Tantric Mandala of the Borobudur

Dr Uday Dokras Phd Stockholm, SWEDEN

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Chapter 1-The rise of Esoteric Buddhism on SE Asian Trade routes
Bharat and Dvipantara page 5
Chapter 2-The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a Tantric Stupa page 23
Chapter 3-Borobudur ground plan took form of a Tantric Mandala page 64
Chapter 4-BOROBUDUR- The TANTRIC ‘prayer in stone’ page 70
Chapter 5-The Mountain Mystique of the Big Boro
Borobudur as a Hill and built on a hill
Also see my twin paper on the Immersive Experience of the Borobudur page 94
Chapter 6-The Mountain of Virtue from the Ten Phases of Bodhisattva”.
The New Concept of Borobudur Behind its Namempage 115
Chapter 7-Borobudur- The Buddha Sutras and the Journey of Sudhana page 124
Chapter 8-Borobudur as a Vihara page 156

Chapter 9-The 5 of Borobudur page 165

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 Chapter 1
The rise of Esoteric Buddhism on SE Asian Trade routes
Bharat and Dvipantara
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers
to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the
7th century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by
pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like
the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes
with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and
Japan, to the extent that it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a
complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia”. In many of the key South
Asian port cities that saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, the tradition coexisted
alongside Shaivism. The Hindu worldview, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the
land and social structures, was already present in local traditions, and thus Hinduism only
structured older beliefs, such as that of the Cosmic Mountain in Java . The Mahābhārata and the
Rāmāyaṇa were recognized by local rulers, who easily identified with a divine ruler who
battled and defeated the wrong doers that threaten the ethical order of the world.

Culture spread via the trade routes that linked India with southern Burma, central and southern
Siam, the Malay peninsula and Sumatra to Java, lower Cambodia and Champa. The Pali and
Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism,
Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred
texts and Indian literature.

The caste system, although adopted, was never applied universally and was not as strict as in
India. It stated that no one is equal within society, while everyone has their own place.
Buddhism arrived in Burma in the first century and reached Funan in the second century and
by the fifth century had spread all across Southeast Asia where Hinduism and Buddhism
became interwoven. In Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Laos and Vietnam, both
Buddhism and Hinduism are intertwined to this day, with for example Lord Ganesha
appearing predominantly as a protector, guardian and deity of success.
In Indonesia, Hinduism was so intermingled with Buddhism, that Shiva and the Buddha
were incorporated in the same religion. Balinese Hinduism maintains this syncretism to this day,
and the Saiva and Buddhist priests sit side by side, although dressed differently, as they bless
the laity.
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire
of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.
The decline of Buddhist-Hindu states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the
13th-16th centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna or Tantrayāna) emerged along
the maritime trade routes and port cities of Java, Sumatra and Malaysia. This tradition
was also linked with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham, Cambodia and all
the way to China and Japan.

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It is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of “Esoteric
Buddhism of Maritime Asia.” In many of the key South Asian port cities that saw the growth of
Esoteric Buddhism, the tradition coexisted alongside Shaivism.

Buddhism in Indonesia decreased with the fall of Majapahit because of the civil war that saw
the appearance of the Mohammedans. By that time, the Javanese Buddhists started to resorb
within Kejawen, the original Javanese ascetic religion.
Pockets of original Javanese Buddhists still exist in Central and East Java. The regencies of
Temanggung, Blitar and Jepara count about 30.000 Javanese Buddhists. Indonesian Esoteric
Buddhism is also experiencing a revival among the educated classes in Jakarta and Surabaya.

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1.100 years-old Pustakashala Temple dedicated to Ganesha, located within the Central
Library of the Islamic University of Indonesia, Yogyakarta (ABOVE)

India and Indonesia have celebrated their 73rd and 75th independence anniversaries this year.
Although India declared its independence three years after Indonesia, it was the leadership
and activism of the Indian independence movement in international forums that guaranteed
and paved the way for Indonesia’s independence.

At that time, it was the conviction of the founding fathers of India that Indonesia would be
India’s partner for the long run just as it had been in the ancient past. Relations
between Bharat and Dvipantara (or in another term, Nusantara) had endured against all odds
long before the advent of the Westphalian nation-state order. With this deep-rooted historical
memory, the first independent leaders of India and Indonesia believed that this linkage would
eventually become an anchor for a lasting partnership.

Relations between Bharat and Dvipantara (or in another term, Nusantara) had endured
against all odds long before the advent of the Westphalian nation-state order.

Consequently, during the early years of the Cold War, both countries promoted similar
values, particularly on the idea of Non-Alignment. The relations between the two countries
suffered some setbacks due to the circumstances forced by the Cold War, which eventually
affected both countries in their political choices. Nevertheless, the realities of the post-Cold
War global order stimulated them to build a closer relationship than ever before.

The sentiment of close relations could be felt when Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed
his speech at the Ram Mandir in early August. He mentioned Indonesia when he referred to
the legacy that the Ramayana had left behind in the Asian countries. Although Indonesia is a
predominantly Muslim country, the Prime Minister emphasised that most of the Indonesian
people still cherish the Indic values left behind by their ancestors. The preservation of oral,
textual and visual Indic tradition through literary works like Kakawin Ramayana, the
legendary architectural heritage like the Prambanan Temple and the continuing usage of
Sanskrit for the motto of governmental agencies stands as proof that Indonesia is willing to
keep to the exhortation of its founding father, Soekarno: “Never ever forget history.” It is also
widely known that Islam in Indonesia was propagated using the infusion of Indic culture with
Islamic values. This style of propagation was done by Wali Songo, the revered nine Muslim
saints in Java.

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When Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed his speech at the Ram Mandir in early
August. He mentioned Indonesia when he referred to the legacy that the Ramayana had left
behind in the Asian countries- highlighting the close sentiments. Recently, despite the rising
tendency of radicalism and anti-historicism stemming from close-minded religious groups,
the Indonesian government and Indonesian people are still not willing to forsake the past.
One of the recent examples of the effort to preserve the Indic heritage of Indonesia can be
seen in the institution to which the writer is affiliated.

When the excavation began in 2010 to build a new university library in the Islamic
University of Indonesia, the construction team found two 1,100-year-old temples with two
altars, lingam, yoni, and the statue of Ganesha within the complex. Given the presence of a
murti of Ganesha, there is a probability that our ancestors thought the place where they built
the temple could be a place of study and knowledge. TOP PIC

When the Waqf Board of the Islamic University of Indonesia discussed the fate of the temple,
it was finally decided that the construction of the institute library would continue with
necessary modifications so as to ensure the protection and conservation of the original
foundations of the monument. The temple was then named as Pustakashala Temple as it is
located within the library complex. Until now, the temple is still standing close to the
University’s grand mosque, as a symbol of respect toward Indic heritage by Indonesian
Muslims. The existence of a historical Hindu temple in an Islamic university is also proof that
Indonesia has shown that it could be a ground of harmony between different cultures and
civilisations.

The preservation of oral, textual and visual Indic tradition through literary works
like Kakawin Ramayana, the legendary architectural heritage like the Prambanan
Temple and the continuing usage of Sanskrit for the motto of governmental agencies stands
as proof that Indonesia is willing to keep to the exhortation of its founding father, Soekarno:
“Never ever forget history.”

With this strong civilisational and enduring cultural linkage, Indonesia and India should
realise that the advancement of bilateral relations between the two countries could have a
positive impact on the dynamic and young population of both countries.

There are three points that could be improved upon to further strengthen the cultural and
people-to-people exchanges between India and Indonesia. As both countries signed the
Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2018, India and Indonesia expressed intent to expand
collaborations not only at high-level official levels, amongst governmental bodies and Multi-
National Companies but also between the people of both the countries.

Firstly, India and Indonesia need to have more city-to-city collaborations. Paradiplomacy or
diplomacy conducted by regional governments could be a way to close the existing gaps
between the two countries. Driven by a more local-centric developmental outlook, local
governments in India and Indonesia are both playing important roles to contribute to the
national economy and development projects. The significant economic growth experienced
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by regional governments in India and Indonesia has influenced positively toward the welfare
and well-being of local citizens. Based on this achievement, India and Indonesia must venture
a new approach and work to benefit from the best local practices of each other. Recently,
India and Indonesia have agreed to strengthen connectivity between two neighbouring
regions, the Province of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam and the Union Territory of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. This connectivity would help strengthen a shared vision on the future of
the Indian Ocean.

Nevertheless, this kind of arrangement should also be expanded into cities in different
sectors. One of the possible models that can be considered is a city-to-city or state-to-state
collaboration between the Yogyakarta Special Region in Java and the State of Uttar Pradesh
in India in the field of cultural interactions. As both provinces have a lot to offer in terms of
their architectural and cultural heritage, both Yogyakarta and Uttar Pradesh could learn from
each other on how to protect historical sites and advance cultural development. Both
provinces could also exchange art students and art workers to learn best practices and ideas.

As the Indian foreign policy analyst Falguni Tiwari has said in her report, the development of
paradiplomacy in India is still at a nascent stage. A lot of work needs to be done in terms of
formulating a common ground between the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of
India and regional governments. Whereas in Indonesia, Indonesian Foreign Policy experts,
Surwandono and Ali Maksum explained that the implementation of paradiplomacy in
Indonesia still needs more improvement because of the strongly bureaucratic nature of the
local governments. Keeping these challenges in mind, India and Indonesia should consider
paradiplomacy as a key part of the agenda for bilateral relations.

Paradiplomacy or diplomacy conducted by regional governments could be a way to close the

existing gaps between the two countries.

Secondly, people-to-people engagements, either people-led or government-led, should be

encouraged by both governments. Until recently, most Indonesian people only knew India
and Indian people mainly from Bollywood series and documentary movies. Most Indians
have relatively minor knowledge about Indonesia and the Indonesian people. A more
grounded diplomacy effort needs to be conducted by both governments with the help of
research institutes and civil society organisations. An excellent example of a recent people-
led initiative is the webinar recently conducted online between CSIS, Jakarta and ORF, New
Delhi on the issue of the Indian Ocean.

Additionally, there are events such as Bali Yatra, an annual festivity which celebrates the
age-old India-Indonesia relation. However more such venues must be discovered and
encouraged for cooperation. Deeper cultural and civilisational ties could be revived through
inter-faith and inter-cultural dialogues conducted not only between prominent figures but also
especially between academics, youth and women.
Finally, the reinforcement and multiplication of cultural and civilisational ties between the
two countries should not solely rely upon formal agreements and mere paperwork. Gurudev
Rabindranath Tagore had led the way in this regard when he visited Indonesia in 1913 to find
inspiration for the foundation of Visva Bharati. India and Indonesia could be Gurus for each

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other to create a better future. Hadza Min Fadhli Robby, https://chintan.indiafoundation.in/articles/bharat-
and-dvipantara-advancing-cultural-and-civilizational-ties-between-india-and-indonesia/Bharat and Dvipantara:
Advancing Cultural and Civilizational ties between India and Indonesia

Maha Vihara Mojopahit in Trowulan

Esoteric Buddhism and Dvipantara - The whole South Asian continent was a continuum of
civilization. This is mentioned in the Matsya Purana, where for the first time is mentioned the
cultural unity of Jambudvipa and Dvipantara. So there was no “Indianization” per se, but
more of a cultural continuum over two millenia where local cultures and religious traditions
were standardized and somewhat uplifted within the fold of Hinduism. The Hindu kingdoms
of Dvipantara were a result of centuries of socio-economic interaction having incorporated
central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, literature and
architecture.
Hinduism in Southeast Asia often became richer and more complete due to its integration of
local wisdom. The climate, flora and fauna of India and Southeast Asia are very similar,
fostering the merging of similar lifestyles and culture.

References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in
Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of
Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.
According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called
Nagapuram. The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung
Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the
1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also
archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and
Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time. South
Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th

10
and 5th century. and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were
found in Java and Borneo.
Hindu beliefs arrived in the archipelago before the second century AD with traders and
missionaries from India, these beliefs were greatly modified when adapted to Indonesian
society. Traders, Buddhist monks, and Shaivite Brahmans spread art, architecture and material
culture all over Dvipantara (Southeast Asia). The book lays emphasis on the mobile networks
of human agents (‘Masters’), textual sources (‘Texts’) and images (‘Icons’) through which
Esoteric Buddhist traditions spread.

The Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms all over Southeast Asia acted as crossroads of political
power, mercantile entrepreneurship, and centers of learning, worship, and pilgrimage where
esoteric forms of Hinduism and Buddhism coexistedThe central concept of ritual purity,
maintained through a division of society into occupational groups, or castes (varna, literally
color), was never rigidly applied in Indonesia. The categories of Brahman (priests; brahmana
in Indonesian), Kshatriya (ruler-warrior; satria in Indonesian), Vaishya (merchant-farmer;
waisya in Indonesian), and Shudra (commoner-servant; sudra in Indonesian) do exist in Bali;
besides the category of Brahman, however, they appear to have little influence over
occupational choices, or even over social status and marital opportunities. Two Hindu epics,
the Mahabharata (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata) and the Ramayana (The
Travels of Rama), have become classics among Indonesians, both Hindu believers and others,
especially in Java, and are rendered in wayang and dance performances.
Nusantara is a historical Old Javanese term which literally means "outer islands in essence
referring to the islands surrounding Java (or parts of it). The word is taken from an oath
by Gajah Mada in 1336, as written in the Old Javanese Pararaton and Nagarakretagama: Gajah
Mada was a powerful military leader and prime minister of Majapahit credited with bringing
the empire to its peak of glory. Gajah Mada delivered an oath called Sumpah Palapa, in which
he vowed not to eat any food containing spices until he had conquered all of Nusantara under
the glory of Majapahit.
The concept of Nusantara as a unified region was not invented by Gajah Mada in 1336.
Earlier in 1275, the term Cakravala Mandala Dvipantara is used to describe the Southeast
Asian archipelago by Kertanegara of Singhasari.
Dvipantara on the other hand is a “sister term”- a Sanskrit word for the "islands in
between", making it a synonym to Nusantara as both dvipa and nusa mean "island".
Kertanegara envisioned the union of Southeast Asian maritime kingdoms and polities under
Singhasari as a bulwark against the rise of the expansionist Mongol Yuan dynasty in mainland
China.
In modern Indonesia specifically, the name is generally taken to mean areas in the Southeast
Asian archipelago in the sovereignty of Indonesia . On the other hand (plus in a wider sense),
neighbouring countries use Nusantara to describe Malay-related cultural and linguistic lands
not just in Indonesia but also namely Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand,
the Philippines, Brunei, East Timor and Taiwan, while excluding Papua New Guinea."
Without conquest or invasion, Hindu culture and organization had helped to organize and
shape kingdoms and principalities from Malaysia to Borneo, from Java to Vietnam. The
creative influence of Indian ideas alone, combined with trade, led to the emergence of the
brilliant civilization of Dvipantara.

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While South-East Asia became was a flourishing center of Indian culture, they were never
subjects of any Indian king. They were perfectly free, politically and economically and their
people representing an integration of Indian and indigenous elements had no links with any
Indian kingdom.

Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Southeast Asia

Ancient Indians travelers and traders had a famous motto: ‘Wasudhaiva-Kutumbakam’ (‘the
whole world is one entity, one family’).

From Burma to Indonesia and the Philippines, was a chain of settlements along the coasts
from which they traded for gold, precious stones, perfumes, and spices. Sanskrit was the linga
franca, Hindu art, technology, science and mathematics circulated freely along the coastlines.
Adoption of Indian civilization stimulated the development of highly organized societies.
Kings ruled in accord with universal moral principles, through the spiritual concept of
the chakravartin. The region’s ruling classes invited Hindu Brahmans to serve at their courts as
priests, astrologers and advisers. Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural elements such as the
Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata had been adopted and customized increasingly with a
regional character. Borobudur in Java and Angkor in Cambodia are examples of a distinctly
developed regional culture, style, and expression.

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Cultural and trading relations between the Chola dynasty of South India and the
Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led the Bay of Bengal to be called “The Chola
Lake”. The Cholas developed links all over south India. They then brought Srilanka, South
— East Asia and even China under the network of trade-mostly barter system was employed
in trade and commerce where even paddy was used as a unit of exchange. Large scale
exchanges of gold coins such as Pon, Kasu, Kalanju were used. In 1025, Rajendra Chola I,
the Chola Emperor from Tamil Nadu in South India, launched naval raids on the city-state
of Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a
unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast
Asia. Several places in present day Indonesia and Malaysia were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of
the Chola dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations
such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan
invasion led to the fall of the Srivijays. Cholan rule or influence on Srivijaya would last until
1070.These attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century are the only example ever of military
attack by Indian kings in Southeast Asia.
The Buddhist Pala dynasty of Bengal also maintained close economic, cultural and religious
ties with the Srivijaya empire, which itself competed with the Khmer Empire to the north for
influence in the region.

For a thousand years, the Javanese were a major influence over Southeast Asia and especially
the great Khmer kingdoms had a great maritime influence, trading from the Philippines to
India and all the way to Japan. They took all the knowledge they needed from abroad, merged
it into their own culture, while trading in gold, precious woods and gemstones.
A Hindu realm. Indian religion was profoundly absorbed by local cultures that formed their
own distinctive variations of these structures in order to reflect their own ideals. Hinduism
does not have a single historical founder nor a centralized authority, thus ensuring religious
freedom. It also allowed for multiple forms of divinity that harmoniously integrated local
traditions, instead of imposing a foreign form of worship.

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Art and Architecture in Dvipantara
Art and architectural creations rivaled those built in India, in size, design and aesthetic
achievements. The most notable examples are Borobudur in Java and Angkor in Cambodia.
Many of the Indian artists came from Kalinga (today’s Orissa). Many of the motifs on the
walls of Borobudur and Angkor Wat resemble carvings of the temples of eastern India.
Modelled after Gupta period icons, the Khmer sculpture of 8th to 13th centuries are very
different in appearance and form uniquely Southeast Asian stylised figures of gods, goddesses,
Buddhas, Apsaras and demons.
The art which the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Dvipantara produced owes its extraordinary
qualities to the genius of the native people. Indian spirituality only provided themes and
patterns for transformation opening up local avenues of cultural and artistic development, as
can be seen in the art of Java, Bali, Burma and Thailand and Cambodia.
In short, Southeast Asia built its own indigenous civilization based on an Indian blueprint. The
Hindu-Buddhist culture and achievements of Southeast Asia often surpassed that of India.
Sculptors and artists integrated Indian motifs with local artistic motifs to arrive at something
distinctively Southeast Asian and produced stylized masterpieces of their own.

Trade and Culture

The traders brought gold, spices and natural resources from Southeast Asia to India, while the
Brahmins brought the Hindu religious and philosophical traditions from India to the various
kingdoms of Dvipantara. Brahmins influenced beyond just the fields of religion and
philosophy however. They also brought their very efficient codes of law and architecture. It
was therefore a natural symbiosis rooted in a similar geographical environment.
The food and flavours of South East Asia are closely related to the Indian ones. Indian herbal
medicines also reached Southeast Asia from ancient times and are used even today in many
countries. The Indonesian ‘jamu’ medicine of today is only a remnant of the Ayurvedic
practices from the time of the Javanese Hindu kingdoms.
The trade networks also allowed the influx of Brahmin scholars, who impressed many
Southeast Asian elites with their knowledge of law, arts, philosophy. The Brahmin scholars,
who through their knowledge were able to stir prosperity in all kingdoms, became sought after
and their practices were propagated throughout all of Southeast Asia.
The Brahmins were not only experts in performing religious rites but were also knowledgeable
in political affairs, art and architecture. They were invited by rulers to serve as advisors,
administrators and priests. Sanskrit was the vehicle for the transmission of knowledge.

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Sanskrit terminology was used in all legal aspects of government and spirituality. Similar
codes of law and public administration wee adopted everywhere.

The ancient city of Polonnaruwa in Sri Lanka, the Thousand Pagodas at Pagan in Burma,
the imperial city of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, the holy temples of Borobudur
and Prambanan in Java are all testimony to the classical cultures of Dvipantara.

Reconstruction in the Majapahit style

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Indian knowledge found a fertile environment in Southeast Asia, a fertile land of spices,
precious woods, gemstones and other natural resources. As the various kingdoms
developed and prospered through their knowledge of the scriptures and shastras, Hindu-
Buddhist religion and civilisation spread to in Southeast Asia. Indian spirituality, political
thought, literature, mythology and art were absorbed deeply into local culture.

All over Southeast Asia, the Ramayana is seen as the founding myth of society, and has
long been the theme for art, drama, dance and poetry. Southeast Asia incorporated and
blended the best of Indian culture. This complementary unity-in-diversity of that vast area
springs from the fact that while Indian philosophy and wisdom is the most profound, its most
perfect means of expression are to be found in Southeast Asia (Angkor, Borobudur).
The epic traditions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa gave legitimacy to a ruler identified
with a god who battled the demonic forces that threaten the ethical order of the world. In
Southeast Asia, as in India, local ancestor and spirit worship traditions were blended with
Hindu and Buddhist conceptions.
In the 9th century, King Yashvarman of Angkor is said to have built hundreds of ashrams.
Each of these, headed by a priest called a Kuladhyaksha, or visitor, was primarily a centre for
higher learning and promoting religious and spiritual practices attracting large followings of
devotees.
The kings of Cambodia, Jayavarman VII (the founder of Angkor) and his successors were
addressed by the people as King of the Mountain and they built their palaces and temples on
hill peaks (as with the Bayon temples).

The Sanskrit Cosmopolis

All names of places in Southeast Asia are Sanskrit in origin. Jeyapora is a derivation of the
name Jaipur. Aranya Prathet in Thailand is simply ‘the jungle province’ or Aranya Pradesh.
‘Indianization’ did not come from outside, but was the product of the indigenous cultures
using Sanskrit as a linga franca and Hinduism as the cultural and spiritual frame.
The political cultures of Java, Cambodia, Burma, and Thailand today still reflect the heritage
of early kingdoms in which Indian religious concepts were welded to local traditions.
All Southeast Asian scripts derive from the Brahmi script used to write Sanskrit. Languages
from Burmese, Thai, Laos, Cambodian and Indonesian languages are all derived from
Sanskrit.

The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with local deities and ancestor
worship. Hinduism and Buddhism apparently were not clearly differentiated, as rulers often
patronized both religions.
In most of the kingdoms, like Cham in coastal Vietnam, Cambodia and Java, the predominant
strain of Hinduism was Shaivism. The Śailendras of Java and Śrīvijaya identified with
Buddhism, as did the rulers of Pagan in today’s Burma.

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Angkor Borei Temple, Cambodia

The Majapahit was Javanese Hindu thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia that was based on
the island of Java (in modern-day Indonesia). It existed from 1293 to circa 1527 and reached
its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked
by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his
prime minister, Gajah Mada. According to the Nagarakretagama (Desawarñana) written in
1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea;
consisting of present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, East Timor,
southwestern Philippines (in particular the Sulu Archipelago) although the scope of Majapahit
sphere of influence is still the subject of debate among historians. The nature of Majapahit
relations and influences upon its overseas vassals, and also its status as an empire are still
provoking discussions.
Majapahit was one of the last major Hindu empires of the region and is considered to be one
of the greatest and most powerful empires in the history of Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It is
sometimes seen as the precedent for Indonesia's modern boundaries. Its influence extended
beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies
After the 13th century, the decline of Southeast Asian civilization followed that of India,
when the Indian coast and interior fell under attack from the Mughals and other
Mohammedan tribes, who then made their way through the trade routes all the way to
Malaysia and Indonesia, where a slow, creeping islamization progressively destroyed the
native kingdoms that had flourished for fifteen centuries.
With the Moslem destruction of Buddhist universities in India, particularly Nalanda
University, Buddhism in India was almost obliterated by the 12th century, yet became very
dominant in Southeast Asia.
Later, Southeast Asia was dismembered into British colonies: Myanmar and Malaysia;
French: the Indochinese states of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam; Dutch: Indonesia; and
Spanish: the Philippines (which was later to become a US colony). In this process, the cultures
of Southeast Asia were totally obscured by these new colonial dominions.1

Today, the complete Indonesian Buddhist teachings can be found in Buddhayana, a

syncretism between Vajrayana, Mahayana and Theravada, as a continuation of the

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2000-years old syncretic Indonesian Buddhist tradition. Buddhayana was established by
the Venerable Ashin Jinarakkhita after Indonesian independence.

In China and countries with large Chinese populations such

as Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism is commonly referred to
as Tángmì, or Hànchuán Mìzōng Its manifestation through subsequent Japanese transmission
is sometimes referred as Dōngmì-"Eastern Esotericism", meaning the succession of Tang
Esoterica in Japan (east of China) transmitted by the Japanese monk Kūkai.
During the Tang dynasty the actual term widely used to refer to these teachings by Tantric
masters was "mantra teaching" and "path of mantras. Chinese tantric masters like Vajrabodhi
and Amoghavajra also used the term Vajrayana.
In a more general sense, the Chinese term Mìzōng "Esoteric Tradition" and Mìjiào "Esoteric
Teaching" are popular Chinese terms used when referring to any form of Esoteric Buddhism.
___________________________________________________________________________
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1. https://medium.com/@Kalpavriksha/dvipantara-the-golden-age-of-southeast-asia-
127fc22c9fce

Timeline of Buddhism in Indonesia- RIGHT Javanese Buddha in gold, 33,7 cm, 11th
century

A Pan-Asian Network of Buddhist Masters

Researcher Andrea Acri demonstrated in a groundbreaking book called Esoteric Buddhism in
Mediaeval Maritime Asia: Networks of Masters, Texts, Icons how from the early 7th century,
Esoteric Buddhist masters, texts, and icons traveled far and wide across Asia in a circular
manner through multiple centers of diffusion.

