mazava and Subu, there were so many shallows that the boats could not go
westward directly but has to go (as they did) in a round-about way.

It must be noted that in Albo's account, the location of Mazava fits the location of the island
of Limasawa, at the southern tip of Leyte, 9°54N. Also, Albo does not mention the first
Mass, but only the planting of the cross upon a mountain-top from which could be seen
three islands to the west and southwest, which also fits the southern end of Limasawa.

Saturday, 16 March 1521- Magellan's expedition sighted a "high land" named "Zamal" which
was some 300 leagues westward of Ladrones (now the Marianas) Islands.

Sunday, March 17 "The following day" after sighting Zamal Island, they landed on "another
island which was uninhabited" and which lay "to the right" of the above-mentioned island of
"Zamal." (To the "righť here would mean on their starboard going south or southwest.) There
they set up two tents for the sick members of the crew and had a sow killed for them. The
name of this island was Humunu (Homonhon). This island was located at 10 degrees North
latitude.

On that same day (Sunday, March 17), Magellan named the ensure archipelago the "Islands
of Saint Lazarus," the reason being that it was Sunday in the Lenten season when the Gospel
assigned for the Mass and the liturgical Office was the eleventh chapter of St. John, which
tells of the raising of Lazarus from the dead.

Monday, March 18 - In the afternoon of their second day on that island, they saw a boat
coming towards them with nine men in it. An exchange of gifts was affected. Magellan asked
for food supplies, and the men went away, promising to bring rice and other supplies in "four
days.

There were two springs of water on that island of Homonhon. Also, they saw there some
indications that there was gold in these islands. Consequently, Magellan renamed the island
and called it the "Watering Place of Good Omen" (Acquada la di bouni segniali).

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Friday, March 22-At noon the natives returned. This time they were in two boats, and they
brought food supplies.

Magellan's expedition stayed eight days at Homonhon: from Sunday, March 17, to the
Monday of the following week, March 25.

Monday, March 25 In the afternoon, the expedition weighed anchor and left the island of
Homonhon. In the ecclesiastical calendar, this day (March 25) was the feast-day of the
incarnation, also called the feast of the Annunciation and therefore "Our Lady's Day. On this
day, as they were about to weigh anchor, an accident happened to Pigafëtta: he fell into the
water but was rescued. He attributed his narrow escape from death as grace obtained through
the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on her feast-day.

The route taken by the expedition after leaving Homonhon was "toward the west southwest,
between four islands: namely, Cenalo, Hiunanghan, Ibusson and Albarien." Very probably
"Cenalo is a misspelling in the Italian manuscript for what Pigafetta in his map calls "Ceilon
and Albo calls "Seilani: namely the island of Leyte. Hiunanghan" (a misspelling of
Hinunangan) seemed to Pigafetta to be a separate island, but is actually on the mainland of
Leyte "Ceylon'"). On the other hand, Hibuson (Pigafetta's Ibusson) is an island east of Leyte's
southern tip.

Thus, it is easy to see what Pigafetta meant by sailing toward the west southwest" past those
islands. They left Homonhon sailing westward towards Leyte, then followed the Leyte coast
southward, passing between the island of Hibuson on their portside and Unangan Bay on
their starboard, and then continued southward, then turning westward to "Mazaua.

Thursday, March 28 In the morning of Holy Thursday, March 6, they anchored off an island
where the previous night they had seen a light or a bonfire. That island "lies in a latitude of
nine and two-thirds towards the Arctic Pole (i.e., North) and in a longitude of one hundred
and sixty-two degrees from the line of demarcation. It is twenty-five leagues from the
Acquada, and is called Mazaua. They remained seven days on Mazaua Island.

Thursday, April 4-They left Mazaua, bound for Cebu. They were guided thither by the king

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of Mazaua who sailed in his own boat. Their route took them past five "islands" namely:
"Ceylon, Bohol, Canighan, Baibai, and Gatighan."

At Gatighan, they sailed westward to the three islands of the Camotes Group, namely, Poro,
Pasihan and Ponson. Here the Spanish ships stopped to allow the king of Mazaua to catch up
with them, since the Spanish ships were much faster than the native balangha - a thing that
excited the admiration of the king of Mazaua.

From the Camotes Islands they sailed southwards towards "Zubu”.

Sunday, April 7 - At noon they entered the harbor of "Zubu (Cebu). It had taken them three
days to negotiate the journey from Mazaua northwards to the Camotes Islands and then
southwards to Cebu.

It must be pointed out that both Albo and Pigafetta's testimonies coincide and corroborate
each other. Pigafetta gave more details on what they did during their weeklong stay at
Mazaua.

Thursday, March 28-In the morning they anchored near an island where they had seen a light
the night before a small boat (boloto) came with eight natives, to whom Magellan threw
some trinkets as presents. The natives paddled away, but two hours later two larger boats
(balanghai) came, in one of which the native king sat under an awning of mats. At Magellan's
invitation some of the natives went up the Spanish ship, but the native king remained seated
in his boat. An exchange of gifts was affected. In the afternoon that day, the Spanish ships
weighed anchor and came closer to shore, anchoring near the native king’s village. This
Thursday, March 28, was Thursday in Holy Week, i.e., Holy Thursday.

Friday, March 29-"Next day. Holy Friday, Magellan sent his slave interpreter ashore in a
small boat to ask the king if he could provide the expedition with food supplies, and to say
that they had come as friends and not as enemies. In reply to the king himself came in a boat
with six or eight men, and this time went up Magellan's ship and the two men embraced.
Another exchange of gifts was made. The native king and his companions returned ashore,
bringing with them two members of Magellan's expedition as guests for the night. One of the
two was Pigafetta.

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Saturday, March 30 Pigafetta and his companion had spent the previous evening toasting and
drinking with the native king and his son. Pigafetta deplored the fact that, although it was
Good Friday, they had to eat meat. The following morning (Saturday) Pigafetta and his
companion took leave of their hosts and returned to the ships.

Sunday, March 31-"Early in the morning of Sunday, the last of March and Easter day,"
Magellan sent the priest ashore with some men to prepare for the Mass. Later in the morning
Magellan landed with some fifty men and Mass was celebrated, after which a cross was
venerated. Magellan and the Spaniards returned to the ship for the noon-day meal, but in the
afternoon, they returned ashore to plant the cross on the summit of the highest hill. In
attendance both at the Mass and at the planting of the cross were the king of Mazaua and the
king of Butuan.

Sunday, March 31-On that same afternoon, while on the summit of the highest hill,
Magellan asked the two kings which ports he should go to in order to obtain more abundant
supplies of food than were available in that island. They replied that there were three to
choose from: Ceylon, Zubu, and Calagan. Of the three, Zubu was the port with the most
trade. Magellan then said that he wished to go to Zubu and to depart the following morning.
He asked for someone to guide him thither. The kings replied that the pilots would be
available "any time. But later that evening the King of Mazaua changed his mind and said
that he would himself conduct Magellan to Zubu but that he would first have to bring the
harvest in. He asked Magellan to send him men to help with the harvest.

Monday, April 1 - Magellan sent men ashore to help with the harvest, but no work was done
that day because the two kings were sleeping off their drinking bout the night before.

Tuesday, April 2 and Wednesday, April3- Work on the harvest during the "next to days, 1.e.,
Tuesday and Wednesday, the 2nd and 3rd of April.

Thursday, April 4-They leave Mazaua, bound for Cebu.

Using the primary sources available, Jesuit priest Miguel A. Bernad in his work Butuan or
Limasauwa: The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence
(1981) lays down the argument that in the Pigafetta account, a crucial aspect of Butuan was

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not mentioned-the river. Butuan is a riverine settlement, situated on the Agusan River. The
beach off Masno is in the delta of said river. It 18 a curious omission in the account of the
river, which makes part of a distinct characteristic of Butuan's geography that seemed to be
too important to be missed.

The Age of Exploration is a period of competition among European rulers to conquer and
colonize lands outside their original domains. Initially, the goal was to find alternative routes
by sea to get to Asia, the main source of spices and other commodities. Existing routes to
Asia were mainly by land and cost very expensive. A sea route to Asia means that Europeans
could access the spice trade directly, greatly reducing costs for traders. Spain's major foray
into the exploration was through Christopher Columbus, who proposed to sail westward to
find a shortcut to Asia. He was able to reach the Americas, which was then cut-off from the
rest of the known world.

Spain colonized parts of North America, Mexico, and South America in the sixteenth century.
They were also able to reach the Philippines and claim it for the Spanish crown. Later on,
other European rulers would compete with the activities of exploring and conquering lands.

It must also be pointed out that later on, after Magellan s death, the survivors of his
expedition went to Mindanao, and seemingly went to Butuan. In this instance, Pigafetta
vividly describes a trip in a river. But note that this account already happened after Magellan's
death.

Case Study 2: What Happened in the Cavite Mutiny?

The year 1872 is a historic year of two events: the Cavite Mutiny and the martyrdom of the
three priests: Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, later on immortalized as
GOMBURZA. These events are very important milestones in Philippine history and have
caused ripples throughout time, directly influencing the decisive events of the Philippine
Revolution toward the end of the century. While the significance is unquestioned, what made
this year controversial are the different sides to the story, a battle of perspectives supported
by primary sources. In this case study, we zoom in to the events of the Cavite Mutiny, a
major factor in the awakening of nationalism among the Filipinos of that time.

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Spanish Accounts of the Cavite Mutiny
The documentation of Spanish historian Jose Montero y Vidal centered on how the event was
an attempt in overthrowing the Spanish government in the Philippines. Although regarded as
a historian, his account of the mutiny was criticized as woefully biased and rabid for a
scholar. Another account from the official report written by then Governor General Rafael
Izquierdo implicated the native clergy, who were then, active in the movement toward
secularization of parishes. These two accounts corroborated each other.

The abolition of privileges enjoyed by the laborers of the Cavite arsenal of exemption from
the tribute was, according to some, the cause of the insurrection. There were, however, other
causes. The Spanish revolution which overthrew a secular throne, the propaganda carried on
by an unbridled press against monarchical principles, attenuator of the most sacred respects
towards the dethroned majesty; the democratic and republican books and pamphlets; the
speeches and preachings of the apostles of these new ideas in Spain; the outbursts of the
American publicists and the criminal policy of the senseless Governor whom the
Revolutionary government sent to govern the Philippines, and who put into practice these
ideas were the determining circumstances which gave rise, among certain Filipinos, to the
idea of attaining their independence. It was towards this goal that they started to work, with
the powerful assistance of a certain section of the native clergy, who out of spite toward
friars, made common cause with the enemies of the mother country.

At various times but especially in the beginning of year 1872, the authorities received
anonymous communications with the information that a great uprising would break out
against the Spaniards, the minute the fleet at Cavite left for the South, and that all would
be assassinated, including the friars. But nobody gave importance to these notices. The
conspiracy had been going on Since the days of La Torre with utmost secrecy. At times, the
principal leaders met either in the house of Filipino Spaniard, D. Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, or
in that of the native priest, Jacinto Zamora, and these meetings were usually attended by the
curate of Bacoor, the soul of the movement, whose energetic character and immense wealth
enabled him to exerc1se a strong influence.

...It seems definite that the insurrection was motivated and prepared by the native
clergy, by the mestizos and native lawyers, and by those known here as abogadillos..

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The instigators, to carry out their criminal project, protested the injustice of the government
in not paying the provinces for their tobacco crop, and against the usury that some practice
in documents that the Finance department gives crop owners who have to sell them at a loss.
They encouraged the rebellion by protesting what they called the injustice of having obliged
the workers in the Cavite arsenal to pay tribute starting January 1 and to render personal
service, from which they were formerly exempted.

Up to now it has not been clearly determined if they planned to establish a monarchy or a
republic, because the Indios have no word in their language to describe this different form of
government, whose head in Filipino would be called hari; but it turns out that they would
place at the head of the government a priest. that the head selected would be D. Jose Burgos,
or D. Jacinto Zamora. Such is... the plan of the rebels, those who guided them, and the means
they counted upon for its realization.

It is apparent that the accounts underscore the reason for the "revolution": the abolition of
privileges enjoyed by the workers of the Cavite arsenal such as exemption from payment of
tribute and being employed in polos y servicios, or force labor. They also identified other
reasons which seemingly made the issue a lot more serious, which included the presence of
the native clergy, who, out of spite against the Spanish friars, "conspired and supported the
rebels. Izquierdo, in an obviously biased report, highlighted that attempt to overthrow the
Spanish government in the Philippines to install a new "hari in the persons of Fathers Burgos
and Zamora. According to him, native clergy attracted supporters by giving them
charismatic assurance that their fight would not fail because they had God's support, aside
from promises of lofty rewards such as employment, wealth, and ranks in the army.

In the Spaniard's accounts, the event of 1872 was premeditated, and was part of a big
conspiracy among the educated leaders, mestizos, lawyers, and residents of Manila and
Cavite. They allegedly plan to liquidate high ranking Spanish officers, then kill the friars. The
signal they identified among these conspirators of Manila and Cavite was the rockets fired
from Intramuros.

The accounts detail that on 20 January 1872, the district of Sampaloc celebrated the feast of
the Virgin of Loreto and came with it were some fireworks displays. The Caviteños
allegedly mistook this as the signal to commence with the attack. The 200-men contingent

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led by Sergeant Lamadrid attacked Spanish officers at sight and seized the arsenal. Izquierdo,
upon learning of the attack, ordered the reinforcement of the Spanish forces in Cavite to quell
the revolt. The "revolution was easily crushed, when the Manileños who were expected to
aid the Caviteños did not arrive. Leaders of the plot were killed in the resulting skirmish,
while Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were tried by a court-martial and sentenced to be
executed. Others who were implicated such as Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio
Ma.Regidor, Jose and Pio Basa, and other Filipino lawyers were suspended from the practice
of law, arrested, and sentenced to life imprisonment at the Marianas Island. Izquierdo
dissolved the native regiments of artillery and ordered the creation of an artillery force
composed exclusively by Peninsulares.