In this book, he makes an argument for the important role played by regions such as Sri
Lanka, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Malaysia and Indonesia in the genesis and propagation of
Esoteric Buddhist lineages, scriptures and art across Asia. The book is divided into three

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thematic sections on (1) monks, texts, patrons, (2) art, architecture, and material culture, and
(3) Buddha-Shaiva dynamics.
This research provides a treasure trove of detail on the ‘networks of masters, texts and
icons’ of Esoteric Buddhism that united monastic, dynastic and lay practitioners in a
vast geographical zone that stretched from South Asia through Southeast Asia to China,
Korea and Japan. . It demonstrates how the region was both a crossroads and terminus of
Buddhist lineages. The book also draws our attention to the links between the kingdom of
Srivijaya and Tibet, studied through the life of the monk Atisha not justn ‘passively’ received
overseas influences’.

Esoteric Buddhism in the Indonesian Kingdoms

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The kingdom of Śrīvijaya, located near the current city of Palembang in Sumatra, was for
many centuries a prominent international center in the Buddhist world. A stronghold of Esoteric
Buddhism, the Srivijaya empire patronized Buddhist monks and institutions and attracted
pilgrims and scholars from all parts of Asia.

These included Yi Jing, who made several long visits to Sumatra on his way to study
at Nalanda University in India, and the Buddhist scholar Atisha who played a major role in the
development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Indonesia and Tibet. Atisha lived in Sumatra from 1011
to 1023. He studied under the guidance of Dharmakirti, a leading monk of Srivijaya.

The Kalingga Kingdom was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Central Java,
located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. The kingdom was described as being
surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing in a multiple storied palace covered
with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees. The kingdom exported silver, gold and
elephant tusks.
The Kalingga kingdom was very orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of
Buddhist studies and practice, and the Chinese came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which
around that time became the official religion in China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga
Kingdom: Candi Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
The great Manjusrigrha Templeof Medang.

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of the
great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is the
original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in Indonesia
after Borobudur, with 249 buildings.

Singhasari and Majapahit

Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The largest Buddhist stupa in the world is
the Borobudur temple in central Java, built as a mandala, a giant three-dimensional
representation of Esoteric Buddhist cosmology. The temple shows both Indian and Javanese
influences. The reliefs depict stories from the Lalitavistara sūtra, Jataka tales and
the Gandavyuha sūtra.
In the 13th century, Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, where King Kertanegara of
Singhasari patronized Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayana). Buddhism continued to thrive under
the Majapahit Empire. Some of their kings were Vajrayana practitioners, such as
King Adityawarman whose inscriptions state he was “always concentrated on Hevajra”.

World-famous Indonesian Buddhist Art

The oldest Buddhist statue in Indonesia was found in West Sulawesi, at the mouth of the
Sampaga river, Sikendeng Village, Mamuj. It represents Dīpankara Buddha, the protective deity
in Buddhism. The statue is in the Amarawati style.
Buddhist holy sites in Indonesia include the Kalasan Temple, near Yogjakarta, the Sari
Temple, near Kalasan Temple, Borobudur, the Mendut and Pawon temples on the eastern side
of Borobudur, the Ngawen temples complex near Muntilan, the Sewu temples complex near
Prambanan, the Plaosan temples complex on the Eastern side of the Sewu Temple and a few
others.

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The classical era of ancient Java also had produces some of the exquisite examples of
Buddhist art, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita of Java and that of Buddha Vairochana and
Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut temple.

An important gold artefact was recovered from the Ratu Boko temple near Prambanan. The
inscribed gold foil consisting of two connected diamond-shaped leaves recalling a vajra,
bears the Sanskrit mantra oṁ ṭakī hūṁ jaḥ svāhā repeated on each of its four sides.

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22
 Chapter 2
The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a Tantric Stupa

The mandala represents an imaginary palace that is contemplated during meditation. Each
object in the palace has significance, representing an aspect of wisdom or reminding the
meditator of a guiding principle. The mandala's purpose is to help transform ordinary minds
into enlightened ones and to assist with healing.The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is
also evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an
incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is
unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism was present in Java
since at least the 8th century. In Buddhism mandalas are used in the rituals of tantric
initiation. They are constructed at the beginning of the initiation, out of grains of colored sand
carefully placed on a specially prepared platform. Thus mandalas, like Vedic altars, are
temporary structures built of impermanent materials.In my papers:

1. https://www.academia.edu/96314496/Ancient_Indonesia_and_Indian_Tantra
I have pointed out how Tantric science came over to Indonesia by boats of traders.

2. In https://www.academia.edu/96334414/The_5_of_Borobudur_LONG_VERSION I
have underlined the B|Uddhist need for education leading to enlightenment and how
Borobudur fulfilled that function.

3. In my very recent paper- BOROBUDUR---The Buddha SUTRAS and the Journey of

Sudhana,
https://www.academia.edu/96479340/BOROBUDUR_The_Buddha_SUTRAS_and_t
he_Journey_of_Sudhana Borobudur design takes us on a journey just as the disciple
of Gautama Buddha did to understand the life of |Gautama and also learn about our
life and buddhism

Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya

Since the time of Sailendra and Mataram Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same
belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern
schools. Nepalese uses the term Adinata, which means "main protector"
and Swayambhulokanatta, which means "the unborn protector of the universe". The Tibetan
familiar with terms such as Vajradhara (Tibet= Dorjechang; lit. "ruler of all the mysteries").
Namasangiti Text of Candrakīrti (a monk who was staying in Indonesia), and the symbolism
of Borobudur's mandala stupa, provided evidence that the Buddhism embraced by Indonesian
people since the days of Srivijaya, Ancient Mataram, Sailendra, and Majapahit is
the Buddhism which honors the Primordial Buddha.

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Some Indonesian sacred texts which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are:
Guna Karanda Vyuha text

In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is what is called Svayambhu (self-
manifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is called the Adi Buddha.

Sanghyang Kamahayanikan text

All praises for Sanghyang Adi Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I have
been wanted to teach you, to the sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of Tathagata, the
grandeur of 'Sanghyang Mahayana' practices is what i have to teach you.

Herman S. Hendro (1968) in his paper mentioned:

Adi-Buddha is a term used in Tantric Buddhism to refer to the Primordial Buddha. The
term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme Sangha and
the Indonesian Buddhist Council as the designation for God Almighty. This term is not
found in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as Sanghyang
Kamahayanikan. Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Indonesian Buddhism. This
term was used by Ashin Jinarakkhita at the time of Buddhist revival in Indonesia in the mid-
20th century to reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical foundation of
Indonesia (Pancasila), i.e. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (lit. "Recognition of the Divine
Omnipotence") that requires the belief in a supreme God, which Buddhism, strictly speaking,
does not believe in. This concept is used by the Indonesian Buddhist Council, an
organization that seeks to represent all Buddhist traditions in Indonesia such
as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.
The closed uppermost large stupa [of Borobudur] is the epitome of a man who has reached
the Absolute Freedom (Nibbana/ Nirvana) and united with Adi Buddha. Inside that stupa
once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is
unimaginable by human.

Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which
is the stone Candi which are built as a symbol of Mount Meru. Others were built in punden berundak (step
pyramids) style — small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains — and pertapaan, (‘places of austerities’ or
hermitages) built on mountain slopes.
Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an

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elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two
rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a
Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural
fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area,
including the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was
discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are
lined in one straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in
conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from
Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–
Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period,
which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a
sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown

Suroloyo Peak is the highest summit at the picturesque Menoreh Hills, which share the

25
neighbourhood with the renowned eco-tourism destination Kulon Progo. This peak is one of
the most popular spots to catch Yogyakarta’s most glorious sunrise that cast rays of light
upon the Borobudur Temple and Java’s big four mountains: Merapi, Merbabu, Sumbing, and
Sindoro. Other than the breathtaking view, this peak also holds some religious artefacts,
including ascetic pavilions and statues.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.

The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly
from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples'
roof, while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-
shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika) sits on top of the dome
serves as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of
Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

Prambanan vajra pinnacle.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams

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(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna
pinnacle is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of
Buddhist stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period
where the multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is
actually a familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple
architecture, the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while
cylindrical dagoba on top of Buddhist counterparts.
By virtue of their spatial connection to the terrain and the necessity for secure foundations,
works of architecture differ from objects that can be inverted or carried away. The bottom
edge, where a building rests on the ground, requires a different treatment than all other edges
and surfaces (> tectonics). The base reveals the relationship between a building and the
ground: it pushes into the earth, rests on the ground, or is detached from it. Whether a
building makes the impression of standing upright, reclining or floating depends upon
whether it has a base, and if so on its formation. The connection between the building and the
ground also determines the way in which the building relates to the terrain of the exterior
space and how the two join together to form a spatial unity.

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 Depending upon its design, the base shows us how a building rests upon the ground. Solidity
and robustness produce a tectonic expression of load-bearing capacity. Particularly in historic
buildings, these qualities are achieved by means of rough rusticated masonry or the use of
natural stone in the pedestal zone, or by squat proportions and apertures smaller than those in
upper storeys. Bases also ensure that individual architectural elements, such as > columns and
pillars, neither sink into the earth optically nor seem detached from it. Although the base
belongs to the building, and not to the earth, it fulfils the task of creating a connection to the
terrain, broadening out by means of transitions, steps, pedestals or terraces. In ways
comparable to the shoes we wear on our feet, materials also convey distinctions between the
fineness of the interior and the coarseness of the exterior.

Along with the building, the base also brings its occupants down to earth, shaping direct
contact with the passersby and vehicles that move around the building. Through its palpable
presence and tactile qualities, the base constitutes the first zone of contact for approaching a
building within its immediate surroundings, and is its first distinctive identifying symbol.
Essentially, it is reminiscent of the role of the pedestal, which provided stability to ancient
temples as the first islands of civilization within inaccessible terrain. Under certain
circumstances, the task of the base, namely to provide stability and an optical foundation,
may be extended by its use as a basement storey. With reduced apertures, the rooms
contained in the base are partially inserted into the ground. The unfortunately widespread bad
habit, however, of digging out the base in order to provide living space with improved
illumination deprives a building of stable grounding. The mental state of the inhabitant of a
massive basement storey that serves a building as a base, on the other hand, is shaped by a
sense of the apartment’s anchoring into the ground.
Right from the 2 nd Century onwards, Kushans in order to house relics of the Buddha, which
may have been sourced from earlier monuments, and originally buried at the site around 78
CE. Buddhist texts mention that frankincense was used during religious services at
Dharmarajika, while the complex was paved with colourful glass tiles. Though not
Buddhists,he Kushans in general were great patrons of Buddhism, and, starting with Emperor
Kanishka, they also employed elements of Zoroastrianism in their pantheon. They played an
important role in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China.These have a Large
square or circular plinth and several diminishing terraces as mentioned before.

Construction

Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock
hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out
paleolake. The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in
the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even
floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist
architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and
Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in
almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas.
The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in
Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school
of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top
are also thought to resent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by
many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry
land.

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Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments
found near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000
supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm
Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that
Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows
and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most
active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has
been very active since the Pleistocene.

The overall structure of Borobudur is made up of a square foundation along with a total
of nine platforms. Of those nine platforms six of them are squared while the remaining three
are circular. The structure can be further divided into three main levels: a base, a body, and the
top. The architecture of Borobudur would also signify a gradual process as it starts off square in
the lower terraces, transitions to elliptical with the first two upper terraces and finally becomes
circular in the third upper terrace.

PRAMBANAN COMPARISONS

“Prambanan,” explains archeologist Manggar Sarl Ayuati, “is one of the largest Hindu
temple complexes in Asia with an enclosed area 390 meters on a side. It was built in 856 by
King Rakai Pikatan of the Sanjaya dynasty, which ruled the Mataram Kingdom, and was
expanded by later kings. It is dedicated to Siva.”

Prambanan has three concentric courtyards. The innermost contains 16 temples, including the
156-foot-high main temple to Siva and 108-foot temples to Vishnu and Brahma. Each is
faced by a smaller temple for the God’s vahana (mount): Nandi the bull for Siva, Hamsa the
swan for Brahma and Garuda the eagle (Indonesia’s national symbol) for Vishnu. Scenes
from the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The
Siva temple has multiple chambers - Siva in the center, Durga in the north, Rishi Agastya in
the south and Ganesha in the west.

The second courtyard originally contained 240 small temples; only 129 have undergone any
degree of restoration. The rest are just piles of rocks. No structures remain in the third
courtyard, and the historical use of that area is unknown. The complex also contains four
Buddhist temples, built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist wife.

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Prambanan was abandoned in the 10th century, likely when the Mataram kingdom moved to
East Java following a huge eruption of nearby Mount Merapi that covered the entire area in
volcanic ash. A major earthquake in the 16th century collapsed the upper parts of the main
structures. The temple sustained additional damage in the 6.5-magnitude earthquake of 2006.
Repairs were still underway during our 2014 visit.
I was saddened to hear this spectacular place referred to as a dead monument and to see it
reduced to a picnic spot for tourists. Puja is performed here only once a year, but that brings
thousands of people from all over Indonesia to worship Siva, Brahma and Vishnu. With some
difficulty, puja can be arranged at other times of the year. Our guide, Pak Dewa Suratnaya, a
journalist with Media Hindu magazine, said strongly that these great temples should be
brought to life again through regular worship. I agreed with him wholeheartedly.

Diagram of the main Siva temple; repairs underway shortly after the 2006 earthquake; (inset)
the partially collapsed central Siva temple around 1895, after its rediscovery by the British.