On 17 February 1872, the GOMBURZA were executed to serve as a threat to Filipinos

never to attempt to fight the Spaniards again.

Differing Accounts of the Events of 1872

Two other primary accounts exist that seem to counter the accounts of Izquierdo and
Montero. First, the account of Dr. Trinidad Hermenegildo Pardo de Tavera, a Pilipino scholar
and researcher, who wrote a Filipino version of the bloody incident in Cavite.

This uprising among the soldiers in Cavite was used as s powerful level by the Spanish
residents and by the friars. the Central Government in Madrid had announced its intention to
deprive the friars in these islands of powers of intervention in matters of civil government
and of the direction and management of the university, it was due to these facts and promises
that the Filipinos had great hopes of an improvement in the affairs of their country, while the
friars, on the other hand, feared that their power in the colony would soon be complete a
thing of the past.

...Up to that time there had been no intention of secession from Spain, and the only aspiration
of the people was to secure the material and education advancement of the country...

According to this account, the incident was merely a mutiny by Filipino soldiers and laborers
of the Cavite arsenal to the dissatisfaction arising from the draconian policies of Izquierdo,
such as the abolition of privileges and the prohibition of the founding of the school of arts
and trades tor Filipinos, which the General saw as a smokescreen to creating a political club.

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Tavera is of the opinion that the Spanish friars and Izquierdo used the Cavite Mutiny as a
way to address other issues by blowing out of proportion the isolated mutiny attempt.
During this time, the Central Government in Madrid was planning to deprive the friars of all
the powers of intervention in matters of civil government and direction and management of
educational institutions. The friars needed something to justify their continuing dominance in
the country, and the mutiny provided such opportunity.

However, the Central Spanish Government introduced an educational decree fusing sectarian
schools run by the friars into a school called the Philippine Institute. The decree aimed to
improve the standard of education in the Philippines by requiring teaching positions in these
schools to be filled by competitive examinations, an improvement welcomed by most
Filipinos.

Another account, this time by French writer Edmund Plauchut, complemented Tavera's
account and analyzed the motivations of the 1872 Cavite Mutiny.

General La Torre, created a junta composed of high officials... including some friars and six
Spanish officials.... At the same time there was created by the government in Madrid a
committee to investigate the same problems submitted to the Manila committee. When the
two finished work, it was found that they came to the same conclusions. Here is the summary
of the reforms they considered necessary to introduce:
 Changes in tariff rates at customs, and the methods of collection.
 Removal of surcharges on foreign importations.
 Reduction of export fees.
 Permission for foreigners to reside in the Philippines, buy real estate, enjoy freedom
of worship, and operate commercial transports flying the Spanish flag.
 Establishment of an advisory council to inform the Minister of Overseas Affairs in
Madrid on the necessary reforms to be implemented.
 Changes in primary and secondary education.
 Establishment of an Institute of Civil Administration in the Philippines, rendering
unnecessary the sending home of short-term civil officials every time there is a
change of ministry.
 Study of direct-tax system.

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  Abolition of the tobacco monopoly.

...The arrival in Manila of General Izquierdo... put a sudden end to all dreams of reforms...
the prosecutions instituted by the new Governor General were probably expected because of
the bitter disputes between the Filipino clerics and the friars. Such a policy must really end
in a strong desire on the part of the other to repress cruelly.

Regarding schools, it was previously decreed that there should be in Manila a Society of Arts
and Trades to be opened in March of 1871... to repress the growth of liberal teachings,
General Izquierdo suspended the opening of the school... the day before the scheduled
inauguration.

The Filipinos had a duty to render service on public roads construction and pay taxes every
year. But those who were employed at the maestranza of the artillery, in the engineering
shops and arsenal of Cavite, were exempted from this obligation from time immemorial...
Without preliminaries of any kind, a decree by the Governor withdrew from such old
employees their retirement privileges and declassified them into the ranks ot those who
worked on public roads.

The friars used the incident as a part of a larger conspiracy to cement their dominance,
which had started to show cracks because of the discontent of the Filipinos. They
showcased the mutiny as part of a greater conspiracy in the Philippines by Filipinos to
overthrow the Spanish Government. Unintentionally, and more so, prophetically, the Cavite
Mutiny of 1872 resulted in the martyrdom of GOMBURZA, and paved the way to the
revolution culminating in 1898.

The GOMBURZA is the collective name of the three martyred priests Mariano Gomez, Jose
Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, who were tagged as the masterminds of the Cavite Mutiny.
They were prominent Filipino priests charged with treason and sedition. It is believed that the
Spanish clergy connected the priests to the mutiny as part of a conspiracy to stifle the
movement of secular priests who desired to have their own parishes instead of being merely
assistants to the regular friars. The GOMBURZA were executed by garrote in public, a scene
purportedly witnessed by a young Jose Rizal.

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Their martyrdom is widely accepted as the dawn of Philippine nationalism in the nineteenth
century, with Rizal dedicating his second novel, El Filibusterismo, to their memory:

“The Government, by enshrouding your trial in mystery and pardoning your co-accused, has
suggested that some mistake was committed when your fate was decided; and the whole of
the Philippines, in paying homage to your memory and calling you martyrs, totally rejects
your guilt. The Church, by refusing to degrade you, has put in doubt the crime charged
against you.

Case Study 3: Where Did the Cry of Rebellion Happen?

Momentous events swept the Spanish colonies in the late nineteenth century, including the
Philippines. Journalists of the time referred to the phrase El Grito de Rebelion" or "Cry of
Rebellion" to mark the start of these revolutionary events, identifying the places where it
happened. In the Philippines, this happened in August 1896, northeast of Manila, where they
declared rebellion against the Spanish colonial government. These events are important
markers in the history of colonies that struggled for their independence against their
colonizers.

The controversy regarding this event stems from the identification of the date and place
where the Cry happened. Prominent Filipino historian Teodoro Agoncillo emphasizes the
event when Bonifacio tore the cedula or tax receipt before the Katipuneros who also did the
same. Some writers identified the first military event with the Spaniards as the moment of the
Cry, for which, Emilio Aguinaldo commissioned an "Himno de Balintawak to inspire the
renewed struggle after the Pact of the Biak-na-Bato failed. A monument to the Heroes of
1896 was erected in what is now the intersection of Epifanio de los Santos (EDSA)
Avenue and Andres Bonifacio Drive-North Diversion Road, and from then on until 1962,
the Cry of Balintawak was celebrated every 26th of August. The site of the monument
was cho8en for an unknown reason.

Different Dates and Places of the Cry

Various accounts of the Cry give different dates and places. A guardia civil, Lt. Olegario
Diaz, identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak on 25 August 1896. Teodoro Kalaw,
Filipino historian, marks the place to be in Kangkong, Balintawak, on the last week of August
1896. Santiago Alvarez, a Katipunero and son of Mariano Alvarez, leader of the Magdiwang

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faction in Cavite, put the Cry in Bahay Toro in Quezon City on 24 August 1896. Pio
Valenzuela, known Katipunero and privy to many events concerning the Katipunan stated
that the Cry happened in Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896. Historian Gregorio Zaide
identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak on 26 August 1896, while Teodoro
Agoncillo put it at Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896, according to statements by Pio
Valenzuela. Research by historians Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacion, and Ramon
Villegas claimed that the event took place in Tandang Sora's barn in Gulod, Barangay Banlat,
Quezon City, on 24 August 1896.

On August 26th, a big meeting was held in Balintawak, at the house of Apolonio Samson,
then cabeza of that barrio of Caloocan. Among those who attended, I remember, were
Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Aguedo del Rosario, Tomas Remigio, Briccio Pantas, Teodoro
Plata, Pio Valenzuela, Enrique Pacheco, and Francisco Carreon. They were all leaders of the
Katipunan and composed the board of directors of the organization. Delegates from Bulacan,
Cabanatuan, Cavite, and Morong were also present.

At about nine o'clock in the morning of August 26, the meeting was opened with Andres
Bonifacio presiding and Bmilio Jacinto acting as secretary. The purpose was to discuss when
the uprising was to take place. Teodoro Plata, Briccio Pantas, and Pio Valenzuela were all
opposed to starting the revolution too early... Andres Bonifacio, sensing that he would lose in
the discussion then, left the session hall and talked to the people, who were waiting
outside for the result of the meeting of the leaders. He told the people that the leaders
were arguing against starting the revolution early and appealed to them in a fiery speech in
which he said: "You remember the fate of our countrymen who were shot in Bagumbayan.
Should we return now to the towns, the Spaniards will only shoot us. Our organization has
been discovered and we are all marked men. If we don't start the uprising, the Spaniards will
get us anyway. What then, do you say?
"Revolt!" the people shouted as one.

Bonifacio then asked the people to give a pledge that they were to revolt. He told them that
the sign of slavery of the Filipinos were the cedula tax charged each citizen. "If it is true that
you are ready to revolt... I want to see you destroy your cedulas. It will be a sign that all of
us have declared our severance from the Spaniards.

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The first place of refuge of Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Procopio Bonifacio, Teodoro
Plata, Aguedo del Rosario, and myself was Balintawak, the first five arriving there on August
19, and I, on August 20, 1896. The first place where some 500 members of the Katipunan
met on August 22, 1896, was the house and yard of Apolonio Samson at Kangkong. Aside
from the persons mentioned above, among those who were there were Briccio Pantas,
Alejandro Santiago, Kamon Bernardo, Apolonio Samson, and others. Here, views were only
exchanged, and no resolution was debated or adopted. It was at Pugad Lawin, the house
storehouse, and yard of Juan Ramos, son of Melchora Aquino, where over 1,000 members of
the Katipunan met and carried out considerable debate and discussion on August 23, 1896.
The discussion was on whether the revolution against the Spanish government should be
started on August 29, 1896... After the tumultuous meeting, many of those present tore
their cedula certificates and shouted "Long live the Philippines! Long live the Philippines!

From the eyewitness accounts presented, there is indeed marked disagreement among
historical witnesses as to the place and time of the occurrence of the Cry. Using primary and
secondary sources, tour places have been identified: Balintawak, Kangkong, Pugad Lawin,
and Bahay Toro, while the dates vary: 23, 24, 25, or 26 August 1896.

Valenzuela's account should be read with caution: He once told a Spanish investigator
that the "Cry happened in Balintawak on Wednesday, 26 August 1896. Much later, he
wrote in his Memoirs of the Revolution that it happened at Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896.
Such inconsistencies in accounts should always be seen as a red flag when dealing with
primary sources.

According to Guerrero, Encarnacion, and Villegas, all these places are in Balintawak, then
part of Caloocan, now, in Quezon City. As for the dates, Bonifacio and his troops may have
been moving from one place to another to avoid being located by the Spanish government,
which could explain why there are several accounts of the Cry.

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Self-Assessment 4
True or False. Write true if the statement is true. Otherwise, write false in the space
provided.
1. Historical interpretation is based on the historian’s judgment on
how the past should be seen.
2. We make sense of the past through historical interpretation.
3. Multi-perspectivity is a quality of historical writing attributed to a variety of
lenses that may be used to view the past.
4. There is only one account of the first Catholic Mass in the Philippines.
5. The significance of the martyrdom of the GOMBURZA is questioned by
historians.
6. The Cavite Mutiny is an event that led to the extinction of the GOMBURZA.
7. The Cry of the Rebellion happened in present-day Quezon City.
8. The site of the monument to the Heroes of 1896 was chosen because this is the
actual place where the Cry of the Rebellion happened.

Assignment 2
Critical essay about a primary source; students are to discuss the importance of the text, the
authors background, the context of the document, and its contribution in understanding
Philippine History. Topics will be distributed to you in your group chat. Format and Rubric
are indicated in the course requirements and Deadlines in your course guide.

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CHAPTER/ MODULE 3: OCCUPATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES
Learning Objectives:
 Describe and analyze the reaction of the early Filipinos to Spanish Occupation
 Analyze the different economic policies of the Americans in the Philippines that
made impact to the society during and after the American rule.
 Effectively communicate and articulate the historical analysis of a particular event or
issue that could help other people understand and manage present date issues and
concerns.

Lesson 1. Spanish Occupation in The Philippines

Lesson 1.1: Spanish Colonial Way of Life
Spanish Colonial Experience

The Spanish Expansion is a result of various forces. Aside from the Philippines, the
Spaniards have already colonized parts of South, North, and Central America. The inclusion
of the Philippines resulted out of the attempts of Spaniards to control the spice trade in the
Moluccas islands. Aside from the interests in spices, Spain had been motivated by its
mercantilist nature or accumulation wealth in the form of gold. This was simultaneous with
the invention of new technologies needed for exploration like the compass and sextant. Maps
were also refined at this time that greatly aided the explorers.

Before Spain actually decided to occupy the Philippines, two noted voyages already reached
the Philippines. This was Magellan voyage in 1521 and the Villalobos voyage in 1543. These
did not start Spanish colonialism although they provide information and fed the interest of the
Spanish government to finally take the islands. In 1565, Legaspi carried the Spanish flag and
set up in the Philippine islands another colony for Spain. This commenced the Spanish
colonial rule in the Philippines.

Exploration and colonization during this time were realized through contractual agreements
between the Crown and the Conquistadores. In essence, the Consquistadores conquered for
Spain but they shall share in the riches of the new territories they conquered. Thus,
conquistadores like Legaspi instituted measures both for the pacification of the people and
the satisfaction of their private goals. It is within this frame that we understand that the

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pacification efforts of the colonizers were also coupled with exploitation.