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taxila an illustrated account of archaeological excavations,By Marshall John, google
books
One prime example of the large base and conical top design id the Dharmarajika Stupa also
referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila which is a Buddhist stupa near Taxila, Pakistan.

31
It dates from as early as the 2nd century CE, and was built by the Kushans to house small
bone fragments of the Buddha. It has been claimed that that Dharmarajika Stupa was built
over the remains of an even older stupa that had been built by the Mauryan emperor
King Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, though other archeologists alternatively suggest that
this is unlikely. Indo-Greek coins found at the site date from the 2nd century BCE, suggesting
earliest possible establishment of a religious monument at the site.

The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developed around it, forms part
of the Ruins of Taxila - which were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.

The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, an Indo-
European nomadic people of possible Tocharian origin, who migrated from northwestern
China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria. The founder of the
dynasty, Kujula Kadphises, followed Greek religious ideas and iconography after the Greco-
Bactrian tradition, and also followed traditions of Hinduism, being a devotee of the Hindu
God Shiva. Small stupas that predate the main stupa are found throughout the Dharmarajika
site, and surrounded an earlier core stupa in an irregular layout. It is known that the earlier
core stupa contained a pathway for circumambulation that was made of plaster, and decorated
with shell bangles in geometric patterns. The earlier stupa likely had four gates in axial
directions.
The site came under control of Persian Sassanid rule, and suffered a period of
stagnation. Large-scale developments took place during the late Kushan and Kidarite era
which added numerous monasteries and stupas to the site.

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Plan of the Dharmarajika Stupa.

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The site was devastated by the White Huns in the 5th century CE, and then abandoned.
The location of the stupa and its monastic community about 1 kilometre outside
of Sirkap aligns with ancient Gandharan beliefs that the Buddha recommended monasteries
should be neither "too far" nor "too close" to adjacent towns. Three distinctive types of
masonry in the buildings around the main stupa suggest the contributions of different periods
to the building activity.
Core stupa

The passageway between the main stupa and several smaller stupas was used for the practice
of pradakshina.

Dharmarajika Stupa is the largest of all stupas in the Taxila region, Surrounding the main
mound is a passageway for pradakshina — the ancient practice of walking around a holy site.
The stupa's large anda, or hemispherical mound, is damaged − though the plinth of the
mound, known as the medhi, is still largely intact. The anda mound was made
of ashlar stone. The stupa's harmika, or fence like structure built atop the anda mound, has
been lost.
The stupa's southern gateway was initially considered the most important, though the
construction of four smaller stupas (termed G7, G8, S7, Q1) to the west of the stupa indicate
that this then likely became the preferred entrance for those performing circambulation. Later
constructions around the "Eastern Avenue" then shifted the preferred route for circambulation
to the eastern side of the stupa.

Before entering the main sacred areas, visitors to the shrine from Sirkap would pass through a
large building, now termed building H, that would openly display relics. Visitors likely
venerated the relics at building H before entering the main stupa area.

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It is both a temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and
completed as it was designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a
pattern for Hindu temple mountains at Angkor and in its own day it must have been one of
the wonders of the Asian world.

Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated
and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth
(the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The
plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace
stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the
centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face
is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance.

SOLID STRUCTURE

There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing
into any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the
niches contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the
72 lesser bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a
huge stone Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the
ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the
major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original
bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of
which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the
bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and
stone accumulated above.

The Borobodur complex is an open monument; there are no chambers ; it has no roof and no
vaults, (like Candi Sewu). The complex is built in the form of a giant pyramid shaped
mandala with 10 ascending layers: the 10 Buddhist worlds represented by the 10 layers.
Ascending from the base, there are six square terraces and a courtyard and then, at the top 3
round terraces and at the top, a central main stupa measuring 35 meters from the base or 42
meters tall.

A complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a
total of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the
world. The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved
and built ( and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of
the natural hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect
symmetry and total harmony.

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A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in yellow) during the reign
of Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges
plain, to Varanasi on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, or probably even Pataliputra.

The mandala is a diagram representing a spiritual practice of attainment in the Tibetan school
of Vajrayana and also in the Sri Vijayan school as well. What type of mandala is Borobodur ?
This is difficult to say. There are as many as 3,500 types of mandalas and we cannot precisely
fix Borobodur as a particular type of mandala.

Each side of the Borobodur complex is 120 feet long and decreases as it goes up. If we were
to circumambulate each level, it would encompass a total of 5 km.The entrance to
Borobodur is at the east and the Buddhas face east.

Borobodur took about 70 years to be built by the architect Gunadharma .There is a small hill
directly facing Borobodur and folklore says that this hill is said to represent the sleeping body
profile of Gunadvara.

There are a total of 504 stupas in the entire complex, each stupa enclosing a life size stone
Buddha. However, many are now empty due to pillage. Remarkably, no Buddha image is the
same, each Buddha image faces all various directions and with various hand mudras with all
the 6 types of mudras all represented. The 3 upper terraces have 72 Buddhas; the lower
terraces have 432 with total of 504. All the numbers add up to the number 9 ( the largest
single digit indiger ). All the stupas have the stocky bulbous Central Java shape. Each stupa
consists of the top or harmuca which holds holy relics relic holding top and the main body or
anda sitting on a lotus base. But, not all stupas in Borobodur look the same. The stupas in the
upper and lower terraces are differentiated by the harmuca and the anda. The stupas of the
lower terraces have octogonal shaped harmuca and the anda enclosing the Buddha have many

36
tiny square shaped openings or holes. However, the stupas of the upper terraces have a square
shaped harmuca and diamond shaped openings in the anda.

PERFECT SYMMETRY

The base of each stupa equals the height of the stupa. Absolutely perfect symmetry! In fact,
all measurements from every corner and the height of all stupas of Borobodur are governed
by this perfect symmetry.

37
The main central stupa at the top which measures 42 meters is still in the process of
restoration – the top has not yet been restored – and is missing the 3 layers of the parasol or
‘chatra’ as can be seen at the Sarnath temple in India.Mahayana bas relief panels cover each
of the 10 layers of terraced carvings. Each gallery is a masterpieces of Sri Vijayan or
Gandaran art. No one panel is the same, each gallery in each layer representing different
Jataka stories and as one goes further up the galleries, the Jataka stories brought to life by the
panels get from the ordinary to the more conceptual.and.spiritual. As the Borobodur complex
was being built from 830 CE to 938CE, it was archaeologists discovered that it could have

38
been revised by as much as three times from the original plan. In any event, there were no
blueprints then and restorers can only surmise by taking apart the stones and putting them
back again. It was abandoned in 938 CE. No one quite knows why except that, the
champions of Buddhism, the Shailendra dynasty were chased out of Java in 825 CE and this
meant that for the next 30 to 40 years thereafter, the royal patronage for Buddhist temples in
java was lost. After the Shailendras were removed, the Sanjayan family which was a Hindu
princely family still continued to support Buddhism but it began to wane.

The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of
reality at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the
ultimate condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument
effectively proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was
meant to be transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering
illustrations of progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost
terrace, whose main stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the
spectator’s view, symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas
on the circular terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete
states of enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay
reverence to a Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast
series of reliefs about three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would
thus be read by the visitor in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll
panels, and a hundred monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on
the stairways between terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala
monster at the apex spouting his scrolls.

IMPACT OF THE TRADITIONAL INDONESIAN STEP

PYRAMID DESIGN
Punden terraces or terraces are a building layout structure in the form of multiple terraces
or traps that lead to one point with each terrace getting higher in position. This structure is
often found on archaeological sites in the archipelago , so it is considered one of the
characteristics of the original culture of the archipelago.

Ceto Temple, a Hindu-style temple with a staircase punden structure.

The basic structure of the terraced punden is found in archaeological sites from the pre-
Hindu-Buddhist Megalithic - Neolithic culture of the Austronesian people , although it was
also used in buildings from the later period, even until the Islamic period entered the
archipelago. Its distribution is recorded in the archipelago to Polynesia , although in the
Polynesian region it is not always in the form of steps, in a structure known as marae by the
Maori. The entry of religions from outside could fade manufacturing practices punden at

39
several places in the archipelago, but there is a hint of the adoption of the original elements of
this in the buildings of the next period of history, as seen in Borobudur , Candi Ceto , and
Complex Funeral Kings Mataram in Imogiri .

The word "pundèn" (or pundian ) comes from the Javanese language . Said pepund è n which
means "cult objects" similar understanding with the concept kabuyutan the Sundanese
people. In punden terraces, the basic concept held is that the ancestors or those who are
worshiped are in high places (usually mountain peaks ). The term punden
terraces emphasizes the function of worshiping/respecting ancestors, not just the basic
structure of the spatial layout.

Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia

The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a seven-tiered pyramid
called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV. Construction of the
sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square building measures
62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform stood a huge lingam
probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons. Inscriptions say that
it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably stood in a shrine
which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the north side of the
pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier some scientists
say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas were
made.

The main pyramid of Sukuh temple

As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture
in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok [n and in Cipari near
Kuningan. The construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains
and high places are the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.
The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument
in Central Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu
architecture, as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century
Java during the late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as

40
displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also
stepped pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.Borobudur carries with it elements of both the
Pundan terraces and Te Gupta architecture of the sanchi Type.

Post-Borobudur candis

Impact on Post-Borobudur candis illustrate the Buddhist doctrine in different

ways. Kalasan, for example, built in the second half of the 8th century, was a large square
shrine on a plinth, with projecting porticoes at the centre of each face. The roof was
surmounted by a high circular stupa mounted on an octagonal drum, the faces of which bear
reliefs of divinities. Topping each portico was a group of five small stupas, and another large
stupa stood at each disengaged corner of the main shrine. The moldings were restrained and
elegantly profiled. Each section of the exterior wall contains a niche meant for a
figure sculpture. The decorative scroll carving is especially fine.

Another shrine from this period, Candi Sewu, consisted of a large cruciform shrine
surrounded by smaller temples, only one of which has been restored. All of the temples seem
to have had roofs in the form of tiered stupas, compressing the overall Borobudur scheme
into the scope of a storied shrine tower. From Candi Plaosan came many beautiful sculptures,
donor figures, and iconic images of bodhisattvasPerhaps the most interesting of the post-
Borobudur Buddhist shrines of the 9th century is Candi Sari. It is an outstanding architectural
invention. From the outside it appears as a large rectangular three-storied block, with the
main entrance piercing the centre of one of the longer sides. The third story stands above a
substantial architrave with horizontal moldings and antefixes. Two windows on each short
side, three on each long, open into each story, though at the rear they are blind. The windows
are crowned by large antefix-like cartouches of ornamental carving based on curvilinear
pavilions hung with strings of gems. The uppermost windows are hooded with the Kala-
monster motif. The roof bears rows of small stupas, and perhaps there was once a large
central stupa. Inside, Candi Sari contains a processional corridor around three interior shrines
that were possibly intended for images of the garbha-dhatu deities, as at Candi Mendut.

41
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is
an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each
of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been
better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the
complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration
expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples,
while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples
located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different
statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the
current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.

Candi Sewu Layout

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.

42
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal
points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own
stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the
structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty.
However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once
contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably
reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over
the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably
constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

43
 Sewu
Layout
According to literary tradition, Nalanda, 10 kilometres north of Rajgir and a suburb of the
ancient city, was visited by Buddha and Mahavira. Ashoka is said to have worshipped at the
chaitya-niches of Sariputra, Buddha's disciple, and erected a temple. By the time of Harsha
A.D. 606-648, Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed
University town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from far
and near. The Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fa-hien studied at Nalanda and have left
account of the settlement and its life.
Temple 3 was more than 31 m. high and consisted of seven successive accumulations of
which the two latest belonged to the 11th and 12th centuries and the fifth one, dating from
circa 6th century, was notable for its sculptural wealth. The monasteries were imposing
rectangular buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which
leads into cells, arranged on the four sides. The cell facing the entrance served as a shrine.
Nalanda was an important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals
and sealings of great historical significance.

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Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of Temple no. 3 or
5th Stupa (Sariputra Stupa), c. 6th century CE

Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its
multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small
structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence
shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of
construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved
with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of
the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco
figures including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is
surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed
with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine
chamber which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha
must have once rested. According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta
architecture, which itself had Kushana era influences. In a shrine near the bottom of the
staircase, a large image of Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the
Museum.

45
Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62

When a building is tapered, the exterior surface area where the wind load is applied is
reduced at higher levels, and increased at lower levels. The convex contour of the whole
monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth,
the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone
pressed up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an
entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was
probably added to hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure
of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above.

46
The stupa complex at Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.
Robert Harding Picture Li

47
 Sanchi
Stupa

Kalasan also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century Buddhist temple

in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on the way
to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between Yogyakarta

48
and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon) of Sleman
Regency.

According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari
script, the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam,
a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara.
In addition, a vihara (monastery) was built for buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's
realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to sangha (buddhist monastic
community). According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the
temples built in the Prambanan Plain.

Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial era, the temple
currently is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu,
and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped,
and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates
adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3,5 square meters. No statue is to be found
in the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the
rooms once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist
figures such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been
photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the
artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues
would have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer
wall intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the
celestial palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas.

One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple

The giant Kala's head on the southern door/
adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka

The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue
49
of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisatvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.

The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room.
In the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and
elephant figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According
to the Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall)
statue of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of
the goddess was in seated position and made from bronze. Now the statue is missing,
probably the same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal
over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster
was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.

The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters
north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the
monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu
temple, and Plaosan temple.

Jordaan, R. E. (1998). The Tārā temple of Kalasan in Central Java. Bulletin de l’École Française
d’Extrême-Orient, 85, 163–183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43733871

50
3 pre-Angkorean architectural styles :
1. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals
that include a bulb.
2. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles.
Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards.
3. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Having decorative rings on colonettes which remain
cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued.
The following periods and styles may be distinguished
1. Kulen style (825–875): Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as
brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal
colonettes begin to appear.
2. Preah Ko style (877–886): small brick towers and for the great beauty and
delicacy of their lintels.
3. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed
in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap.
4. Koh Ker Style (921–944): Scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick
still main material but sandstone also used.
5. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer
built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common
style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
6. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian
temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its
small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including
several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian
mythology.
7. Khleang Style (968–1010): First to use galleries. Cruciform gopuras.
Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were
built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
8. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II
9. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175: come to be known as the

51
 classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style
are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in
modern Thailand.
10. Bayon Style (1181–1243) exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts
with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
11. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction
under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its
decline.

1. In the past, the ancestors of the Indonesian people learned that carving techniques
indeed originated from India. This can be compared to the results of the two places
that show similarities, although on the other hand in Indonesia there has been a
Megalithic era which is closely related to stone processing and an older era namely
Neolithic that is closely related to metal processing.

2. Without the knowledge of metal processing, it is certain that it will be difficult to

create metal chisels to process hard stones like andesite.

3. Indonesia has a different technique from South India, especially in forming roof
cavities, with the technique of stacking rooms, while in India a flat ceiling was used as
a consequence of the post-and-lintel technique.
4. It was only in the 10th century that new cavity stacking techniques were used in
South India, which is identical to Java.

5. In Java itself this technique had already been known since the early 7th century or
even before that, in the Old Classical era. This technique then developed rapidly in
the Middle Classical era and reached its peak when Prambanan was built. Prambanan
is the first tallest building in Southeast Asia.

6. In addition, in the era of the Prambanan and Borobudur Temples, the construction
technique of the connection between the stone and certain keys that support the
building to be made larger and taller was known.

7. In South India there were no large and tall temples in this particular era, as it was not
until the 10th century that high buildings were recognized in the remains of the
Chola.

8. By looking at the phenomena above it can be estimated that the architecture of large
temples in India cannot be ruled out to have been influenced by Javanese tradition,
especially starting in the 10th century considering that on the island of Java many
large temple buildings had been built at the end of the 8th-9th century.

9. This can indicate the existence of backflow from Indonesia to India. On the other
hand, relations with India were actually quite close, as demonstrated in the 9th
century by Balaputradewa, King of Sriwijaya in the Ancient Mataram Era.

A Reinterpretation of the Relationship between the Architecture of Ancient Mataram Era Temples in Indonesia and
of 7th-10th century Temples in South India,Rahadhian Prajudi Herwindo',Basuki Dwisusanto,Indri A-International
Journal of Engineering Research and Technology. ISSN 0974-3154, Volume 13, Number 2 (2020), p

The Borobudur temple: the Buddhist architecture in Indonesia ,the author Katarzyna Kowal
presents the genesis of the temple, the facts concerning its rediscovery after centuries of
oblivion, and Buddhist cosmology embodied in the form of a three-dimensional mandala on

52
which the architectural form of Borobudur is based. The author studies Buddhist symbolism
of the architectural form, reliefs and sculptures created on the basis of regional patterns and
local Javanese culture of everyday life. This temple is one of the most perfect examples of
translation of Buddhist cosmology and symbolism into an architectural form. Being the oldest
temple in Indonesia, Borobudur Temple has survived over 1200 years of volcanic eruptions,
terrorist bombs and earthquakes. The Borobudur Temple has a base of 1200 square metre
terrace topped with 6 tiers and has the majority of this monument walls adorned with
numerous Buddha statues. Its’ foundation hints to hold more indigenous Javanese traits than
Hindu or Buddhist. The monument is large and given if one were to place the galleries end to
end, it spans at least 5 kilometres. The monument also took the form of a step pyramid and
followed a mandala plan.
In 1885, a group of buddha reliefs was found hidden at the back of the line stones at the base.
Words inscribed in ancient Javanese script were also found there describing how the earthly
world is dominated and led by greed. The real base is hidden by an encasement base which
till today no one knows why.

However, a theory stands to say that it was built because the original footing goes against the
Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.

Buddhist Cosmology
After much research on the Borobudur Temple, there is no found evidence as to the purpose
of the construction of the temple. However, given a theory, it states that the monument
represents Buddhist cosmology and symbolises some sort of Buddhist mandala. Borobudur
Temple pushes to represent the 3 realms of Buddhist cosmology. The base represents the
world of desire followed by the world of form and lastly the world of formlessness which is
the highest level of enlightenment and located at the top of the temple.
The experience walking through the gallery and entering the world of form shows engraved
people that seem to be trying to achieve excellence over worldly desires. There is evidence of
women trying to seduce buddha where he is seen to be meditating and ignoring the seduction
of the women.
COMPOSITION
Borobudur Temple is made with andesite stones taken from neighbouring stone quarries. The
stones were all cut to size and then brought over and stacked onto one another. Instead of
using mortar, knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to join the stones. As for the roof
of stupas, niches and arched gateways, they were all built with the corbelling method.
The reliefs of the monument are all done on-site. The drainage system was also in mind when
the monument was built. Borobudur temple catered to its region’s high stormwater run-off by
installing 100 spouts each with a unique carved gargoyle that looks like a Makara. The spouts
are all installed at the corners of the monument.

As for the Borobudur Temple foundation, it was built on a natural hill and due to its pyramid
shape, it was first thought to be a stupa that was intended as a Buddha shrine, not a temple.
Stupas are typically constructed as a sign of devotion towards Buddhism whereas a temple is
made to be a place of worship towards a religion. After much study and excavation,
Borobudur is settled to be a temple due to its meticulous details and structure.

53
Interestingly, in the past, they did not use the metric or imperial system. Instead, they used
tala, a basic unit of measurement used during that time. Tala is the length of a human face,
starting from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the length of the tip of the thumb
to the tip of the middle finger when the hand is fully stretched out. Tala is relative from one
individual to another.

Furthermore, the Borobudur Temple also holds a 4:6:9 ratio around the monument.
Gunadharma, the architect, used the 4:6:9 ratio to layout the accurate and precise dimensions
of the fractal and self-similar geometry that the Borobudur Temple holds. This same ratio can
also be found in neighbouring Buddhist temples.

To add on, the ratio also possesses calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance
which seems appropriate in the design of the Borobudur Temple.
All in all, the Borobudur Temple has attracted many tourists alike to visit and further indulge
in this 9th century-built temple. As much as research goes, the true meaning as to why it was
built is unknown, but this structure still stands to fascinate and allow anyone who visits to

54
feel calm and captivated by this form of architecture.

Reference
Borobudur: Golden Tales of Buddhas by John N. Miksic and Marcello Tranchini.

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56
57
Buddhist Stupa Monograph

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Architecture

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 Chapter 3
Borobudur ground plan took form of a Tantric Mandala

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the
nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It
has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The
upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each
stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit
inside the pierced enclosures.

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring
rivers to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between
stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is
equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To
avoid inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles in
the shape of giants or makaras.

Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.
Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose.
Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building
technique is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other
temples and its general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought
more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for
the Lord Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A
temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The
complexity of the monument's meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple.
Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were
guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform
represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the
symbolism of sacred knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology.

A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.

Lion gate guardian.

Little is known about the architect Gunadharma. His name is actually recounted from
Javanese legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. The basic unit
measurement he used during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a

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human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of
the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance.] The unit metrics is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has
exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of
4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise
dimensions of Borobudur. The identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby
Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio
formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of
the case in other Hindu and Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

A carved gargoyle-shaped water spout for water drainage.

The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top,
which resembles the three major division of a human body. The base is a 123x123 m
(403.5x403.5 ft) square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. The body is composed of
five square platforms each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters
(23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a
narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage
supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome
at the center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above
ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with
a number of arched gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned
with Kala's head carved on top center of each portals with Makaras projecting from each
sides. This Kala-Makara style is commonly found in Javanese temples portal. The main
entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the
hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the low-lying plain.

The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the
ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of
desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless
world).] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the
body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The
architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance,
square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with
forms and names – changes into the world of the formless.

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden foot"
contains reliefs, 160 of which are narrative describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining
reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently describe instruction for the sculptors,
illustrating the scene to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the
purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered
to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the hill. There is another theory
that the encasement base was added because the original hidden foot was incorrectly
designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town
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 Narrative Panels Distribution

section location story #panels

planning. Regardless of its intention, hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160

the encasement base was built with Lalitavistara 120
detailed and meticulous design main wall
with aesthetics and religious first gallery Jataka/Avadana 120
compensation.Reliefs Jataka/Avadana 372
Borobudur contains approximately balustrade
Jataka/Avadana 128
2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460
narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), second gallery balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
which cover main wall Gandavyuha 128
the façades and balustrades. The total main wall Gandavyuha 88
relief surface is 2,500 square meters third gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha 88
(26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed
at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the main wall Gandavyuha 84
fourth gallery
five square platforms (Rupadhatu). balustrade Gandavyuha 72
The narrative panels, which tell the
Total 1,460
story of Sudhana and Manohara. are
grouped into 11 series encircled the
monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains the first
series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls
and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left.
Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to
right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed
by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts
the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first
and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are
devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of
the Perfect Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete
illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to
murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell
and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with
the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death).
The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama.

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The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and
ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[48] The relief shows the birth of the
Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in
present-day Nepal).

The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to
welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[48] Before descending from Tushita
heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He
descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen
Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his
son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park
outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right
hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until
the prince becomes the Buddha.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit.

Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)

Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. Avadanas are
similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in
avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one
and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or
the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the
balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[50] The remaining 237 panels
depict stories from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery.
Some jatakas stories are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's
forefather).

Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)

Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's
tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and
fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal
figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the
16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during
Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.

During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied
him completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he

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was given the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order)
Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk
Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa,

the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called
Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva
Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has
given Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the
third gallery.

After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth
gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with
Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
Buddha statues

A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa./ A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra
mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law).

Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides
of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to
the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth
72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16,
that add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums).

At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them
in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East,
South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according
to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and
West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the
corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the

66
top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani
Buddhas; each has its own symbolism. They are Abhaya
mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana
mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra
mudra for Vairochana (zenith).
O0o0o0o0o

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 Chapter 4
BOROBUDUR- The TANTRIC ‘prayer in stone’

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers

to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in
the 7th century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by
pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like
the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes
with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China
and Japan, to the extent that it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of
a complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities
saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism.
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with
monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist
empire of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center. Various unique forms
of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which is
the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been interpreted as a symbol of Mount
Meru,
The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the
massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and
Candi Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such
as Muara Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional
capital at Chaiya, Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran. Other
architecture types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains
and pertapaan, hermitages built on mountain slopes.
Borobodur

The largest Buddhist stupa in the world is the 9th-century complex at Borobudur in central
Java, built as a Mandala, a giant three-dimensional representation of Esoteric Buddhist
cosmology. The temple shows Indian and local influences and is decorated with 2,672 relief
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panels and 504 Buddha statues. The reliefs depict stories from the Lalitavistara
Sutra, Jataka tales and the Gandavyuha sutra. Borobudur stands in three sections, each
constructed to lead the devotee symbolically to the highest level, Enlightenment. The first
level represents the world of desire (Kamadhatu), the second level the world of forms
(Rupadhatu), and the third level the world of the formless (Arupadhatu). Artists have carved
nearly 1500 relief panels on the walls and balustrades to inspire the devotee on the
circumambulation through the three levels. When viewed from above, the temple takes the
shape of a tantric Buddhist mandala. In an astounding feat of construction, workman hauled
the nearly 2 million cubic feet of stone from nearby rivers.

In Indonesian, candi, or formerly chandi means temple. The term also more loosely describes
any ancient structure, for example, gates and bathing structures. The origins of the
name Borobudur remains unclear, as the original name of most candi has been lost. The Sir
Thomas Raffles book on Java history first mentions the name "Borobudur." Raffles wrote
about the existence of a monument called borobudur, but no other older documents suggest
the same name. Nagarakertagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365 C.E., represents the only
written old Javanese manuscript hinting at the monument. It mentions Budur as a Buddhist
sanctuary, which likely associates with Borobudur, but the manuscript lacks any further
information to make a definite identification.