Instruments of Pacification and Exploitation

Encomienda. A system of organizing territories to be under the care of an Encomendero. It
was an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tributes from the natives. The
Encomendero unit for the purpose of extracting tributes from the natives. The Encomendero
had the power to collect tributes and to use the personal services of the inhabitants of the
encomienda. The Encomienda shall take care of the welfare of the natives.
 Protect natives by maintaining peace and order
 Support missionaries in conversion to Catholicism
 Help in defense of country.

The services are compensated from the shares an Encomendero can get from the tributes
and the services of the natives. So, while the system was meant to facilitate the
organization and administration of the colony, the Encomendero gave a negative image to it.
This system was characterized by greed and cruelty. It was an opportunity for one to enrich
oneself primarily by collection of tribute or unlawful exaction of numerous services.

Tributor. This is levying of tax to all Filipinos aged 19-60 except government employees,
soldiers with distinguished services, descendants of Lakandula and some few native
chieftains, choir members, sacristans, porters of the church, and government witnesses. The
alcalde mayors, encomendero, gobernadorcillo, and the cabezas acted as tribute collectors.

The Spanish form of “taxation” was by itself heavy for the native. But this was aggravated by
the force and abuses that accompanied its implementation. Soldiers were used to escort tax
collectors to force collection and these often resulted to violence. Worst, of course, is the act
of collecting much more than what the law required by the tax collectors.

The abusive nature of this policy is evidenced by the fact that Filipinos who joined the revolts
later on cite the exploitative nature of tribute collection as a chief cause. In Apayao, for
example, they constructed tribute as a monster that could kill people. The understanding is
borne by the fact that the Ilokanos who entered the Apayao territory related that they were
scared of the tribute that has killed several of them.

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Polo Y Servicio. This is another colonial policy that obliged male natives aged 16-60 except
chieftains and their eldest son to serve 40 days each year in labor pools. The labor pools
refer to the site of labor that were mostly of construction kind. The natives were asked to
build buildings both for the church and the government. They were also made to make roads
and build ships.

This policy was meant to help set up of government infrastructure and the laborers were even
given ration of rice and paid minimal amounts. There were other regulations to ensure the
protection of the workers. In practice though, all these regulations were violated. Laborers
were not paid and were not given any rice ration. The policy became insensitive to the need
of the communities so that it was still enforced in time of planting or harvest seasons.
In the end, polo y servicio became a forced labor that contributed to famine experiences and
the destruction of communities.

Bandala. This is another policy meant to augment the finances of the colonial government. It
required the compulsory sale of products to the government. Communities were given
quotas to produce and sold only to the government. The prices set by the government were
lower than the prevailing prices of these products but were sold back to the people for a high
price. This practice formed natives to be indebted to the chieftain entrenching the socio-
economic position of the chief. In worst cases, which was usually the case, farmers were not
paid at all of their produce and were given promissory notes. In effect, this policy became a
virtual confiscation of natives’ products.

Divide and Rule. This is a military strategy utilized by the Spaniards against the natives. In
this method, native mercenaries were used against other groups to beef op limited military
contingency of the Spaniards. Ny its very nature, it was exploitative as the inter- village
warfare tradition of the early Filipinos was reinforced to serve the interests of the colonizers.
The policies provide clear examples as to how the colonial policies impacted on the native
Filipinos. For them, the policies were exploitative even if these were just part of the
pacification process of the Spaniards.

These difficulties were compounded by the constant war Spain was into against the Dutch
and Portuguese.

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In all the abusive policies, the traditional head of barangay as the Maginoo and Datu became
intermediaries. They were converted into willing allies of the Colonizers and their powers
and authority were complicated by the colonizers. As traditional barangay authority, they
were used as intermediaries between the natives and the Spaniards. Political privilege was
also granted by Spaniards as tribute collectors, gobernadorcillos and thus helped in
mobilizing labor for government construction of projects. Economically, the Chiefs were
given the opportunity and took advantage of the concept of private property of land. In the
end, the traditional chiefs were transformed into a willing ally and were called principals.
One can see the prestige of principalia in the social hierarchy of the period. Of the native
Filipinos, they were ranked higher next to the Spaniards.

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Self-assessment Task 1
Compare and contrast the administration of the local government units during the Spanish
period with those of the present.

Spanish Period Present

Conclusion:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 1.2: Filipino Nationalism
Early Revolts and Resistance

Given the exploitive nature of Spanish colonialism, early Filipinos chose to revolt against
the regime. Among the earliest revolts were those by Lakandula in Manila. Revolts became
an indispensable response of early Filipinos to Spanish Rule. Revolts became an
indispensable response of early Filipinos to Spanish rule. In the 1600’s nativistic revolts
characterized the reactions of the people towards the Spanish rule. More complicated revolts
continued up to the 1700’s. the earlier revolts could be generalized as revolts from ordinary
natives. These revolts could be generalized as revolts from ordinary natives. These revolts
include Tamblot, Bankaw, Tapar, Dagohoy, Sumuroy, Dabao, and others. Since many of the
leaders of these revolts were babaylans, or traditional priests, one of important underlying
objective was to go back to old native religion (nativistic). As such leaders emerge as self-
proclaimed messiahs saving the people from evil effects of colonization.

The second group of revolts were those initiated by local chiefs, or the principales, whose
type of leadership are already complicated by Spanish ways. This type of revolt manifested
class interest where the mass revolts were taken advantage of in the desire to seize power for
themselves. This is why many of these were open to compromises. Examples of this type of
revolt are the revolts of Maniago, Malong, Gumapos, Palaris, Silang, and others.

Both types of revolts, however, contained the desire to improve the hardship brought about
by the colonial rule. Economic grievance remained the primary reason why people supported
groups and leaders versus Spaniards.

The Igorot Resistance to Spanish Interests and the Price of Igorot Independence

The Igorots, together with the Muslims in Mindanao were the two biggest groups that were
not colonized by the Spaniards. During the entire 300 plus years of Spanish rule, these groups
remained independent. This work shall consider only the Igorot resistance.

A note on the word Igorot should be made. Historically speaking, the groups that were
referred by Spanish documents as Igorots were the inhabitants of Benguet and Bontoc. Other
groups in the Cordillera region were called distint names such as Mandayas for the Apayao,

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Itneg for the upper Abra area, Ifugao for Ifugaos. This would explain the reluctance of
many people outside Benguet and Bontoc to be considered as Igorots. Etymologically, Igorot
was coined with the use pf two old Austronesian words as “gorot”, meaning mountain, and
“I” referring to the source/place or from where one belongs. It is etymological sense that this
work adopts the word Igorot to refer to all people in the Cordillera as Igorots or “from the
mountains.”

The Spaniards entered the Cordillera for many reasons but gold was initially the primary aim.
As soon as the colonizers learned of Igorot gold in the region, expeditions were immediately
sent to secure it. In the 1600, several attempts like those of Aldana, Carino, and Quirante.
They have taken samples of ores and were brought to Manila for tests. The attempt at
reducing the Igorots to Christianity was another motivation for the Spaniards. The
Augustinians entered the mountain from the Ilocos areas while the Dominicans penetrated
Ifugao in the east. Another reason for Spanish intrusion into the Cordillera was simply to
extend the conquered territories or to protect the conquered areas of the lowlands.

Still other motivations was the punitive expeditions, which were meant to punish the Igorots
for the resistance they have been showing. However, it was the sabotage of the tobacco
monopoly that really angered the Spaniards to sponsor succeeding punitive expeditions
against the Igorots. The most successful of these expeditions was the Galvey expedition.
Guillermo Galvey led a 10- year campaign against the Igorots from 1829-1839, burning
tobacco plantations and communities, and crushing Igorot opposition. It was the Galvey
expeditions that finally opened the region to Spanish conquest. By the later part of 1840’s up
to the 1950’s, the Spaniards were able to set up military posts in key areas in the Cordillera.
These posts were called Commandancia Politico-Militares, which were manned by military
people and intended for collection of taxes.

Confronted by the intrusions, the Igorots responded in different ways but almost always
resisting all the plans of the intruders. In many instances, Igorots simply abandoned their
communities when they learn of Spanish arrival. They would retreat into deeper parts of the
mountain and wait until the Spaniards are gone. If the Igorots were ready, though, they
would engage the Spanish troops with their traditional weapons as spears, head axes, and
bolos. Although the Igorot weapons were of inferior kind, they relied heavily on ambushes
utilizing the mountainous landscape to their advantages. In some recorded instances, the

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Igorots used the weaknesses of the Spanish weapons they came to learn and won over the
more supposedly superior weapons.

In the Christianization efforts, the Spaniards were able to convert some Igorots into
Christianity. Most of these converts have been relocated in the lowland areas of Ilocos, La
Union and Nueva Viscaya. Overall, though, the Igorots remained pagans. Whereabout of
their gold have also been denied to Spaniards and other foreigners. These responses have
been largely successful so that at the end of the Spanish colonial rule, the Igorots remained
independent.

A discussion of the Igorot resistance is incomplete without considering the price that the
Igorots had to pay for their freedom. One is the periodic destruction of homes. Most often
than not, the Spaniards burned villages along their route. These were reconstructed by the
Igorots only to be destructed with the next Spanish expedition.

Another is the estrangement between the lowlanders and the Igorots. Before Spanish
colonization, it has been the case that the two were partners in trade. The lowlanders brought
up salt, animals, threads, and fish to the highlands. Igorots brought down gold, beeswax, and
other forest products. With the colonization of the lowlands and the resistance of Igorots, the
friendly relation soured. This is basically because lowlanders were colonized while the
Igorots remained independent. Specifically, the lowlanders were used by the Spaniards in
their attempts at subjugating the Igorots. The lowlanders usually accompanied the colonizers
as guides and soldiers. One can add the long period of time that the Spaniards have portrayed
negative images of Igorots to lowlanders painting them as “headhunters”, “pagans”, and
“savages”.

After the period of colonization, it became ironic that the Filipinos who resisted colonialism
were indifferently treated by later Philippine government. They have often been understood
as the others or the “minority”. As minority, the state has ignored them for a long time and
has used their territories only as sources of raw materials. In the 1970’s the Marcos
government ignored the pleas of Igorot of Bontoc and Kalinga not to build the dams along the
Chico River. It was only stopped when resistance included international groups and the local
resistance became violent.

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Campaign for Reforms
The unjust execution of the three Filipino priests Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto
Zamora was a turning point in Philippine history, for it ushered in a new era – the reform
movement.

Realizing the danger of fighting for their cause on the home front, the sons of the wealthy and
the well-to-do Filipino families migrated to Europe to breath the free atmosphere of the Old
World. There they initiated a sustained campaign for reforms in the Spanish administration of
the Philippines. In the homeland, meanwhile, the Filipino intellectuals secretly collaborated
with those in Spain and founded nationalistic societies.

The dissatisfaction of the Filipino men of wealth and intellect was centered on the abuses of
the Spanish authorities, civil as well as clerical. The middle class denounced Spanish abuses
and asked Spain to make the Philippines one of its provinces. There was no clamor for
independence, for the reformists believed that the Filipinos would be better off if they were to
become Spanish citizens, enjoying the rights and privileges of the latter. Such a program
constituted what has been known as assimilation.

For more than a decade the Filipino propagandists waged their war against the Spanish
authorities and friars, but they failed to awaken the Government of the Peninsula to the
demoralizing realities of colonial administration. The reform movement was a failure for it
did not achieve its goals. In another sense, however, it was a success, for its failure led to the
founding of the Katipunan with separatist aims (Agoncillo, 1990).

The Katipunan
The Kataastaasan Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayn, otherwise known as
KKK or simply Katipunan, was a secret society that was established by Andres Bonifacio and
some of his comrades on July 7, 1892. This was a significant event for the Filipinos because
it marked the end of the peaceful campaign for reforms and the beginning of a movement
which aimed to end Spanish oppression by uniting the Filipinos and achieve independence by
means of a revolution.

To increase the number of members of the organization, and to stop suspicion on the part of
the family members, the Katipunan accepted women members. The women were least

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suspected by the Spanish authorities, so they were able to keep important documents of the
society. They also served as messengers and front for the secret meetings of the organization
(Vivar et al., 1999)

The Katipunan became especially popular in the suburbs of Manila and in the provinces of
Central Luzon. But as the number of its affiliates increased, the Spanish authorities began to
suspect its underground character. The friars began to denounce the nightly meeting
held by Katipuneros and on August 19, 1896, a certain Patino, a Katipunan member,
exposed the society to Fr. Mariano Gil. With the discovery of the Katipunan, Bonifacio had
no alternative than to take the field and on August 23, at Pugadlawin, he and his men
declared their intention to fight to the bitter end. The revolution spread to the other
provinces. In Cavite, meanwhile, the two factions of the society were at loggerheads and
Bonifacio was invited to mediate between them. At Tejeros, it was agreed to change the
society with a government responsive to the demands of the times, and in the election that
followed, Bonifacio was chosen Director of the Interior. Unfortunately, his election was
questioned by Daniel Irona. Bonifacio hurt by insult, declared the results of the lection null
and void. In April, he was ordered arrested, tried and executed. The Filipinos were at that
time losing battle after battle. Aguinaldo retreated to Biak-na-Bato, where the Republic was
founded. Later in, December, the Truce of Biak-na-Bato was concluded between the rebels
and the Spanish Government. The truce, however, was a failure (Agoncillo, 1990).

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Self-assessment Task 2
Discuss the teachings of the KKK. Point out some teachings that you find useful and helpful
in your daily life.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Make a chart comparing the Reform Movement and the Katipunan.

Reform Movement Katipunan Movement

Nature

Aims

Methods

Result

Conclusion:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 2: Philippines under the American Regime – Self- government and
developments in the Philippines Under American Colonial Rule
Lesson 2.1 Self-government and developments in the Philippines Under American
Colonial Rule
American Government in The Philippines
America’s Policy of Occupation
America’s successful suppression of revolutionary resistance against their colonial rule
forced the Filipino elite to shift to an alternative of peaceful struggle for independence. Using
an altruistic policy for the Philippines, the United States, under President Willliam McKinley,
enticed the Filipino elites into a compromise with American Colonialism. Many of the
Filipino elite Leaders especially the “Illustrados,” began to adhere to the well-stated US
Policy of President McKinley in his message to the US Congress stressing that the
Philippines is theirs not to exploit but to develop, to civilize, to educate, and to train in the
science of self-government. Behind this policy declaration was America’s other colonial
objectives, as follows:
 To pursue a “manifest destiny” for America as a world power
 To use the Philippines as a source of raw materials for US industries and as market for
US manufactured surplus products
 To use the Philippines as a military and naval base to balance the power in Asia
 To have a refueling port for American ships servicing their interest in China

These ulterior motives of America’s colonial rule later became a reality when the US
government gained complete control of the Philippine archipelago politically. Finding no
other way to repel American motives, the Filipinos painfully succumbed to compromising
their sovereignty to colonialism by way of serving under American military and civilian rule
in the Philippines.

Filipino involvement in American Government in the Philippines (1899-1913)

In preparation for the foundation of a civilian government in the Philippines, the three
successive terms of American military governors, namely General Wesley Merrit (August
16, 1898), General Elwell S. Otis (1898-1900), and General Arthur McArthur (1900- 1901),
focused on pacifications of campaigns. To win the support of Filipino Elites, the Americans
used a subtle strategy of conquest by introducing the American school system to civilize and

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educate Filipinos to embrace democracy. They organized civil courts and appointed Filipino
jurists. They established towns and provinces and installed pro-American local leaders to
participate in local governmental affairs as apprentices of the American system of
governance.

To train Filipinos to govern their constituencies in the way Americans want them to towards
achieving their ulterior motives, the first election was held by Gen. Henry W. Lawton in
Baliwag, Bulacan. These patterns of pacification campaign which were employed
successfully in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao resulted in readiness of Filipino elite leaders
to collaborate with the US government in the Philippines.

In the central American government, those Filipino elites who believed in the sovereignty of
the US over the Philippines were appointed to top executive, legislative, and judicial
positions by being members of the First Philippine Commission, otherwise known as the
Schurman Commission (1899), and the Second Philippine Commission (1900) also known as
the “Taft Commission.”. there were three reasons why Filipino elite leaders opted to
collaborate with the American authorities. The first reason was to preserve the security of
their privileges as there was a growing demand from the masses for the redistribution of
economic benefits and resources. The second reason was the elite class, distrust of the
masses, nothing that some of them were branded as bandits or troublemakers, ignorant
people who possess questionable moral conduct. Thirdly, the elite could not entrust their
interests and future to the masses, thus, by co-opting with the Americans, they were assured
of the protection of their wealth, power, and prestige. To the Americans, the pro-American
attitude of the Filipino elites was advantageous to their colonial purposes and economic
interests in the Philippines.

Collaborative participation of cultural communities in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao was

gained through the efforts of American teachers and missionaries who played their roles in
domestication the tribal leaders. Datus and sultans in Mindanao were used as key persons in
their strategy for collaboration, giving them roles as promoters of social services to effect
social re-orientation favorable to American interests.

In the Cordilleras, the Americans used a strategy to win the Ifugaos, and Kalingas to
cooperate and accept American rule. The head-hunting skirmishes between and among the

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Cordillera tribes, as well as the disputes over territorial boundaries and hostilities, were
stopped either with the use of firepower for pacification or with a compromise settlement.
When firepower was not too effective, the Americans shifted to benevolent treatment of the
natives to impress on them their image as benefactors. Establishment of American local
governments in the Cordillera proved successful after Cordillera natives were appointed as
mayors or cabecillos. Ifugaos who did not make it to political positions were recruited into
the American Constabulary as regular soldiers who were paid generously.

In Southern Mindanao, the American approach to establish collaboration was a political co-
existence characterized by mutual respect for personal property and political rights. The
sultanate form of government of the datus and sultans was a formidable block to improve
American political presence in Mindanao. Sa as not to agitate the Sultans and datus from
usurping their authorities as leaders of the sultanate government, American authorities
negotiated and concluded treaties with Muslim leaders such as the Bates Treaty (1899) and
later, the Carpenter-Kiriam Agreement (1905). Consequently, these treaties with the Muslims
led to the erosion of power of the sultanate and paved the way for the total imposition of
American sovereignty in all territories of the sultanate.

The Filipinization of American Government in the Philippines

In 1913, Frances Burton Harrison became the first Democratic Governor General of the
Philippines. His appointment saw the full implementation of American policies and
substantial participation of Filipinos in government. As his colonial policy, rapid
Filipinization of government in the Philippines gained momentum then he involved Filipinos
in the various levels of the bureaucracy. Unfortunately, Filipinization in government was only
confined to the Filipino elites who were actually landlords and capitalists and government
employees during the Spanish period, including those who could read and write.

Filipinization in government involving the participation of Filipino elites was suitable to the
Americans since it was an aid rather than a hindrance to colonialism. In the purview of the
Americans, keeping the elite involved in government would be beneficial to American
economic interests in the Philippines, because it warranted economic partnership between
Americans and Filipino landlords and capitalists.

This partnership eventually led to a special relationship between the American and Filipino

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landowners and capitalists as manifested in the so-called “free-trade” which was provided for
in the Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909 during the Harrison Era, consequently making the
Philippines a US market of surplus goods in Asia. The American capitalists enjoyed the
lion’s share in the benefits from the free trade policy. This lopsided effect of free trade policy
permeated further not only in the economic aspect of Filipino life, but also in the political,
social and cultural fields.

The Socio-Cultural Effects of Filipinization in Government during the American Period

The American democratic political structure in the Philippines which was largely manned by
Filipino elites who were trained under American tutelage in governance improved modern
ways of American democracy. The pro-American Filipino elites were referred to outsiders as
“little brown American.” They insisted that Filipino traditional ways should be abandoned if
not substituted totally with modern bureaucracy. A new brand of democracy known as
‘democracy-Filipino style’ emerged. This style as a trend of Filipinization gave rise to a new
breed of Filipinos who were involved in the introduction of popular American activities in
cultural fields such as sports, entertainment, education, religion, and the arts.

Even though American democratic styles have found a distinct place in Filipino life, Filipino
values which were anchored on Filipino tradition were not abandoned by those who co-opted
with the Americans. Large majority of Filipinos saw no contradictions between the American
values and Filipino tradition. This perception of many Filipinos was contributory to the
Americanization of Filipino lifestyle.

The American Policy on Philippine Independence

When Filipino nationalists began their advocacy movements for autonomy and independence,
the American authorities in the Philippines had no effective response. They viewed
nationalist efforts as mere agitations of the leaders of insular politics. As a palliative measure
to downplay the clamor for self-government and independence, the American colonial
authorities promised independence as soon as a stable form of government could be
established by them. This was affirmed by the passage of the Jones Law in 1916 by the US
Congress which required the establishment of a stable government first before independence
would be granted.

In 1918, just after the World War 1 ended, the Filipinos began to agitate for the

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fulfillment of America’s promise of independence to the Philippines. They were inspired by
their belief that political pressures and consistent campaign efforts could force the US o
comply with its promise. After 1918. Through the leadership of Manual L. Quezon, a more
sustained effort to end American rule and the granting of independence to the Philippines was
directed to the legislators in Washington, the US seat of government.

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Self-assessment 3
Construct a data chart showing the nature, extent, and implications of Filipino
participation in American colonialism in the Philippines.

Nature of Extent of
Participation in Participation in Implications (Effects
Filipino Groups
American American or Consequences)
Colonialism Colonialism

1. TheElite Filipinos

2. Cultural Communities
(Indigenous groups in
Mindanao and
Cordillera)

Conclusion:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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The Commonwealth Government
The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, witnessed by a
crowd of 300,000 Filipinos. President-elect Manuel L. Quezon delivered his inaugural
address stressing his historic statement which goes, “I would rather have a government run
like hell by Filipinos rather than a government run like heaven by the Americans.”

The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines, which became the realization of the real
desire of Filipinos for independence, was able to accomplish the following achievement: (1)
Reorganization of the government by creating new offices, including the Department of
National Defense, the Institute of National Language, the National Council of Education, the
Filipinization of the Judiciary from the Supreme Court down to the municipal courts, the
Court of Appeals, and the Court of Industrial Relations. (2) Granting of women suffrage,
after a special national plebiscite in which 447, 725 women voted in favor of women
suffrage and 44,397 against it. (3) Creation of new chartered cities, namely: Cebu, Iloilo,
Bacolod, Davao, Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon City, Cavite, and Tagaytay. (4) The
adoption of Tagalog as the national language. (5) Promotion of social justice (Eight-hour
Labor Act) and the appointment of public defenders to defend the rights of the poor laborers
in the courts. (6) Compulsory military training of able-bodied Filipino youths, under the
supervision of General Douglas MacArthur. Taking of the 1939 official census of the
Philippines. (7) Improvement of the Philippine economy as revealed by the growth of
agriculture, commerce, and industries. (8) Creation of the Joint Preparatory Committee
Philippine Affairs (JPCPA), which recommend the following, (1) granting of Philippine
Independence on July 4, 1946, and (2) extension of Philippine-American Preferential trade
to December 31, 1960. (9) Passage of three amendments to the 1935 Philippine Constitution
which were ratified by the national plebiscite on June 18, 1940. These amendments were as
follows:
a. Tenure of office of the President and Vice-President to was four years with re-election
for another term.
b. Establishment of a bicameral Congress of the Philippines, with the Senate as Upper
House and the House of Representatives as Lower House.
c. Creation of an Independent Commission on Election composed of three members to
supervise all elections.

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Self-assessment 4
Tabulate the achievements of the Philippine Commonwealth according to aspects of Filipino
life as follows: social, cultural, economic and political.

Aspects of Filipino Life Accomplishment of the Philippine Commonwealth

Social

Cultural

Economic

Political

Based on the table above, which aspect (s) of Filipino life was greatly advanced by the
Philippine Commonwealth? Justify.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 2.2 Development and Progress Under American Rule
Economic and Social Progress under American Rule
Given an era of cooperation and good relations between American authorities and Filipino
leaders, development in the Philippines took great leaps and bounds. Rapid development in
agriculture, commerce, ang trade soared high. Transportation and communications were
modernized. Banking systems were established, and manufacturing industries grew in big
proportions. All of these were generated because of the favorable political and socio-cultural
climate in the Philippines. American businessmen, capitalists, and industrialists flocked to
Philippine soil to establish their enterprises using local talents and labors.

The economic progress under America did not pass without a great price on the part of the
Filipinos. Local production and business gave way to accommodate American Products and
industries. In terms of who benefited most in terms of economic progress, the Filipinos got
the least, while American capitalists got the most profit using Filipino skills and labor.

Growth of Agriculture in the Philippines

Agricultural Progress in the Philippines during the American regime was remarkable for it
changed the deplorable state of Philippine agriculture into a scientifically advanced and
modernized one. The introduction of experimental model farms and livestock production
technology introduced by Americans gradually empowered Filipino farmers with scientific
methods of cultivation. New breeds of livestock increased production outputs. Modern post-
harvest facilities like warehouses and farm machineries like thresher and rice hullers were
introduced. Irrigation systems and dams were built. Sugar plantations were established, and
packaging of farm products was taught. All of these and other introductions and innovations
spurred the growth of agricultural production in the Philippines. Unfortunately, majority of
Filipino farmers were not favored much by agricultural developments for reasons that they
remained tillers of the lands of landlords and capitalists.

Flourishing of Trade and Commerce

The free trade relations between the US and the Philippines fostered a giant leap for trade
and commerce in the Philippines. Import and export trade which became a full free trade in
m1913 by virtue of the Underwood-Simons Tariff Act of the US Congress facilitated the
opening of ports all over the country.
However, the trade agreement seemed not to favor the Filipino much because of the fact that

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Philippine export products were free to enter American ports within quota limits while
American products could enter Philippine ports without paying duty taxes to the Philippines
and without quota limits. The crux of inequality was the fact that there were more imports
from America than the export products of the Filipinos entering the US. THE American
capitalists got greater profits that their Filipino counterparts.

Industrial Development
The American period facilitated the Industrial Age in the Philippines. Factories sprang up in
towns and cities, producing commodities such as cigars, coconut oil, sugar, textile, and
cordage using local resources. Mining industries boomed into huge international industries.
The Philippines became known as a gold producer and supplier of other minerals such as
chromate, manganese, copper, iron, silver and others. Fishing and fish canning became major
industries, placing the Philippines in the limelight of the international market as a rich ground
for deep-sea fishing.

Improvement of Transportation and Communication

The American period affected the modernization of transportation facilities in the Philippines.
Roads and bridges were constructed, which facilitated transport of products from farms to
ports and markets with ease and convenience. By 1935, there were already 20,826 kilometers
of roads and 8,100 bridges built by American road builders.

In 1905, telephone system was introduced in Manila. Radio- telephone services were installed
in 1933. Towns and provincial capitals were inter-connected by radio, telegraph lines, and
telephones. By 1935, more than a thousand mail offices all over the Philippines were
established, facilitating communications though ordinary mails, telegrams, money orders,
packages, and air mail letters.

These material progress in the Philippines that were achieved during the American colonial
period had an impact on the economic condition of the Philippines. However, form the
perception of Filipino nationalists, America’s regime in the Philippines transformed the
Philippines into a market of surplus products of the US and a gold mine of economic
resources at the expense of most Filipinos, who gave so much of the expense of the
resources, time, and talents but received the least of benefits.