A number of Buddhist and Hindu temple compounds cluster approximately 40 km (25 miles)
northwest of Yogyakarta, on an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing
and Merbabu-Merapi, and the Progo river. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu
Plain constitutes a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed "the garden of Java" due to its
high agricultural fertility. During the first restoration, the crews discovered that three
Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, sit in one straight line. [5] The
temples' alignment supports a native folk tale that a long time ago, a brick-paved road
stretched from Borobodur to Mendut with walls on both sides.

Unlike other temples, built on a flat surface, Borobudur sits on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft)
above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. Lotus flowers
appear in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base
for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha
postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana
Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in southeast and east Asia regions) texts.
Three circular platforms on the top have been thought to represent a lotus leaf.

Construction

69
 Buddhist pilgrims meditate on the top platform.

Written records telling who built Borobudur, or of its intended purpose, have never been
found. Archaeologists estimate the construction time by comparison of carved reliefs on the
temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the eight
and ninth centuries. Borobudur probably had been founded around 800 C.E. That corresponds
to the period between 760–830 C.E., the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in Central Java, under
the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction took 75 years, completed in 825,
during the reign of Srivijayan Maharaja Samaratunga. Confusion
between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time exists. The Sailendras had been
known as ardent followers of Lord Buddha, although stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto
suggest they had been Hindus. During that time many Hindu and Buddhist monuments had
been built on the plains and mountain around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments,
including Borobudur, appeared around the same time as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple
compound.

The Borobudur Temple: A Cosmic Stupa

Dating from the period of the Sailendra (‘Lords of the Mountain’) dynasty in Java, the exquisite temple of Borobudur
and its carvings form a divine exposition of Buddhist doctrine.

70
Borobudur consists of two million blocks of lava rock, 2,700 carved story panels and 504
Buddha statues. Borobudur is actually a giant textbook of Buddhism, as its base reliefs tell the
story of the life of Buddha and the principles of his teachings.

A universe in small scale

Bhumisambara (Borobudur’s original name) was built as a stepped pyramid. At the base
of the massive temple, reliefs of Karmawibhangga — depiction of human life in the endless
cycle of death and rebirth (Saṃsāra) as well as the law of cause and effect (karmic law) —
were carved on all sides.
All Buddhas sit in small bell-like stupa structures covering them, corresponding with what
the Prajnaparamita sūtra calls “the Womb of the Buddhas”, symbolizing their Enlightened
State.
Viewed from above, Borobudur takes the form of a giant mandala, symbolically depicting
the path of the bodhisattva from samsara to nirvana, through the story of Sudhana described
in the Gandavyuha sūtra, a part of the Avatamsaka sūtra. The monument guides pilgrims
through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on
the walls and the balustrades.

The temple is oriented to the four directions and is expanded vertically in accordance
with Buddhist cosmology to construct the Universe in a small scale. There are all total four
entrances and four complete steps for ascending the highest point from the lowest point from
the four directions of East, South, West and North respectively to enter the monument.
Once a year, Buddhists from the whole world celebrate Vesak at the temple.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FVCbuXrDa40

A three-fold division
Borobudur perfectly reflects Buddhist cosmology, which divides the universe into three
superimposing levels. The three levels are Kamadhatu (world of desire), Rupadhatu (world of
forms), and Arupadhatu (world of formlessness).

• Kamadhatu (Bhurloka) — The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of the temple
represents the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals and also demons. Where
humans are still binded by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The Kamadhatu level
pictures the world of passion and the inevitable laws of karma — Karmavibhangga. The first
117 panels show various actions leading to one and the same result, while the other remaining
43 panels demonstrate the many results that follow one single effect.

• Rupadhatu (Bhuvarloka) — The middle courtyard and the body of the temple represents
life on earth in which the soul has been purged of all desires. The middle realm of holy people,
rishis and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The reliefs of the Rupadhatu
level show the stories based on the manuscripts of Lalitavistara, Jataka-
Avadana and Gandavyuha.

• Arupadhatu (Svargaloka) — The inner courtyard and the roof of the temple represents the
soul’s departure from the body and uniting with the gods in Nirvana. This is the highest and
holiest realm of gods, or Svarga loka. On the last three circular uppermost terraces, 72 stupas
circle the huge main stupa that crowns the top of the temple. The circular form represents the
eternity without beginning and without end, a superlative, tranquil, and pure state of the
formless world. There are no reliefs on the three circular terraces. Arupadhatu takes the shape
of a circle, representing the formless world.

71
The kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and
the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure
shows a uniquely Javanese blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to
the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana:
• Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire.
• Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and
live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them.
• Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form, and experience reality at its purest, most
fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle
of saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form is corresponds
to the concept of Śūnyatā, or the nonexistence of the self.
A series of five square bases is succeeded by three circular terraces ringed by those 72 stupas,
representing the spiritual journey from the life of desire, through meditation to Nirvana. While
viewed from above the whole resembles the sacred lotus flower.
On these circular platforms, the famous 72 bell-shaped stupas are situated, inside of each a
statue of a Buddha is placed. The top and centre of the entire structure is a large and empty
stupa.

72
All terraces and platforms can be reached by means of stairways which are situated at the four
sides of the structure.
The entire structure is formed in the shape of a giant twirling staircase, a style of
architecture from prehistoric Indonesia. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is the
largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa was found the ‘Unfinished Buddha’
symbolizing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, which is now in the Karmawibhangga Museum.

The Jātaka level — Bhikkhuṇī Candraprabhā and Advisors warn the king.
An extremely well-balanced structure

73
Borobudur‘s 10 levels are designed to correspond with the path to enlightenment. The
base is stacked with 5 concentric square terraces connected by staircases in each direction,
which are then topped by 3 circular terraces and ultimately by a monumental stupa.
The temple is designed so that visitors can walk clockwise down the open-air paths along the
terraces as they move upward while meditating upon the path to enlightenment.
The Buddhas are placed in three circles of 16, 24 and 32 and each looking at a specific
spot on three corresponding circles which are situated outside of the perimeter of the
structure. Esoterists from all over the world are still trying to find out the meanings contained
in the structure of the temple.
There are in these four galleries 432 larger statues of the Lord Buddha ranged at regular
intervals along the upper part of the walls, each sitting in its own niche or recessed shrine.

All the 108 images on each side are seated with mūdra. On the North, the mūdra is Abhaya
mūdra — Have no fear; on the East, the mūdra is Bhūmisparsha — Touching the earth; on the
South, Dāna — Giving; on the West, Dhyāna — Meditation.
Upon either wall of the four galleries we find a continuous series of bas-reliefs illustrating the
religious phenomena in ascending gradation.
• the first gallery, that is to say, displays a selection of scenes from the historical life of
Buddha
• the second shows us the minor deities of the Brahmanic worship adopted into the Buddhist
Pantheon
• the third contains the higher deities, at the plane in which the shrine rather than the deity
itself is worshipped
• in the fourth we find only groups of Dhyāni-Buddhas.

In the middle of each of the four sides of the square a steep stairway ascends, the gateway to
each stairway being guarded by sitting lions, and spanned by ornate arches of the highest
architectural perfection. The main entrance is on the eastern side. The reliefs also depicted
mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, boddhisattvas, kinnaras,
gandharvas and apsaras.

The reliefs of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and
boddhisattvas usually portrayed in tribhanga pose. The three bent pose on neck, hips, and
knee with one leg resting and one uphold the body weight. This position is considered as the
most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.

The square lower part of the structure shows us, through hundreds of carved stone panels, all
aspects of social or communal life. It is only after this ‘school of human development’ is

74
passed, that the circular platforms with the 72 Stupas are reached. Where the lower part of the
structure concerns itself with earthly matters, the upper part seems to be directed towards the
cosmos and as such rises far above the lower levels in more than one sense. Scheltema, in his
book Monumental Java, describes it as “the most consummate achievement of Buddhist
architecture in the whole world”.
A variety of Javanese motifs and entities are also found in theses compositions, such as the
structure of Javanese cottage houses, the birds on its roof or the motifs of trees and leaves.

A scripture set in stone

Borobudur is constructed from 2 million volcanic rocks, and assembled using a complex
interlocking technique without the use of cement or mortar. The monument has 2,672 relief
panels that if aligned in a row, would stretch a length of over 6 kilometers.
The reliefs are intended to impress lessons of wisdom on the believer’s mind as he ascended
the stūpa, and so to prepare him for the attainment of the highest insights of Buddhism.

Reading the panels on the temple walls requires a specific technique. The panels on the
wall read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left, conforming
with the pradaksina.

The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect each
level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend from the
stairs at the eastern corner. The ten levels of Borobudur are representations of the Mahayana
philosophy which describe the ten levels of Bodhisattva that must be passed to attain the
Buddhist perfection.

Jatakas or
Buddha´s previous life

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Seen from the sky, Borobudur is built in the form of Mount Meru, and is a vertical
representation of the Sri Yantra. Borobudur teaches all the steps of Buddhist theology to
reach the supreme Buddha state.

When ascending from lower levels to the upper levels, the density of the numbers of human
figures gradually becomes very much diluted and also their physical gestures become highly
controlled and less suggestive. In the final upper galleries the compositions contain only the
extremely calm, isolated rather static figures in few numbers in compositional space. It is a
clear symbolization of the transformation from the earthly sinful life of action and reaction
towards the spacious and peaceful state of isolation, meditation and transcendental mind.
In the center and on top of the Borobudur mandala-temple, is located the Main Stupa,
symbolizing something much bigger than individual Enlightenment. This Universal Stupa
corresponds with “Emptiness beyond Emptines” or Absolute Emptiness in which Relative
Emptiness (Enlightenment) disappears, also called Nirvana or Absolute Bottomlessness of the
Cosmos.

An astronomical temple
The 4:6:9 ratio has a calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as in
Angkor Wat. The gates are adorned with Kala’s head carved on top of each and Makaras
projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of
Javanese temples.
The positioning of the 72 ‘occupied’ Stupas in three circles of 32, 24 and 16 might give us an
indication as to what specific aspects of the cosmos these bell-shaped structures point. The
circular platforms on which the Stupas are situated seem to concern themselves with the stars.
The ship reliefs on the East depict a ship underneath celestial objects, commemorating a
voyage to Africa. This shows the Indonesians crossed the ocean without a compass, depending
solely on the stars for navigation. In 2003–2004, a wooden replica of the Borobudur ship was
made and sailed the Cinnamon Route from Jakarta to Accra in Ghana to demonstrate the trans-
Indian Ocean trading links of medieval Indonesians and Africans.

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A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha
In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure.
Borobudur transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an incomplete
and rough Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God Almighty, as described
in esoteric Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.
That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated
to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple.
Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth.

The Krakatau eruption

In the year 915 A.D. a terrible volcanic outburst occurred. The great volcano
of Krakatau (then called the Rahata or Cancer-volcano) broke out into an eruption so
tremendous that it split the whole island into two parts — now called Java and
Sumatra respectively — and brought into existence the Straits of Sunda.

At the same time, the volcano Merapi threw out an incredible amount of sand and ashes,
destroying almost the whole of Airlanggha’s kingdom, and entirely burying Borobudur,
Mendut and Prambanan temples. This catastrophe is mentioned in the inscriptions of
King Airlanggga — sometimes called Jala-langgha (“he who walks over the
waters”, apparently because he escaped from the floods caused by the eruption, and retired
on Mount Lawu in Surakarta, where be met some Brahmans who were living in the woods
there as ascetics.

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After some time, however, he came out of his seclusion and made his way into East Java,
where he married the daughter of the King of Kediri, and inherited his throne. Under his
auspices, Sanskrit learning made great advances in the Kediri and Janggala regions, Buddhism
and Hinduism flourished equally under his rule, and started to blend into the Shiva-
Buddha religion. The present royal families of Bali and Lombok are descended from
Airlangga.

The Pawon-Mendut alignment

The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and two smaller temples situated to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur;
 Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith
accompanied by two Bodhisattvas
 Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might
have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the
attainment of Nirvana.

During the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the Vesak annual ritual
by walking from Mendut temple, past Pawon and then to Borobudur. The ritual takes the form
of Buddhist prayer and pradakshina.
For local Javanese who follow Kejawen or Buddhism, praying in Mendut temple is believed
to help to heal diseases.

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 Modern History
Some accounts state that Borobudur was lost to history when it was buried by volcanic ash a
few centuries after it was completed. However, historical records indicate that Hayam Huruk,
the great ruler of the Majapahit Empire, visited Borobudur in the 1300s. Due to
insurmountable problems, i.e. structural damage from water seepage, upkeep halted in the
1500s.With an enthusiasm for archaeology sweeping Europe, the Englishman Raffles
rediscovered Borobudur buried under dirt and hidden by underbrush in 1814. This was during
the brief period that England ruled Java after the Napoleonic Wars. The Dutch began a major,
although unsuccessful, renovation in 1907.As soon as Indonesia attained independence in
1948, the government expressed the goal of restoring Borobudur. Why did predominantly
Islamic Indonesia commit time, energy and precious resources to the restoration of a
Buddhist temple?