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Social Progress under America
The impact of American public education I the Philippines was a key factor in the
improvement of peace and order conditions in the country. Democracy as an ideology was
emphasized in all schools. Filipinos became conscious of basic freedoms. Political writers
began to express their views with greater impetus and political consciousness grew among
Filipinos in government. Partisan politics was allowed, enabling Filipinos to form
independent political parties wherein a great majority of Filipino elites agitated for political
independence.

Filipino cultural life changed dramatically as the English language became an official
medium, not only in schools, but also in private and public offices. The influx of ideas from
the progressive West acquired through the knowledge and proficiency in English helped
enrich the English language, which was patronized by Filipinos, proved itself as the potent
force which changed Filipino cultural life and gave importance to a Western-oriented cultural
environment.

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Self-assessment 5
Construct a data chart. List down the developments or results of American occupation in
the Philippines under each aspect of Filipino life and indicate their positive and negative
implications (consequences or effects). Determine which sector(s) of Filipino society were
benefited most and which the least.

Aspect of Developments Implications Most Benefited Least Benefited

Filipino (Results of (Consequences Sector(s) Sector(s)
American or Effects)
Occupation)

Social

Cultural

Economic

Political

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Lesson 3: The Philippines Under Japanese Rule Japanese Invasion
During the 10-year period of the Commonwealth government, Japan arose as Asia’s strongest
military power. The Japanese government, which was controlled by an elite class of military
warriors, embarked on an ambitious scheme to build an economic empire by uniting all Asian
nations against the colonial clutches of Western imperialist nations. She embarked on a
conquest of expansionism through military invasions over weak countries in Asia. Her
conquests were greatly motivated by her need for territories to accommodate her excess
population and to have markets for her surplus manufactured goods.

Establishment of Japanese Military Administration

On January 02, 1942, after the relatively bloodless occupation of Manila, General Homma,
Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Imperial Forces in the Philippines, declared the
establishment of the Japanese military administration with the intention of putting under
complete control political, economic, and socio-cultural affairs in Manila and consequently
the whole Philippines. He further declared the end of American occupation and placed the
country under martial law, and ordered the confiscation of firearms, ammunitions, and other
war materials. He declared punishment by death for anyone who did not hostile act against
the Japanese army. He placed under Japanese control all industries, factories, banks, schools,
churches, printing presses, and centers of recreations. He issues a proclamation prohibiting
circulation of American dollars and introduced Japanese war notes which replaced Philippine
currency. He ordered arrests and punishment to those who caught singing the American
National anthem and any American song. Books, magazines, and newspaper in English were
confiscated and burned. Only Japanese propaganda newspapers written in Tagalog were
allowed for circulation.

The Socio-Cultural Situation under Japanese Occupation

Although there was a Japanese-sponsored republic in existence, the Filipinos had to contend
with five mortal dangers: the guerillas, hunger, Japanese-paid Filipino spies, lack of
medicine, and diseases.

The Japanese military police or “KEMPETAI” had wanton disregard for human lives. They
sowed fear and terror in communities by raiding houses of occupants with unregistered
radios. All those arrested suspects were severely tortured or executed publicly by hanging or
by firing squad. Oftentimes, torture by water cure, punching bad or “red-hot iron” or “electric

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wire” were made public to warn people not to collaborate in any way or by any means with
Japanese enemies. Worst were public executions by beheading with samurai. Such did not
effectively sow fear but sowed instead hatred for Japanese soldiers. Spies were also a
menace in the social life of Filipinos. Many Filipino spies who were paid by the Japanese just
pointed to anyone whom they falsely suspected to be pro-American and anti-Japanese. Often,
the victims of Japanese-paid spies were unjustly accused, tortured, and eventually executed.
Guerillas, on the other hand, were also a threat for they quickly liquidated Filipinos who were
suspected to be Japanese collaborators without due process.

Social evils such as poverty and pretty crimes were rampantly prevalent. Crimes against
property increased for the sake of survival. Stealing was a usual crime as it was a desperate
means to survive attributed to scarcity of food and hopelessness due to the acute state of
poverty. Scavengers roamed the streets and the public markets scrounging for food in garbage
drums. Some women grave in desperation had to sustain their family by employing
themselves as comfort women for Japanese soldiers and sex attendants to the bourgeoisie and
plutocrats.

In the cultural context, the Filipinos were forcibly induced for educational re-orientation.
Military Order no.2, the Japanese policy on education, was issued on February 2, 1942, to
inculcate Japanese culture; promote the dissemination of the principle of Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere, spiritual rejuvenation. And the teaching of Nippongo language; further
vocational and elementary education; and promote the love of labor. The main goal of this
Japanese educational policy was to erase Western cultural influences and to create an
atmosphere of friendship to push through Japanese intentions and war aims. Schools were re-
opened and were forced to strictly observe Japanese educational policies.

In the field of arts expression, strict prohibitions were enforced by Japanese authorities.
Performers in theatres were not allowed to present entertainment that were Western-oriented
and injurious to Japanese sensibilities. Writers did not enjoy freedom to expression. Only a
few print media were allowed for circulation with strict censorship. While encouraging
Filipino culture, the Japanese imposed restrictions to ensure that they do not impair Japanese
aims of war.

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The Economic Situation in the Philippine under the Japanese Occupation
Economic activities in the Philippines during the Japanese occupation were limited since
most of the economic resources were under Japanese control. Production practically stopped
due to the war and fear of Japanese atrocities. Agriculture production was at its lowest ebb.
This predicament prevailed because work animals decreased, and farms and plantations had
been abandoned. The Japanese military confiscated trucks, cars, rice harvests, and even
required farmers and laborers to serve for the soldiers. Philippine currency was not in
circulation for the banks were controlled by the Japanese. During the Period of Japanese
Rule, Japanese money, called “Micky Mouse Money” by the Americans and “Yap-yap” by
the Filipinos, was the currency which became a worthless legal tender towards the end of the
Second World War.

The Liberation Period in the Philippines

The Liberation period was one of the most thrilling episodes of the struggles of Filipinos to
restore and preserve their sovereignty. War historians claim that the two years from 1944-
1946 were the most dramatic part in Philippine history. It was the period when Filipinos
showed their determination to take back their independence which had they lost, by sheer
gallantry and courage through the guerilla warfare that they waged.

The final phase of the war in the Philippines during World War 2 involved a series of events
in which leaders and personalities who were Either Filipinos or Americans had put their
lives at stake or had somehow perished, all for the sake of a noble cause – freedom from the
clutches of the Japanese hawks of military expansionism.

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Self-assessment 6
Tabulate the conditions of the Philippines during the Japanese rule in its social, economic,
cultural, and political aspects.

Aspects of Filipino Life Facts (Conditions, Prevailing Problems)

Social

Economic

Political

Cultural

What would you conclude as the most adversely affected aspect of Filipino life during the
period of the Japanese occupation in the Philippines? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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TO DO!
Assignment 3
Create a Creative Timeline. You will narrate the important dates and events through creative
timeline from Spanish occupation to Japanese occupation.

TO DO!
Assignment 4
Write a Critical Essay about readings in different occupations in the Philippines that you
have chosen.

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CHAPTER/ MODULE 4: SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND CULTURAL ISSUES IN
PHILIPPINE HISTORY
Learning Objectives:
 To analyze social, political, economic, and cultural issues in the Philippines using the
lens of history.
 To recognize that the problems of today are consequences of decisions and events that
happened in the past.
 To understand several enduring issues in Philippine society through history
 To propose recommendations or solutions to present-day problems based on the
understanding of the past and anticipation of the future through the study of history.

This chapter is dedicated to enduring issues in Philippine society, which history could lend a
hand in understanding. and hopefully, proposing solutions. These topics include the mandated
discussion on the Philippine constitution and policies on agrarian reform. It is hoped that
these discussions will help us propose recommendations or solutions to present-day problem
based on our understanding of root causes and how we anticipate future scenarios in the
Philippine setting.

Lesson 1. Evolution of the Philippine Constitution

The constitution is defined as a set of fundamental principles or established precedents
according to which a state or other organization is governed, thus, the word itself means to
be a part of a whole, the coming together of distinct entities into one group, with the same
principles and ideals. These principles define the nature and extent of government.

The Constitution of the Philippines, the supreme law of the Republic of the Philippines, has
been in effect since 1987. There were only three other constitutions that have effectively
governed the country: the 1935 Commonwealth Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, and the
1986 Freedom Constitution. However, there were earlier constitutions attempted by Filipinos
in the struggle to break free from the colonial yoke.

1897: Constitution of Biak-na-Bato

The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato was the provisionary Constitution of the Philippine
Republic during the Philippine Revolution, and was promulgated by the Philippine

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Revolutionary Government on 1 November,1897. The constitution, borrowed from Cuba,
was written by Isabelo Artacho and Félix Ferrer in Spanish, and later, translated into Tagalog.
The organs of the government under the Constitution were: (1) the Supreme Council, which
was vested with the power of the Republic, headed by the president and four department
secretaries: the interior, foreign affairs, treasury, and war; (2) the Consejo Supremo de Gracia
Y Justicia (Supreme Council of Grace and Justice), which was given the authority to make
decisions and affirm or disprove the sentences rendered by other courts and to dictate rules
for the administration of justice; and (3) the Asamblea de Representantes (Assembly of
Representatives), which was to be convened after the revolution to create a new Constitution
and to elect a new Council of Government and Representatives of the people.

The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato was never fully implemented, since a truce, the Pact of
Biak-na-Bato, was signed between the Spanish and the Philippine Revolutionary Army.

The separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into an
independent state with its own government called the Philippine Republic has been the end
sought by the Revolution in the existing war, begun on the 24th of August, 1896; and,
therefore, in its name and by the power delegated by the Filipino people, interpreting
faithfully their desires and ambitions, we the representatives of the Revolution, in a meeting
at Biak-na-bato, November 1, 1897, unanimously adopted the following articles for the
constitution of the State.

1899: Malolos Constitution

After the signing of the truce, the Filipino revolutionary leaders accepted a payment from
Spain and went to exile in Hong Kong. Upon the defeat of the Spanish to the Americans in
the Battle of Manila Bay on 1 May 1898, the United States Navy transported Aguinaldo back
to the Philippines. The newly reformed Philippine revolutionary forces reverted to the control
of Aguinaldo, and the Philippine Declaration of Independence was issued on 12 June 1898,
together with several decrees that formed the First Philippine Republic. The Malolos
Congress was elected, which selected a commission to draw up a draft constitution on 17
September 1898, which was composed of wealthy and educated men.

The document they came up with, approved by the Congress on 29 November 1898, and
promulgated by Aguinaldo on 21 January 1899, was titled "The Political Constitution of 1899

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and written in Spanish. The constitution has 39 articles divided into 14 titles, with eight
articles of transitory provisions, and a final additional article. The document was patterned
after the Spanish Constitution of 1812, with influences from the charters of Belgium, Mexico,
Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala, and the French Constitution of 1793.
According to Felipe Calderon, main author of the constitution, these countries were studied
because they shared Similar social, political, ethnological, and governance conditions with
the Philippines. Prior constitutional projects in the Philippines also influenced the Malolos
Constitution, namely, the Kartilya and the Sanggunian Hukuman, the charter of laws and
morals of the Katipunan written by Emilio Jacinto in 1896; the Biak-na-Bato Constitution of
1897 planned by Isabelo Artacho; Mabini's Constitutional Program of the Philippine
Republic of 1898; the provisional constitution of Mariano Ponce in 1898 that followed the
Spanish constitutions; and the autonomy projects of Paterno in 1898.

We, the Representatives of the Pilipino People, lawfully convened, in order to establish
justice, provide for common defense, promote the general welfare and insure the benefits of
liberty, imploring the aid of the Sovereign Legislator of the Universe for the attainment of
these ends, have voted, decreed, and sanctioned the following political constitution.

As a direct challenge to colonial authorities of the Spanish empire, the sovereignty was
retroverted to the people, a legal principle underlying the Philippine Revolution. The people
delegated governmental functions to civil servants while they retained actual sovereignty.
The 27 articles of Title IV detail the natural rights and popular sovereignty of Filipinos, the
enumeration of which does not imply the prohibition of any other rights not expressly stated.
Title III, Article V also declares that the State recognizes the freedom and equality of all
beliefs, as well as the separation of Church and State. These are direct reactions to features of
the Spanish government in the Philippines, where the friars were dominant agents of the
state.

The form of government, according to Title II, Article 4 is to be popular, representative,

alternative, and responsible, and shall exercise three distinct powers-legislative, executive,
and judicial. The legislative power was vested in a unicameral body called the Assembly of
Representatives, members of which are elected for terms of four years. Secretaries of the
government were given seats in the assembly, which meet annually for a period of at least
three months. Bills could be introduced either by the president or by a member of the

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assembly. Some powers not legislative in nature were also given to the body, such as the
right to select its own officers, right of censure and interpellation, and the right of impeaching
the president, cabinet members, the chief justice of the Supreme Court, and the solicitor-
general. A permanent commission of seven, elected by the assembly, and granted specific
powers by the constitution, was to sit during the intervals between sessions of the assembly.
Executive power was vested in the president and elected by a constituent assembly of the
Assembly of Representatives and special representatives. The president will serve a term of
four years without re-election. There was no vice president, and in case of a vacancy, a
president was to be selected by the constituent assembly.

The 1899 Malolos Constitution was never enforced due to the ongoing war. The Philippines
was effectively a territory of the United States upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris
between Spain and the United States, transferring sovereignty of the Philippines on 10
December 1898.

1935: The Commonwealth Constitution

It is worth mentioning that after the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was subject to the power
of the United States of America, effectively the new colonizers of the country. From 1898 to
1901, the Philippines would be placed under a military government until a civil government
would be put into place.