The Indonesian word ‘candi’ represents the remains of all structures from the Hindu period,
which lasted from the 5th century CE to mid 16th century. This is not just the ruins of
temples and shrines, but also includes gates and baths, virtually any structure done in classic
Hindu style.
A candi is also a pusaka, an expression of cultural heritage. According to Javanese tradition,
a pusaka has mystical and magical powers. The pusaka’s supra-rational powers tie the past
and present together in order to better face the future. In more psychological terms, the
Javanese embrace the relics of the past as a form of national pride. Rather than rejecting the
past because it was dominated by an alternate religion, they proudly include any part of their
history as part of their national heritage.

The 1968 restoration usually implies rebuilding the original monument as it was as before the
ravages of time took their toll. Borobudur was different in this regard. Borobudur’s original
design had some fatal structural flaws that had to be addressed before it could be rebuilt.
First, the weight of the 1.6 million blocks of andesite was simply too heavy for the porous
soil of the river plain to support. The entire monument had problems with sagging before it
was even finished. This was one reason the original builders expanded the base and covered
the bottom floor. In the decades following completion, the Javanese did what they could to
bolster their gorgeous but slumping Buddhist stupa. Yet all attempts were ultimately
unsuccessful.

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The second problem concerned the abundant rainfall in the region. The individuals
responsible for designing the stone pyramid had not taken drainage into account. Water
seeped into the structure, adding to the weight and contributing to the structural damage.
Weight and water flow were fatal design flaws that doomed the Buddhist monument to
degeneration. The Javanese eventually abandoned the upkeep, not because they weren’t
interested, but because they really didn’t know what to do to prevent the innate degradation.
Borobudur was simply buckling under its own weight.

Even in modern times, the reconstruction project was plagued with false beginnings. The
Dutchman Van Erp came up with a plan for renovating Borobudur in 1907. Those in charge
of renovation quickly discovered that the plan was inadequate to the task and abandoned the
project.

It remains a heterogeneous work due to so many stages and structural difficulties. Before one
block of the crumbling monument could be restored to its original position, proper drainage
had to be installed in order to avoid the problems associated with water. Further the stone
pyramid required additional structural support to bear the enormous weight. To accomplish
these daunting tasks, the international work force labored on many fronts simultaneously.
1) Carefully dismantling the entire structure
2) Cleaning 170,000 stones
3) Constructing cement reinforcement and water channels
4) Freeing mantel stones of filth
The fun stuff, i.e. replacing the stone blocks, began only after these foundational steps
were completed.
As a testament to the enduring nature of its original intent, Borobudur continues to entice
millions of visitor/pilgrims every year to have its ‘enlightenment’ experience. Even the
didactic function of the Javanese pyramid persists. The thousands of individuals involved in
the reconstruction project required retraining to understand the meanings behind the friezes.
In this fashion, Borobudur acts as both an instructional tool and a place of education.
Paraphrasing Professor Soekmone’s poetic writing: the training is based upon a wish – a
prayer for the salvation of the student/pilgrim. In this way, Borobudur is a ‘prayer in stone’.
“Esoteric Buddhism” and “Buddhist Tantra” are contested categories to begin with in
Buddhist studies; within the specific context of the study of Buddhism in Southeast Asia,
they are doubly contested. That is, on top of the usual contestations applying to these
categories within the contexts in which they are usually studied—medieval north India, Tibet,
and Zhenyan/Shingon in East Asia—there arises the issue of whether and to what extent these
categories are applicable to Southeast Asian Buddhism. There are two discrete ways in which
the category “esoteric Buddhism” can be used as a lens through which to study aspects of
Southeast Asian Buddhism. The first is historical and pertains to the usual referent of
“esoteric Buddhism,” namely, Tantra as an aspect or subdivision of Mahāyāna Buddhism
(mantranaya). Although Mahāyāna Buddhism is no longer a major force within Southeast
Asian Buddhism (aside from Vietnamese Buddhism, which shares more affinities with East
Asian Buddhism), Mahāyāna Buddhism did play a significant role in several “classical”
Southeast Asian states in the past, and there is some evidence of mantranaya ideas and
practices within certain historical Southeast Asian Mahāyāna contexts. The second way in
which “esoteric Buddhism” can be applied to Southeast Asian Buddhism is as a (putative)
aspect of Theravāda or Pali Buddhism, which continues to be practiced over much of
mainland Southeast Asia to the present day. Certain aspects of contemporary (and recent
historical) Theravāda/Pali Buddhism have been labeled variously “Tantric Theravāda” or

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“esoteric Southern Buddhism” out of perceived similarities to the more familiar system of
Mahāyāna Buddhist Tantra. Esoteric Buddhism in Southeast Asia,Nathan
McGovern,https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.617
2017

An offshoot of Mahayana Buddhism, the origins of Tantric Buddhism can be traced to

ancient Hindu and Vedic practices as well, including esoteric ritual texts designed to achieve
physical, mental, and spiritual breakthroughs.

Dhyani-Buddha, in Mahayana Buddhism, and particularly in Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism,

any of a group of five “self-born” celestial buddhas who have always existed from the
beginning of time. The five are usually identified
as Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi.
Scholars in recent years have pointed out that the term Dhyani-Buddha does not appear in the
original texts, but the nomenclature continues to be commonly used, particularly in
describing groups of images composed of five meditating buddhas—as in mandalas (ritual
meditation designs), on the four sides and top of votive stupas (commemorative monuments),
or on the terraces of the great monument at Borobudur in Indonesia.

The five are almost identically represented in art, all dressed in monastic garments, seated
with folded legs, with the same hairdress and long-lobed ears, but are distinguished by
characteristic colours, symbols, poses of hands, and the directions they face. The five eternal
Buddhas are correlated to other groups of five, so that the entire cosmos is seen as divided
between them and as emanating from them. Thus, each represents one of the five skandhas,
or mental and physical aggregates that make up the whole of cosmic as well as individual
existence.

According to the full exposition of this scheme, most of the other deities in the vast Buddhist
pantheon are related to one of the five buddhas as members of his “family”; reflect his
distinguishing characteristics, such as colour, direction, and symbol; and when represented in
art often carry an image of the “parent” buddha in their crown. Each of the “self-born”
buddhas is also said to have manifested himself as an earthly buddha and as
a bodhisattva (buddha-to-be). Each has his own consort, mount, sacred syllable, natural
element, particular sense organ, special sense perception, and symbolic location in the human
body.

In order to counter any tendency toward polytheism suggested by the fivefold scheme, some
sects elevated one of the five, usually Vairochana, to a position of an Adi-Buddha (first, or
primal, buddha). Sometimes a sixth deity is worshiped as the Adi-Buddha. Tibetan Buddhists
identify the Adi-Buddha as Vajradhara; some Buddhist sects of Nepal give this position to
Vajrasattva.

Vajrayana, (Sanskrit: “Thunderbolt Vehicle” or “Diamond Vehicle”) form

of Tantric Buddhism that developed in India and neighbouring countries, notably Tibet.
Vajrayana, in the history of Buddhism, marks the transition from Mahayana speculative
thought to the enactment of Buddhist ideas in individual life. The term vajra (Sanskrit:
“thunderbolt,” or “diamond”) is used to signify the absolutely real and indestructible in
a human being, as opposed to the fictions an individual entertains about himself and his
nature; yana is the spiritual pursuit of the ultimately valuable and indestructible.

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Other names for this form of Buddhism are Mantrayana (“Vehicle of the Mantra”), which
refers to the use of the mantra to prevent the mind from going astray into the world of its
fictions and their attendant verbiage and to remain aware of reality as such; and
Guhyamantrayana, in which the word guhya (“hidden”) refers not to concealment but to the
intangibility of the process of becoming aware of reality.

Buddhism: Vajrayana (Tantric or Esoteric) Buddhism

Philosophically speaking, Vajrayana embodies ideas of both the Yogachara discipline, which
emphasizes the ultimacy of mind, and the Madhyamika philosophy, which undermines any
attempt to posit a relativistic principle as the ultimate. Dealing with inner experiences, the
Vajrayana texts use a highly symbolic language that aims at helping the followers of
its disciplines to evoke within themselves experiences considered to be the most valuable
available to human beings. Vajrayana thus attempts to recapture
the enlightenment experience of the historical Buddha.

In the Tantric view, enlightenment arises from the realization that seemingly opposite
principles are in truth one. The passive concepts shunyata (“emptiness”)
and prajna (“wisdom”), for example, must be resolved with the
active karuna (“compassion”) and upaya (“skillful means”). This fundamental polarity and its
resolution are often expressed through symbols of sexuality (see yab-yum).

The historical origin of Vajrayana is unclear, except that it coincided with the spread of the
mentalistic schools of Buddhism. It flourished from the 6th to the 11th century and exerted a
lasting influence on the neighbouring countries of India. The rich visual arts of Vajrayana
reach their culmination in the sacred mandala, a representation of the universe used as an aid
for meditation.

Mahayana Buddhismnorn Greater Vehicle

Mahayana
Mahayana, (Sanskrit: “Greater Vehicle”) movement that arose within
Indian Buddhism around the beginning of the Common Era and became by the 9th century
the dominant influence on the Buddhist cultures of Central and East Asia, which it remains
today. It spread at one point also to Southeast Asia, including Myanmar (Burma) and Sri

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Lanka, but has not survived there. The movement is characterized by a grandiose cosmology,
often complex ritualism, paradoxical metaphysics, and universal ethics.
Origins

The origins of Mahayana Buddhism remain obscure; the date and location of the tradition’s
emergence are unknown, and the movement most likely took shape over time and in multiple
places. The proper appraisal of the early Mahayana is even further complicated by the fact
that most reconstructions have been heavily influenced by the agendas of modern sectarian
movements and that the scriptures most valued by later groups are not necessarily the texts
that best represent the movement in its formative period. The earliest sources for the tradition
are the Mahayana sutras, scriptures that were first compiled some four centuries after
the Buddha’s death. As in earlier canonical Buddhist literature, these scriptures, almost
certainly written by monks, present the movement’s innovative ideas in the form of sermons
said to have been delivered by the Buddha Shakyamuni, as Siddhartha Gautama is known.

Despite the common assumption that the counterpart to Mahayana is pre-Mahayana

Buddhism, the differences between Mahayana and non-Mahayana Buddhism are usually
more a matter of degree and emphasis than of basic opposition. Many non-Mahayana literary
sources date from a time when the Mahayana had already become established, and therefore
both sets of sources reflect mutual influences. Mahayana, therefore, should not be seen as the
successor to an earlier established tradition. The definition of the Mahayana as one of three
vehicles was intended to establish the Mahayana’s superiority over other teachings, and it has
no historical basis. The same is true of the contrast frequently found in modern studies
between Mahayana and Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”), a term used in some Mahayana texts to
criticize unacceptable and deviant opinions; it has no real-world referent and is never
equivalent to non-Mahayana Buddhism, much less to any specific sect such as the Theravada.

Teachings-Bodhisattva

Central to Mahayana ideology is the idea of the bodhisattva, one who seeks to become a
Buddha. In contrast to the dominant thinking in non-Mahayana Buddhism, which limits
the designation of bodhisattva to the Buddha before his awakening (bodhi), or enlightenment,
Mahayana teaches that anyone can aspire to achieve awakening (bodhicittot-pada) and
thereby become a bodhisattva. For Mahayana Buddhism, awakening consists in
understanding the true nature of reality. While non-Mahayana doctrine emphasizes the
absence of the self in persons, Mahayana thought extends this idea to all things. The radical
extension of the common Buddhist doctrine of “dependent arisal” (pratityasamutpada), the
idea that nothing has an essence and that the existence of each thing is dependent on the
existence of other things, is referred to as emptiness (shunyata).

The bodhisattvas seek to understand this reality through wisdom (prajna) and to actualize it
through compassion (karuna). They realize that since no individual has a “self,” there can be
no real difference between themselves and others, and therefore their own liberation is not
distinct from the liberation of all beings. They are thus “self-less,” both philosophically, in
the sense of understanding the absence of self or essence in all things and persons, and
ethically, since they act for all beings without discrimination.
Awakening

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Buddhism, like most Indian systems of thought, sees the world as a realm of transmigration,
or reincarnation (samsara), from which one may escape by attaining nirvana. In the
Mahayana tradition, the emphasis is less on nirvana and more on knowledge or wisdom, the
mastery of which constitutes awakening. Moreover, because the fact of emptiness implies
that all dualities, such as good and evil or existence and nonexistence, are ultimately false,
even basic distinctions such as that between samsara and nirvana cannot be sustained. As
developed by later philosophers, such as Jnanagarbha in the 8th century, the doctrine of the
Two Truths, absolute truth (paramarthasatya) and conventional truth (samvritisatya),
resolves the apparent conflict by stating that ultimately things do not exist as such, which is
to say, do not exist as they seem to exist, substantially. Therefore, ordinary reality is
ultimately nothing more than convention or tacit agreement. Understanding absolute truth
consists in understanding the nature of ordinary reality as nothing more than conventional.
This is realized through meditation and—in the Vajrayana tradition, which uses highly
symbolic language—through various practices specifically designed to break down ordinary
assumptions through shocking inversions of normal expectations. Practices that challenge
ordinary views of purity and impurity, for instance, teach that such notions are not
an inherent part of the world but something imposed upon it by convention.