Two acts of the United States Congress were passed that may be considered to have
qualities of constitutionality. First was the Philippine Organic Act of 1902, the first organic
law for the Philippine Islands that provided for the creation of a popularly elected Philippine
Assembly. The act specified that legislative power would be vested in a bicameral
legislature composed of the Philippine Commission as the upper house and the Philippine
Assembly as lower house. Key provisions of the act included a bill of rights for Filipinos and
the appointment of two non-voting Filipino President Commissioners of the Philippines as
representative to the United States House of Representatives. The second act that functioned
as a constitution was the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, commonly referred to as "Jones
Law," which modified the structure of the Philippine government through the removal
of the Philippine Commission, replacing it with a Senate that served as the upper house and
its members elected by the Filipino voters, the first truly elected national legislature. It was
also this Act that explicitly declared the purpose of the United States to end their

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sovereignty over the Philippines and recognize Philippine independence as soon as a stable
government can be established.

In 1932, with the efforts of the Filipino independence mission led by Sergio Osmeña and
Manuel Roxas, the United States Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act with the
promise of granting Filipinos independence. The bill was opposed by then Senate President
Manuel L. Quezon and consequently, rejected by the Philippine Senate By 1934, another
law, the Tydings-McDuffie Act, also known as the Philippine Independence Act, was passed
by the United States Congress that provided authority and defined mechanisms for the
establishment of a formal constitution by a constitutional convention. The members of the
convention were elected and held their first meeting on 30 July 1934, with Claro M. Recto
unanimously elected as president.

The constitution was crafted to meet the approval of the United States government, and to
ensure that the United States would live up to its promise to grant independence to the
Philippines.

The Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence, in order to establish a
government that shall embody their ideals, conserve and develop the patrimony of the nation,
promote the general welfare, and secure to themselves and their posterity the blessings of
independence under a regime of justice, liberty, and democracy, do ordain and promulgate
this constitution.

The constitution created the Commonwealth of the Philippines, an administrative body that
governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946. It is a transitional administration to prepare the
country toward its full achievement of independence. It originally provided for a unicameral
National Assembly with a president and vice president elected to a six-year term without re-
election. It was amended in 1940 to have a bicameral Congress composed of a Senate and a
House of Representatives, as well as the creation of an independent electoral commission,
and limited the term or office of the president and vice president to four years, with one re-
election. Rights to suffrage were originally afforded to male citizens of the Philippines who
are twenty- one years of age or over and can read and write; this was later on extended to
women within two years after the adoption of the constitution.

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While the dominant influence in the constitution was American, it also bears traces of the
Malolos Constitution, the German, Spanish, and Mexican constitutions, constitutions of
several South American countries, and the unwritten English Constitution.

The draft of the constitution was approved by the constitutional convention on 8 February
1935, and ratified by then U.S. President Franklin B. Roosevelt on 25 March 1985. Elections
were held in September 1935 and Manuel L. Quezon was elected President of the
Commonwealth.

The Commonwealth was briefly interrupted by the events of the World War II, with the
Japanese occupying the Philippines. Afterward, upon liberation, the Philippines was declared
an independent republic on 4 July 1946.

1973: Constitutional Authoritarian

In 1965, Ferdinand E. Marcos was elected president, and in 1967 Philippine Congress
passed a resolution calling for a constitutional convention to change the 1985 Constitution.
Marcos won the re-election " 1969, in a bid boosted by campaign overspending and use of
government funds. Elections of the delegates to the constitutional convention were held on 20
November 1970, and the convention began formally on l June 1971, with former President
Carlos P. Garcia being elected as convention president. Unfortunately, he died, and was
succeeded by another former president, Diosdado Macapagal.

Before the convention finished its work, Martial Law was declared. Marcos cited a growing
communist insurgency as reason for the Martial Law, which was provided for in the 1935
Constitution. Some delegates of the ongoing constitutional convention were placed behind
bars and others went into hiding or were voluntary exiled. With Marcos as dictator, the
direction of the convention turned, with accounts that the president himself dictated some
provisions of the constitution, manipulating the document to be able to hold on to power for
as long as he could. On 29 November 1972, the convention approved its proposed
constitution.

The constitution was supposed to introduce a parliamentary- style government, where

legislative power was vested in a unicameral National Assembly, with members being elected
to a six-year term. The president was to be elected as the symbolic and ceremonial head of

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state chosen from the members of the National Assembly. The president would serve a
six-year term and could be re-elected to an unlimited number of terms. Executive power was
relegated to the Prime Minister, who was also the head of government and Commander-in-
Chief of the Armed Forces who was also to be elected from the National Assembly.

President Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 73 setting the date of the plebiscite to
ratify or reject the proposed constitution on 30 November 1973. This plebiscite was
postponed later since Marcos feared that the public might vote to reject the constitution.
Instead of a plebiscite, Citizen Assemblies were held, from 10-15 January 1973, where the
citizens coming together and voting by hand, decided on whether to ratify the constitution,
suspend the convening of the Interim National Assembly, continue Martial Law, or place a
moratorium on elections for a period of at least several years. The President, on 17 January
1973, issued a proclamation announcing that the proposed constitution had been ratified by
an overwhelming vote of the members of the highly irregular Citizen Assemblies.

The constitution was amended several times. In 1976, Citizen Assemblies, once again,
decided to allow the continuation of Martial Law, well as approved the amendments: an
interim Batasang Pambansa to substitute for the Interim National Assembly, the president to
also become the Prime Minister and continue to exercise legislative powers until Martial Law
was lifted and authorized the President to legislate on his own on an emergency basis. An
overwhelming majority would ratify further amendments succeeding. In 1980, the retirement
age of members of the judiciary was extended to 70 years. In 1981, the parliamentary system
was formally modified to a French-style, semi-presidential system where executive power
was restored to the president, who was, once again, to be directly elected; an Executive
Committee was to be created, composed of the Prime Minister and 14 others, that served as
the president's Cabinet; and some electoral reforms were instituted. In 1984, the Executive
Committee was abolished, and the position of the vice president was restored.

After all the amendments introduced, the 1973 Constitution was merely a way for the
President to keep executive powers, abolish the Senate, and by any means, never acted as a
parliamentary system, instead functioned as an authoritarian presidential system, with all the
real power concentrated in the hands of the president, with the backing of the constitution.

The situation in the 1980s had been very turbulent. As Marcos amassed power, discontent

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has also been burgeoning. The tide turned swiftly when in August 1983, Benigno Aquino Jr.,
opposition leader and regarded as the most credible alternative to President Marcos, was
assassinated while under military escort immediately after his return from exile in the United.
States. There was widespread suspicion that the orders to assassinate Aquino came from the
top levels of the government and the military. This event caused the coming together of the
non-violent opposition against the Marcos authoritarian regime. Marcos was then forced to
hold "snap' elections a year early, and said elections were marred by widespread fraud
Marcos declared himself winner despite international condemnation and nationwide protests.
A small group of military rebels attempted to stage a coup, but failed; however, this triggered
what came to be known as the EDSA People Power Revolution of 1986, as people from all
walks of life spilled onto the streets. Under pressure from the United States of America, who
used to support Marcos and his Martial Law, the Marcos family fled into exile His opponent
in the snap elections, Benigno Aquino Jr. widow, Corazon Aquino, was installed as president
on 25 February 1986.

1987: Constitution After Martial Law

President Corazon Aquino's government had three options regarding the constitution: revert
to the 1935 Constitution, retain the 1973 Constitution, and be granted the power to make
reforms, or start anew and break from the "vestiges of a disgraced dictatorship." They
decided to make a new constitution that, according to the president herself, should be "truly
reflective of the aspirations and ideals of the Filipino people.

In March 1986, President Aquino proclaimed a transitional constitution to last for a year
while a Constitutional Commission drafted a permanent constitution. This transitional
constitution, called the Freedom Constitution, maintained many provisions of the old one,
including in rewritten form the presidential right to rule by decree. In 1986, a constitutional
convention was created, composed of 48 members appointed by President Aquino from
varied backgrounds and representations. The convention drew up a permanent constitution,
largely restoring the setup abolished by Marcos in 1972, but with new ways to keep the
president in check, a reaction to the experience of Marcos's rule. The new constitution was
officially adopted on 2 February 1987.

The Constitution begins with a preamble and eighteen self- contained articles. It established
the Philippines as a "democratic republican State" where "sovereignty resides in the people

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and all government authority emanates from them. It allocates governmental powers among
the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the government.

The Executive branch is headed by the president and his he appoints. The president is the
head of the state and the chief executive, but his power 1s limited by significant checks from
the two other co-equal branches of government, especially during times of emergency. This is
put in place to safeguard the country from the experience of martial law despotism during the
presidency of Marcos. In cases of national emergency, the president may still declare martial
law, but not longer than a period of sixty days. Congress, through a majority vote, can revoke
this decision, or extend it for a period that they determine. The Supreme Court may also
review the declaration of martial law and decide if there were sufficient justifying facts
for the act. The president and the vice president are elected at large by a direct vote, serving a
single six-year term.

The legislative power resides in a Congress divided into two Houses: the Senate and the
House of Representatives. The 24 senators are elected at large by popular vote and can serve
no more than two consecutives six-year terms. The House is composed of district
representatives representing a particular geographic area and makes up around 80% of the
total number representatives. There are 234 legislative districts in the Philippines that elect
their representatives to serve three-year terms, The 1987 Constitution created a party-list
system to provide spaces for the participation of under-represented community sectors or
groups. Party-list representatives may fil up not more than 20% of the seats in the House.

Aside from the exclusive power of legislation, Congress may also declare war, through a two-
thirds vote in both upper and lower houses, the power of legislation, however, is also subject
to an executive check, as the president retains the power to veto or stop a bill from becoming
a law. Congress may only override this power with a two-thirds vote in both houses.

The Philippine Court system is vested with the power of the judiciary and is composed of a
Supreme Court and lower courts as created by law. The Supreme Court is a 15-member court
appointed by the president without the need to be confirmed by Congress. The appointment
the president makes, however, is limited to a list of nominees provided by a constitutionally
specified Judicial and Bar Council. The Supreme Court Justices may hear, on appeal, any
cases dealing with the constitutionality of any law, treaty, or decree of the government, cases

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where questions of jurisdiction or judicial error are concerned, or cases where the penalty
is sufficiently grave. It may also exercise original jurisdiction over cases involving
government or international officials. The Supreme Court is also in charge of overseeing the
functioning and administration of the lower courts and their personnel.

The Constitution also established three independent Constitutional Commissions, namely, the
Civil Service Commission, a central agency in charge of government personnel; the
Commission on Elections, mandated to enforce and administer all election laws and
regulations; and the Commission on Audit, which examines all funds, transactions, and
property accounts of the government and its agencies.

To further promote the ethical and lawful conduct of the government, the Office of the
Ombudsman was created to investigate complaints that pertain to public corruption, unlawful
behavior of public officials, and other public misconduct. The Ombudsman can charge public
officials before the Sandiganbayan, a special court created for this purpose.

Changing the Constitution is a perennial issue that crops up, and terms such as
"Cha-Cha," "Con-Ass," and "Con-Con'" are regularly thrown around. Article XVII of the
1987 Constitution provides for three ways by which the Constitution can be changed.
Congress (House of Representatives and the Senate) may convene as a Constituent
Assembly (or Con-Ass) to propose amendments to the Constitution. It is not clear,
however, if Congress is to vote as a single body or separately. How the Congress convenes
as a Con-Ass is also no provided for in the Constitution.
Another method is through the Constitutional Convention (or Con- Con), where
Congress, upon a vote of two-thirds of all its members, calls for a constitutional
convention. They may also submit to the electorate the question of calling a convention
through a majority vote of all its members. In a Con-Con, delegates will propose
amendments or revisions to the constitution, not Congress. The 1987 Constitution does not
provide for a method by which delegates to the Con-Con are chosen.
The third method is called the "People's Initiative" (or P). In this method,
amendments to the Constitution may be proposed by the people upon a petition of at least
12% of the total number of registered voters. All legislative districts must be represented
by at least 12% of the registered votes therein. No amendment is allowed more than once
every five years since a successful PL. The 1987 Constitution directs the Congress to enact
a law to implement provisions of the PI, which has not yet materialized.
Amendments or revision to the constitution shall be valid only when ratified by a
majority of the votes cast in a national referendum.

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Only the House of Representatives can initiate the impeachment of the president, members of
the Supreme Court, and other constitutionally protected public officials such as the
Ombudsman. The Senate will then try the impeachment case. This is another safeguard to
promote moral and ethical conduct in the government.

Attempts to Amend or Change the 1987 Constitution

The 1987 Constitution provided for three methods by which the Constitution can be
amended, all requiring ratification by a majority vote in a national referendum. These
methods were Constituent Assembly, Constitutional Convention, and People's Initiative.
Using these modes, efforts to amend or change the 1987 Constitution, starting with the
presidency of Fidel V. Ramos who succeeded Corazon Aquino. The first attempt was in
1995, when then Secretary of National Security Council Jose Almonte drafted a constitution,
but it was exposed to the media, and it never prospered. The second effort happened in 1997,
when a group called PIRMA hoped to gather signatures from voters to change the
constitution through people's initiative. Many were against this, including then Senator
Miriam Defensor-Santiago, who brought the issue to court ana won-with the supreme Court
judging that a people's initiative cannot push through without an enabling law.

The succeeding president, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, formed a study Commission to investigate
the issues surrounding charter change focusing on the economic and judiciary provisions of
the constitution. This effort was also blocked by different entities. After President Estrada
was replaced by another People Power and succeeded by his Vice President, Gloria
Macapagal- Arroyo, then House Speaker Jose de Venecia endorsed constitutional change
through a Constituent Assembly, which entails a two-thirds vote of the House to propose
amendments or revision to the Constitution. This initiative was also not successful since the
term of President Arroyo was mired in controversy and scandal, including the possibility of
Arroyo extending her term as president, which the Constitution does not allow.

The administration of the succeeding President Benigno Aquino III had no marked interest
in charter change, except those emanating from different members of Congress, including the
speaker of the House, Feliciano Belmonte Jr., who attempted to make amendments to the
Constitution that concern economic provisions that aim toward liberalization. This effort
did not see the light of day.

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Federalism in the Philippines was supported by President Duterte in the 2016 presidential
elections, saying that it will evenly distribute wealth in the Philippines instead of
concentrating it in Manila, the capital of the country. As a form of government, a central
governing authority and constituent political units constitutionally share sovereignty. Applied
to the Philippines, the country will be broken into autonomous regions. Each region will be
further divided into local government units. The regions will have the primary responsibility
of industry development, public safety and instruction, education, healthcare, transportation,
and many more. Each region will also take charge of their own finances, plans for
development, and laws exclusive to the area. The national government, on the other hand,
Will only handle matters of national interest such as foreign policy and defense, among
others. In this system, it is possible for the central government and the regions to share certain
powers.

Our current system is that of a unitary form, where administrative powers and resources are
concentrated in the national government. Mayors and governors would have to rely on
allocations provided to them through a proposed budget that is also approved by the nation
government, a system prone to abuse.

There are many pros to a federal form of government. Each region may custom fit solutions
to problems brought about by their distinct geographic, cultural, social, and economic
contexts. Regions also have more power over their finances, since they handle majority of
their income and only contributes to a small portion to the national government.

They can choose to directly fund their own development projects without asking for the
national government's go signal. A federal system could also promote specialization since
the national government could focus on nationwide concerns while regional governments
can take care of administrative issues.
A federal form of government could also solve a lot of decade-old problems of the
country. It may be a solution to the conflict in Mindanao, since a separate Bangsamoro
region could be established for Muslim Mindanao. It could address the inequality in wealth
distribution and lessen the dependence to Metro Manila, since regions can proceed with
what they must do without needing to consider the situation in the capital.
There are also cons to federalism. While it creates competition among regions, it could
also be a challenge to achieving unity in the country. There might be regions which are
not ready to govern themselves, or have lesser resources, which could mire them deeper in
poverty and make development uneven in the country.
There could be issues regarding overlaps in jurisdiction, since ambiguities may arise where

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 national ends and regional begins, or vice versa. As a proposed solution to the conflict in
Mindanao, we must also remember that the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
(ARMM) has already been created, and the conflict continues. Federalism may not be
enough for those who clamor separation.
Any effort to shift the system of government also entails costs, and it would not be cheap.
It would cost billions to dismantle the current system and would take a long time before
the system normalizes and irons out its kinks.

In an upsurge of populism, President Rodrigo Duterte won the 2016 presidential elections in
a campaign centering on law and order, proposing to reduce crime by killing tens of
thousands of criminals. He is also a known advocate of federalism, a compound mode ot
government combining a central or federal government with regional governments in a single
political system. This advocacy is in part an influence of his background, being a local leader
in Mindanao that has been mired in poverty and violence for decades. On 7 December 2016,
President Duterte signed an executive order creating a consultative committee to review the
1987 Constitution.

Lesson 2. Policies on Agrarian Reform

Agrarian reform is essentially the rectification of the whole system of agriculture, an
important aspect of the Philippine economy because nearly half of the population is
employed in the agricultural sector, and most citizens live in rural areas. Agrarian reform is
centered on the relationship between production and the distribution of land among farmers.
It is also focused on the political and economic class character of the relations of production
and distribution in farming and related enterprises, and how these connect to the wider class
structure. Through genuine and comprehensive agrarian reform, the Philippines would be
able to gain more from its agricultural potential and uplift the Filipinos in the agricultural
sector, who have been, for the longest time, suffering in poverty and discontent.

In our attempt to understand the development ot agrarian reform in the Philippines, we turn
our attention to our country’s history, especially our colonial past, where we could find the
root or the agrarian woes the country has experienced up to this very day.

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Landownership in the Philippines under Spain
When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them a system of pueblo
agriculture, where rural communities, often dispersed and scattered in nature, were organized
into a pueblo and given land to cultivate.

Families were not allowed to own their land-the King of Spain owned the land, and Filipinos
were assigned to these lands to cultivate them, and they paid their colonial tributes to the
Spanish authorities in the form of agricultural products.

Later, through the Law of the Indies, the Spanish crown awarded tracts of land to (1)
religious orders; 2) repartimientos for Spanish military as reward for their service; and (3)
Spanish encomenderos, those mandated to manage the encomienda or the lands given to
them, where Filipinos worked and paid their tributes to the encomendero. Filipinos were not
given the right to own land, and only worked in them so that they might have a share of the
crops and pay tribute. The encomienda system was an unfair and abusive system as
"compras y vandalas" became the norm for the Filipino farmers working the land-they were
made to sell their products at very low price or surrender their products to the encomenderos,
who resold this as a profit. Filipinos in the encomienda were also required to render services
to the encomenderos that were unrelated to farming.

From this encomienda system, the hacienda system developed in the beginning or the
nineteenth century as the Spanish government implemented policies that would fast track the
entry of the colony into the capitalist world. The economy was tied to the world market as the
Philippines became an exporter of raw materials and importer of goods. Agricultural exports
were demanded, and the hacienda system was developed as a new form of ownership. In the
1860s, Spain enacted a law ordering landholders to register their landholdings, and only those
who knew benefitted from this. lands were claimed and registered in other people's names,
and many peasant families who were "assigned" to the land in the earlier days of colonization
were driven out or forced to come under the power of these people who claimed rights to the
land because they held a title.

This is the primary reason why revolts in the Philippines were often agrarian in nature.
Before the colonization, Filipinos had communal ownership of land. The system introduced
by the Spaniards became a bitter source of hatred and discontent for the Filipinos. Religious

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orders, the biggest l a n d o w n e r s in the Philippines, also became a main source of
abuse and exploitation for the Filipinos, increasing the rent paid by the Filipinos on a whim.

Filipinos fought the Philippine Revolution in a confluence of motivations, but the greatest
desire for freedom would be the necessity of owning land. Upon the end of the Philippine
Revolution, the revolutionary government would declare all large, landed estates, especially
the confiscated friar lands as government property. However, the first Philippine republic was
short-lived. The entrance of the Americans would signal a new era of colonialism and
imperialism in the Philippines.

Landownership in the Philippines under the Americans

The Americans were aware that the main cause of social unrest in the Philippines was
landlessness, and they attempted to put an end to the deplorable conditions of the tenant
farmers by passing several land policies to increase the small landholders and distribute
ownership to a bigger number of Filipino tenants and farmers. The Philippine Bill of 1902
provided regulations on the disposal of public lands. A private individual may own 16
hectares of land while corporate landholders may have 1,024 hectares. Americans were also
given rights to own agricultural lands in the country. The Philippine Commission also
enacted Act No. 496 or the Land Registration Act, which introduced the Torrens system to
address the absence of earlier records of issued land titles and conduct accurate land surveys.
In 1903, the homestead program was introduced, allowing a tenant to enter an agricultural
business by acquiring a farm of at least 16 hectares. This program, however, was limited to
areas in Northern Luzon and Mindanao, where colonial penetration had been difficult for
Americans, a problem they inherited from the Spaniards.

Landownership did not improve during the American period; in fact, it even worsened,
because there was no limit to the size of landholdings people could possess and the
accessibility of possession was limited to those who could afford to buy, register, and acquire
fixed property titles. Not all friar lands acquired by the Americans were given to landless
peasant farmers. Some lands were sold or leased to American and Filipino business interest.
This early land reform program was also implemented without support mechanisms-if a
landless peasant 1armer received land, he only received land, nothing more. Many were
forced to return to tenancy and wealthy Filipino hacienderos purchased or forcefully took
over lands from farmers who could not afford to pay their debts. The system introduced by

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the Americans enabled more lands to be placed under tenancy, which: widespread peasant
uprisings, such as the Colorum and Sakdal Uprising in Luzon. Peasants and workers
found refuge from millenarian movements that gave them hope that change could still
happen through militancy.

The Sakdal (or Sakdalista) Uprising was a peasant rebellion in Central Luzon that lasted
for two days, May 2-3, 1935. It was easily crushed by government forces then, but this
historical event tells of the social inequality brought about by issues in land ownership
and tenancy in the country.
The Filipino word sakdal means "to accuse, which is the title of the newspaper helmed by
Benigno Ramos. He rallied support from Manila and nearby provinces through the
publication, which led to the establishment of the Partido Sakdalista in 1933. They
demanded reforms from the government, such as the abolition of taxes and "equal or
common ownership of land, among others. They also opposed the dominant Nacionalista
Party's acceptance of gradual independence from the United States, and instead demanded
immediate severance of ties with America.
For a new party with a small clout, they did well in the 1934 general elections, scoring
three seats in the House of Representatives and several local posts. This encouraged them
to attempt an uprising in 1936. Upon being crushed, Ramos fled to Tokyo and the Partido
Sakdalista collapsed.

During the years of the Commonwealth government, the situation further worsened as
peasant uprisings increased and landlord-tenant relationship became more and more
disparate. President Quezon laid down a social justice program focused on the purchase of
haciendas, which were to be divided and sold to tenants. His administration also created the
National Rice and Corn Corporation (NARIC) to assign public defenders to assist peasants in
court battles for their rights to the land, and the Court of Industrial Relations to exercise
jurisdiction over disagreements arising from landowner- tenant relationship. The homestead
program also continued through the National Land Settlement Administration (NLSA).
Efforts toward agrarian reform by the Commonwealth failed because of any problems such as
budget allocation to the settlement program and widespread peasant uprisings. World War II
put a halt to all interventions to solve these problems as the Japanese occupied the country.

Post-War Interventions Toward Agrarian Reform

Rehabilitation and rebuilding after the war were focused on providing solutions to the
problems of the past. The administration of President Roxas passed Republic Act No. 34 to
establish a 70-30 sharing arrangement between tenant and landlord, respectively, which

109 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

reduced the interest of landowner’s loans to tenants at six percent or less. The government
also attempted to redistribute hacienda lands, falling prey to the woes of similar attempts
since no support was given to small farmers who were given lands.

Under the term of President Elpidio Quirino, the Land Settlement Development Corporation
(LASEDECO) was established to accelerate and the resettlement program for peasants. This
agency later became the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA)
under the administration of President Ramon Magsaysay.

Magsaysay saw the importance of pursuing genuine land reform program and convinced the
Congress, majority of which were landed elites, to pass legislation to improve the land reform
situation. Republic Act No. 1199 or the Agricultural Tenancy Act was passed to govern the
relationship between landholders and tenant farmers, protecting the tenurial rights of tenants
and enforced tenancy practices. Through this law, the Court of Agricultural Relations was
created in 1955 to improve tenancy security, fix land rentals of tenanted farms, and resolve
land disputes filed by the landowners and peasant organizations. The Agricultural Tenancy
Commission was also established to administer problems created by tenancy. The
Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA) was also created
mainly to provide warehouse facilities and assist farmers in marketing their products. The
administration spearheaded the establishment of the Agricultural and Industrial Bank to
provide easier terms in applying for homestead and other farmlands.

NARRA accelerated the government's resettlement program and distribution of agricultural

lands to landless tenants and farmers. It also aimed to convince members of the Huks, a
movement of rebels in Central Luzon, to resettle in areas where they could restart their lives
as peaceful citizens.

Despite a move vigorous effort toward agrarian reform, the situation for the farmers remained
dire since the government lacked funds and provided inadequate support services for the
programs. The landed elite did not fully cooperate, and they criticized the programs.

A major stride in land reform arrived during the term of President Diosdado Macapagal
through the Agricultural Land Reform Code (Republic Act No. 3844)

110 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

  To establish owner-cultivatorship and the economic family-size farm as the basis of
Philippine agriculture, as a consequence, divert landlord capital in agriculture to
industrial development;
 To achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious
institutional restraints and practices;
 To create a truly viable social and economic structure in agriculture conducive to
greater productivity and higher farm incomes
 To apply all labor laws equally and without discrimination to both industrial and
agricultural wage earners,
 To provide more vigorous and systematic land resettlement program and public land
distribution; and
 To make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant and responsible citizens,
and a source of genuine strength in our democratic society.

This Code abolished share tenancy in the Philippines and prescribed a program to convert
tenant-farmers to lessees and later owner-cultivators. It also aimed to free tenants from
tenancy and emphasize owner cultivatorship and farmer independence, equity, productivity
improvement, and public land distribution. Despite being one of the most comprehensive
pieces of land reform legislation ever passed in the Philippines, Congress did not make any
effort to come up with a separate bill to fund its implementation, even though it proved
beneficial in the provinces where it was pilot tested.

Agrarian Reform Efforts under Marcos

President Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972, enabling him to essentially wipe out the
landlord-dominated Congress. Through his "technocrats," he was able to expand executive
power to start a "fundamental restructuring" of government, including its efforts in solving
the deep structural problems of the countryside. Presidential Decree No. 27 or the Code of
Agrarian Reform of the Philippines became the core of agrarian reform during Marcos
regime.

A. This shall apply to tenant farmers of private agricultural lands primarily devoted to
rice and corn under a system of sharecrop or lease-tenancy, whether classified as
landed estate or not;

111 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

 B. The tenant farmer, whether in land classified as landed estate or not, shall be
deemed owner of a portion constituting a family-size farm of (5) hectares it not
irrigated and three (3) hectares if irrigated:
C. In all cases the landowner may retain an area of not more than seven (7) hectares if
such landowner is cultivating such area or will now cultivate it; For the purpose of
determining the cost of the land to be transferred to the tenant-farmer pursuant to
this Decree, the value of the land shall be equivalent to two and one-half (2 ½ ) times
the average harvest of three normal crop years immediately preceding the
promulgation of this Decree;
D. The total cost of the land, including interest at the rate of six (6) per centum per
annum, shall be paid by the tenant in fifteen (15) years of fifteen (15) equal annual
amortizations;
E. In case of default, the amortization due shall be paid by the farmers' cooperative in
which the defaulting tenant-farmer 18 a member, with the cooperative having a right
of recourse against him;
F. The government shall guaranty such amortizations with shares of stock in
government-owned and government-controlled corporations;
G. No title to the land owned by the tenant-farmers under this Decree shall be actually
issued to a tenant-farmer unless and until the tenant- farmer has become a full-fledged
member of a duly recognized farmer's cooperative; Title to land acquired pursuant to
this Decree or the Land Reform Program of the Government shall not be transferable
except by hereditary succession or to the government in accordance with the
provisions of this Decree, the code of Agrarian reforms and other existing laws and
regulations;

The Department of Agrarian Reform through its Secretary is hereby empowered to

promulgate rules and regulations for the implementation of this Decree.

"Operation Land Transfer" on lands occupied by tenants of. more than seven hectares on rice
and corn lands commenced, and through legal compulsion and an improved delivery of
support services to small farmers, agrarian reform seemed to be finally achievable. Under the
rice self-sufficiency program "Masagana '99, farmers were able to borrow from banks and
purchase three-hectare plots of lands and agricultural inputs However, the landlord class still
found ways to circumvent the law. Because only rice lands were the focus of agrarian

112 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

reform, some landlords only needed to change crops to be exempted from the program, such
as coconut and sugar lands. Lands worked by wage labor were also exempt from the
program, so the landed elite only had to evict their tenants and hired workers instead.
Landlessness increased, which made it more difficult for the program to succeed because
landless peasants were excluded from the program. Many other methods were employed by
the elite to find a way to maintain their power and dominance, which were worsened by the
corruption of Marcos and his cronies who were also involved in the agricultural sector.

Post-1986 Agrarian Reform

The overthrow of Marcos and the 1987 Constitution resulted in a renewed interest and
attention to agrarian reform as President Corazon Aquino envisioned agrarian reform to be
the centerpiece of her administration's social legislation, which proved difficult because her
background betrayed her -she came from a family of a wealthy and landed clan that owned
the Hacienda Luisita.

On 22 July 1987, Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation 131 and Executive Order 229,
which outlined her land reform program. In 1988, the Congress passed Republic Act No.
6657 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARD), which introduced the program
with the same name (Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program or (CARP). It enabled the
redistribution of agricultural lands to tenant-farmers from landowners, who were paid in
exchange by the government through just compensation and allowed them to retain not
more than have hectares. Corporate landowners were, however, allowed under law to
voluntarily divest a proportion of their capital stock, equity, or participation in favor of their
workers or other qualified beneficiaries instead of turning over their land to the government.

CARP was limited because it accomplished very little during the administration of Aquino. It
only accomplished 22.5% of land distribution in six years since Congress, dominated by
the landed elite, was unwilling to fund the high compensation costs of the program. It was
also mired in controversy since Aquino seemingly bowed down to the pressure of her
relatives by allowing the stock redistribution option. Hacienda Luisita reorganized itself into
a corporation and distributed stocks to farmers.

Under the term of President Ramos, CARP implementation was speeded in order to meet the
ten-year time frame, despite limitations and constraints in funding, logistics, and participation

113 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

of involved sectors. By 1 9 9 6 , the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR)
distributed only 58.25% of the total area target to be covered by the program. To address the
lacking funding and the dwindling time for the implementation of CARP, Ramos signed
Republic Act No. 8532 in 1998 to amend CARL and extend the program to another ten
years.

CARPER and the Future of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines

The new deadline of CARP expired in 2008, leaving 1.2 million farmer beneficiaries and 1.6
million hectares of agricultural land to be distributed to farmers. In 2009, President Arroyo
signed Republic Act No. 9700 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension
with Reforms (CARPER), the amendatory law that extended the deadline to five more years.
Section 30 of the law also mandates that any case and/or proceedings involving the
implementation of the provisions of CARP, as amended, which may remain pending on 30
June 2014 shall be allowed to proceed to its finality and executed even beyond such date.

From 2009 to 2014, CARPER has distributed a total of 1 million hectares of land to 900,000
farmer beneficiaries. After 27 years of land reform and two Aquino administrations, 500,000
hectares of lands remain undistributed. The DAR and the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR) are the government agencies mandated to fulfill CARP and
CARPER, but even the combined effort and resources of the two agencies have proved
incapable of fully achieving the goal of agrarian reform in the Philippines. The same
problems have plagued its implementation: the powerful landed elite and the ineffectual
bureaucracy of the Philippine government. Until these two challenges are surmounted,
genuine agrarian reform in the Philippines remains but a dream to Filipino farmers who have
been fighting for their right to landownership for centuries.

114 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

Self-assessment 1
True or False. Write true if the statement is true. Otherwise, wrote false in the space
provided.
1. The 1935 Commonwealth Constitution was a result of the passage in the United
States Congress of the Hare-Hawes Cutting Act.
2. The Philippine Commonwealth was interrupted by the Cold War.
3. Before 1973, the constitution in effect in the Philippines was the 1935 Constitution.
4. Landownership in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period was a great
source of hatred and resentment among the Filipinos.
5. The American period ushered in a great improvement in landownership in the
country.
6. Agrarian reform under the dictator Ferdinand Marcos was a failure.

Self-assessment 2
Answer the following questions on the spaces provided.
Why is a constitution considered as the “highest expression of the law”?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
How important is the Malolos Republic Constitution about the ideas and provisions that it
introduced?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

115 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

The drafting of the Malolos Republic Constitution. In your opinion, why was this
issue controversial at that time?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

TO DO!
Assignment 5
Watch the documentary video about Hacienda Luisita. (YouTube: Lupa at Hustisya:
Hacienda Luisita by Tudla Productions). Then, write a reaction paper about the video.
Handwritten will do. Part 1 is the summary of the work, Part 2 is your reaction to the
work, and it must contain a concluding paragraph. For guiding you on how to write a
reaction paper, visit (http://www.hunter.cuny.edu).

TO DO!
Assignment 6
Compare and contrast Philippine Constitutions and the Proposed Federal Constitution.

Form of Ratifying/ Length of Distinctive

Government Promulgating Effectivity Features
Body
Biak-na-Bato Constitution

Malolos Republic Constitution

1935 Constitution

1973 Constitution

1987 Constitution

116 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

 Proposed Federal Constitution

Lesson 3: Biography of a Prominent Filipino Biography of Macli-ing Dulag

Macliing Dulag also spelt Macli-ing, Macli'ing; c. 1930 – 24 April 1980) was a Kalinga
leader of the Butbut tribe in the Cordillera Administrative Region on the island of Luzon in
the Philippines, who was assassinated for his opposition to the Chico River Dam Project.

Dulag was a chieftain in the highland village of Bugnay, Tinglayan, Kalinga-Apayao. A

farmer by profession, Dulag was also a road maintenance worker for the Department of
Public Works and Highways. He staunchly opposed construction of the Chico Dam, a
hydroelectric project along the Chico River proposed by President Ferdinand E. Marcos'
government and was to be funded by the World Bank.

Indigenous peoples in the area, including the Kalinga and the Bontoc, resisted the project for
three decades as the proposed dam's reservoir threatened to drown 1,400 square-kilometers of
traditional highland villages and ancestral domains in the modern-day provinces of Mountain
Province, Kalinga and Apayao.

On 24 April 1980, elements from 4th Infantry Division of the Philippine Army opened fire on
Dulag at his home, killing him and wounding a companion. His murder unified the various
peoples of the Cordillera Mountains against the proposed dam, causing both the World
B a n k and the Marcos’s regime to eventually abandon the project a few years after.

Commemoration
The date of Dulag's death is unofficially observed as "Cordillera Day" annually by
indigenous communities along the Chico River.

Dulag's name is also inscribed in the Bantayog ng mga Bayani (Monument of the Heroes) in
Quezon City, Metro Manila, which is dedicated to victims of extrajudicial killings since the
Martial Law era.

Macli-ing as the Cordilleran Defender

117 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

To the Marcos dictatorship, the indigenous communities of the Cordillera Mountain range in
the north of Luzon could easily be dealt with as it proceeded with its plan to build a huge dam
on the Chico River.

But the Kalinga and Bontok peoples knew that the project would flood their rice fields and
their homes, communal forests and sacred burial grounds. It would destroy their lives by
changing their environment forever.

Macliing Dulag was a respected elder of the Butbut tribe in the tiny mountain village of
Bugnay in the 1960s. He was a pangat, one of those listened to by the community because
of their wisdom and courage. He was also the elected barrio captain of Bugnay, serving
out three terms since 1966. Ordinarily, he tended his rice fields and worked as a laborer on
road maintenance projects (earning P405 a month).

In 1974, the regime tried to implement a 1,000-megawatt hydroelectric power project, to be

funded by the World Bank, along the Chico River. The plan called for the construction of
four dams that would have put many villages under water, covering an area of around 1,400

118 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

square kilometers of rice terraces (payew), orchards, and graveyards. As many as 100,000
people living along the river, including Macliing’s Bugnay village, would have lost their
homes.

Macliing became a strong and articulate figure in this struggle which pitted small nearly
powerless communities in the Cordilleras against the full powers of the martial law regime.
Kalinga and Bontok leaders were offered bribes, harassed by soldiers and government
mercenaries, even imprisoned. But the anti-dam leaders, including Macliing, stayed firm in
their opposition to the project. They argued that development should not be achieved at such
extreme sacrifice.

“If you destroy life in your search for what you say is the good life, we question it,” Macliing
said”. Those who need electric lights are not thinking of us who are bound to be
destroyed. Should the need for electric power be a reason for our death?”

Macliing expressed the people’s reverence for the land, affirming their right to stay: “Such
arrogance to say that you own the land, when you are owned by it! How can you own that
which outlives you? Only the people own the land because only the people live forever. To
claim a place is the birthright of everyone. Even the lowly animals have their own place…
how much more when we talk of human beings?”

Resistance to the dam project unified the Cordillera region. Macliing and other Cordillera
leaders initiated a series of tribal pacts (bodong or vochong), which helped cement this unity
and create a very broad alliance of the communities and their supporters. They recognized
the leader of the Butbut as their spokesperson, for although Macliing had had no formal
education, he always found the right words for what they needed to say.

Macliing was murdered by government soldiers on April 24, 1980. They surrounded his
house one night and sprayed it with bullets. His assassination merely solidified opposition to
the dam and won it sympathizers from all over the country and even abroad. Even the World
Bank, which would have funded the dam construction, withdrew from the project,
finally forcing the martial law government to cancel its plans.

Four of Macliing’s killers were charged and in 1983 tried before a military tribunal. An army

119 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

lieutenant and a sergeant were subsequently found guilty of murder and frustrated murder.
The lieutenant was later reinstated in the army, rose to become a major, and then himself was
killed in 2000 by the New People’s Army.

Self-assessment Task 3
Answer the following questions below.
Despite not having formal education, Macli-ing was considered as one of the most influential
people in the Cordillera. What are the lessons that the Great Macli-ing left to the Cordilleran
Generation?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
What are the political/social/environmental issues today that are comparable to the story of
Macli-ing Dulag and the government?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
What is the importance of land and heritage to the Cordilleran people?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

TO DO!

120 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

Assignment 7
Create a poster showcasing your pride of Cordilleran culture and historical heritage inspired
by the biography of Macli-ing Dulag on ½ Cartolina. Be creative! Color your output. Place
your name on Right top of your output outside the margin.

Lesson 4: Philippine Modern Issues

COVID 19
In December 2019, reports emerged that a coronavirus that specialists had never before seen
in humans had begun to spread among the population of Wuhan, a large city in the Chinese
province of Hubei.

Since then, the virus has spread to other countries, inside and outside of Asia, leading the
World Health Organization (WHO) to declare this as a pandemic.

To date, the novel coronavirus — called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
(SARS-CoV-2) — has been responsible for millions of infections globally, causing
hundreds of thousands of deaths. The highest number of deaths has occurred in the United
States.

What do we really know about this virus? To what extent is it likely to affect the global
population?
Medical News Today have contacted the WHO, collected information from public health
organizations, and investigated the newest studies in peer reviewed journals to answer these
and other questions from our readers.

As of today (August 10, 2020) the World Health Organization has a total record of
20,026,161 cases around the world, 734,020 deaths and 12,900, 625 recoveries.

In the Philippines, the Department of health has recorded a total of 129,913 Covid-19
cases, 2,270 death and 67, 637 total recoveries.

121 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

Self-assessment Task 4
Make a data chart on the impact of Covid-19, a worldwide pandemic on the different
aspect of human around the globe.

Life Aspect Impact of Covid-19

Social

Political

Environmental

Economy

Conclusion:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

122 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

TO DO!
Assignment 8
Watch the documentary by Atom Araullo entitled The Atom Araullo Specials: Covid -19:
Nang Tumigil Ang Mundo in YouTube. Then, write a reaction paper about the video.
Handwritten will do. Part 1 is the summary of the work, Part 2 is your reaction to the work,
and it must contain a concluding paragraph. In order to guide you on how to write a reaction
paper: http://www.hunter.cuny.edu

123 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1

Module 1: Self-assessment Task 3
True
False
True
False
False
False
True
True
False
False

Module 2: Self-assessment Task 4

True
True
True
False
True
True
True
False

Module 4: Self-assessment Task 1

False
False
True
True
False
True

124 | P a g e Property of Sir Roland D. Marcos – HIST1