The universal accessibility of awakening, together with the idea that the universe has no
beginning in time and is filled with an infinite number of beings and an infinite number of
worlds, leads to the conclusion that there are not only an infinite number of bodhisattvas in
the universe but also an infinite number of buddhas, each dwelling in his own world-realm.
The existence of these buddhas erases the separation between samsara and nirvana inherent in
the idea that buddhas cease to exist upon attaining nirvana. These “cosmic” buddhas play a
role in many Mahayana sutras and much more so in later Tantric traditions. As depicted in
many Mahayana and Vajrayana texts, this cosmology confirms that all aspirants can become
buddhas. A prominent example of this idea is the bodhisattva Dharmakara, whose vows set
the conditions under which he would attain awakening and become the
Buddha Amitabha (Japanese: Amida). He promised to create the world-
realm Sukhavati (“Pure Bliss”) and to guarantee that ordinary beings could attain rebirth
there (rather than reentering the cycle of transmigration) merely by having faith in him.
Amitabha assured his devotees entry into Sukhavati by transferring to them some of the
infinite merit he acquired during eons of practice as a bodhisattva. Although the classical
theory of karma dictates that only an individual’s own actions can affect his future,
epigraphical evidence illustrates the early existence of the idea of the transfer of merit,
especially to one’s deceased parents, ultimately leading to their liberation. The generation of
merit has always been important in Buddhism, but the application of merit toward the
acquisition of wisdom and ultimate awakening, instead of toward better future rebirths within
samsara, is a Mahayana innovation.

The development of this cosmology marked a shift away from the idea that the Buddha
Shakyamuni is the sole refuge or source of liberation to the view that there are multiple
sources. This in turn entailed a multiplicity of objects of veneration, ranging from other
buddhas, such as Amitabha and Vairocana, to bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara, and
eventually even to symbolic representations, such as scrolls reproducing the title of the Lotus
Sutra, an early Mahayana scripture, in the calligraphy of the Japanese monk Nichiren (1222–
82). This devotion has generated a vibrant array of visual art, with sculptures and paintings
often seen as themselves empowered to aid believers.

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Crucial to the Mahayana salvific vision is the doctrine of skillful means (upaya). Motivated
by compassion and guided by wisdom and insight, buddhas and bodhisattvas wish to lead
ordinary beings to liberation. Their individually appropriate methods are beyond ordinary
comprehension and may even seem deceptive, but they are justified by the superior insight of
these saviours. The most famous examples of this idea are given in parables from the Lotus
Sutra; they have served as influential models for later elaborations, particularly in popular
literature.
The Mystery of Tathāgatahood [“Buddhahood]”)
Guhyasamāja-tantra, (Sanskrit: “Treatise on the Sum Total of Mysteries”, ) also
called Tathāgataguhyaka, (“The Mystery of Tathāgatahood [Buddhahood]”), oldest and one
of the most important of all Buddhist Tantras. These are the basic texts of the Tantric—
an esoteric and highly symbolic—form of Buddhism, which developed in India and became
dominant in Tibet. The Tantric form stands, along with the Mahāyāna and Theravāda, as one
of the main branches of Buddhism.

The Guhyasamāja Tantra is ascribed by tradition to the sage Asaṅga. Much of its symbolism,
appearing at the beginning of the Vajrayāna tradition, exercised a normative influence over
that tradition’s development. The first of 18 chapters presents the text’s mandala (literally,
“circle”), a visual image used in ritual and meditation and understood as the symbolic
embodiment of a Tantric text. In the centre of the mandala of this text stands Akṣobhya, the
Imperturbable Buddha, the central celestial figure in Tantric Buddhist symbolism.
Surrounding him are Vairocana, the Illuminator Buddha, in the east; Amitābha, the Buddha
of Infinite Light, who dwells in the Western Paradise, the Pure Land; and the celestial
Buddhas, Amoghasiddhi in the north and Ratnasambhava in the south. Other chapters present
sexual and horrific symbolism, spiritual techniques, the nature of enlightened consciousness,
and other central Tantric concerns.

Monastic and philosophical traditions

In contrast to various Mahayana doctrinal innovations, some aspects of the Mahayana

tradition, particularly in its earlier Indian forms, are distinctly conservative, especially with
respect to monastic ethics. All monks obtain their ordination in one of the sectarian Vinaya
lineages, and Mahayana Buddhism is organized as a thoroughly monastic movement.
Therefore, it does not stand in opposition to the sects of monastic Buddhism but rather is a
movement of a different logical order; the distinction between Mahayana and sectarian
Buddhism is thus not a binary one. For example, though ordained according to the
Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, all Chinese Buddhist monks are Mahayanists and undertake
particularly Mahayanistic “bodhisattva vows.”

Many Mahayana schools emphasize the importance of the laity. This attention stems partly
from an appreciation of the fact that real renunciation is not complete but depends for its
success on a simultaneous engagement in and nonattachment to the world.
In Japan this conception of renunciation eventually led in practice—and by the Meiji period
(1868–1912) in law—to the marriage of priests and to the virtual extinction of
traditional celibate monasticism. There are similar traditions of married clergy alongside
celibate monasticism in the Nyingma order in Tibet.

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Just as the non-Mahayana Abhidharma traditions systematize the unsystematic doctrines of
the early sutras, Mahayana philosophical schools systematize those of the Mahayana
scriptures. Doxolographies, classifications of philosophical systems, divide the Indian
Mahayana philosophical schools into Madhyamika and Yogacara (also called Vijnanavada).
The Madhyamika, founded by the Indian monk and philosopher Nagarjuna (150–c. 250 CE),
is a systematization of the Prajnaparamita (“Perfection of Wisdom”) scriptures, which
emphasize that the doctrine of wisdom (prajna) is the most important of the six perfections
that the bodhisattva must master. The others are charity (dana), discipline (hila), flexibility
(kanti), energy (virya), and meditative contemplation (dhyana). The Yogacara, founded by
the Indian philosophers Asanga (flourished 5th century CE) and his brother Vasubandhu, is
less directly based on any sutra and is better understood as a synthesis of the Madhyamika
emptiness doctrine with Abhidharmic systematics or traditional dogmatics.

Modern scholars also recognize other philosophical traditions, including a Yogacara-

Madhyamika fusion; a Tathagatagarbha (buddha nature) tradition, which emphasizes
the inherent seed of awakening in all beings; and a school of Logic and Epistemology
(pramana). Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism, a direct successor of these traditions, developed
particular interests in Madhyamika and in Logic. In China, while the Madhyamika and
Yogacara became influential as, respectively, the Sanlun and Faxiang schools, equally
important were the indigenous traditions based directly on important Buddhist scriptures, the
sutras—particularly the Lotus Sutra, Avatamsaka-sutra, Mahaparinirvana-
sutra, Lankavatara-sutra, and Pure Land Sutra. These later traditions are the foundation of
the Tiantai (Japanese: Tendai), Huayan (Japanese: Kegon), Chan (Japanese: Zen), and Pure
Land (Japanese: Jōdo and Jōdo Shinshū) schools of East Asian Buddhism.

As a teaching device, Borobudur also simulates the pilgrim’s journey to enlightenment.

Although many wish to race to the top to see the magnificent vistas, the proper pilgrim style
is from the bottom up. Following is our direct experience of a Borobudur pilgrimage.

Soul-mate Laurie and I begin our pilgrimage by examining Borobudur's exposed 'foot' at
the base. As mentioned, the bottom levels are square. The standard square base enables the
structure to kiss the sky. However, because the planner’s vision exceeded the physical
possibilities, they had to expand the base at one point. This expansion hid the bas-reliefs at
the base – the foot of the temple. Initially, scholars and philosophers assigned mysterious
religious significance to the concealed friezes. Most now believe that the decision to enclose
the bottom was ultimately based upon practical considerations.

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 However, the friezes on what is called Borobudur's 'foot' are of a deliberately different
nature than the friezes on the higher levels. The subject matter is supposed to represent the
consequences to those who are trapped in the world of illusion. Note the sorrowful looks, the
shame, and the sense of fear exhibited by the sculpted figures.

The bas-reliefs of the 'foot' represents those who are still victims of their fears and
desires. The friezes of the next 4 layers are meant to represent the world of form. While the
pilgrim has escaped the world of desire, he is still trapped in the world of form – the everyday
world of thoughts, ideas, and personal life.

Another distinctive feature of Borobudur is the yantra shape of the bottom floors. The
yantra is a mystical Hindu mandala that supposedly inspires enlightenment if meditated upon
for sufficient duration. In this case, the yantra determines the architectural form of the walls.
The aerial view of Borobudur reveals the yantra form of the bottom layers complete with
interior circles at the top.

The sharp right angles of the rectangular design prevent one from seeing ahead. Turning a
corner, we are greeted with surprise after surprise by the sculpted panels. Regular oohs and
aahs accompany our mystic quest upward through the world of form. The many angles also
provide an abundance of surface area for the artist to ply their sculptural talents. Just as every
square inch of land is covered in agriculture, every square inch of wall is covered in bas-
reliefs. The diversity is astounding. There are mythological creatures and voluptuous women.

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 Buddhas and ancient boats.

Besides the friezes, we also are greeted by Kala's gaping mouth at each doorway and
Makaras at the cornices of some of the balustrades.

As we head from the bottom level upward, the forms and topics of the friezes become
simplified - less village life, more abstract Buddhas. On the bottom levels, tall corridors
blocked the vista of the surrounding countryside. Viewing the temple from the outside, these
intricate balustrades provide visual interest. On the inside, the walls enclose the pilgrim
within the world of form.

Indeed, we are so wrapped up in the gorgeous world of illusion – Maya – that we barely
see the omnipresent Buddhas gazing down upon us from the upper ledges.

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 We finally reach the 7th platform - the first one that is round. We are barely able to see
over the wall to gaze out in wonder at the magnificent views. As we mover higher,
presumably into the deeper stages of enlightenment, we are able to escape the narrow
confines of our petty world to experience the grand picture. Not trapped in the immediacy of
the moment, we experience the eternal now that is everywhere at all times.

The omnipresent serene Buddhas are also on the top levels. But now they are enclosed,
even hidden, within mini-stupas – individual bell-shaped structures. They watch us and
perform their magic from within their little cell.

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 Having reached enlightenment, we bow down and pray before the magnificence of
existence.

As an indication of the importance of this particular location to the Javanese, they also
consider it to be the center of the earth. Besides the volcanoes and magnificent vistas, the
visitor can also see Magelang, i.e. the Tidal Hill, from Borobudur’s top floor. This large
mound of earth rises abruptly from the relatively flat valley floor. According to tradition, all
islands and landmasses were wandering at the beginning of time. At one point, the gods
nailed Java to the Earth to fix its location. From that point forward, everything else revolved
around this fixed spot. The Javanese consider this sharp uplift to be the ‘Nail of Java’.

Tantra-inspired Mudras
Let’s look at Borobudur in a little more detail. On each level of the structure, there are
meditating Buddhas. These Dhyani Buddhas are distinctly different from the historical
Buddha. A transcendent eternal savior, the Dhyani Buddha has a dot on his forehead, a
symbol of the 3rd all-seeing eye. There are 504 meditating Buddhas at Borobudur. Each are
unique, but all are serene.
The bottom level, i.e. the hidden foot, doesn’t have any of these peaceful figures, as it
represents the corrupted realm of fears and desires,.The next 5 square levels symbolize the
world of form. These terraces contain 432 Buddhas, with the number decreasing as the visitor
moves to the higher floors (104, 104, 88, 72, 64). Each of these meditating figures has its own
cubicle located just above the friezes.
The next 3 round floors, representative of the stages of enlightenment, have another 72
Buddhas (32, 24, 16). Each of these is enclosed in its own mini stupa. Although hidden from
casual view, they can be viewed through the grates of the bell-shaped stupa.
Each of the Dhayni Buddhas has a specific symbolic hand position – a mudra. These
mudras are part of the Vajrayana sect of Mahayana Buddhism – the Tantric branch. The
Buddhas have 6 different mudras. On each terrace, the Buddhas have a different hand
position.
In each case, the left palm of the meditating Buddha faces upward. It is the right hand that
indicates the symbolism. The 4 lower terraces exhibit the same identical 4 mudras. The
mudras on these bottom levels are directional. In contrast, the upper terraces exhibit hand
positions that are unique to them and are omni-directional. Let’s see what this means.
On the first four square levels, all the Buddhas that face east have the same mudra. The
Buddha’s right palm is outward and points to the earth. This mudra indicates ‘right conduct’.
This position derives from one of his prior incarnations, when Buddha appealed to the earth
goddess to testify to his right conduct to refute Mara’s impeachment of his motives.

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 For the Buddhas that face north, the right palm faces forward, which is the mudra to
‘dispel fear’ or instill ‘courage’. For the westward facing Buddhas, both palms face up and
the thumbs touch indicating the importance of ‘meditation’. The hand position of the
southward facing Buddhas symbolizes the need for ‘charity’. The right palm faces upward
and out, while the fingers face down in a posture that indicates giving.
Each of these mudras is of equal importance as visitors can access the monument from
each of the 4 sides.
All the Buddhas on the 5th and final square terrace have the same mudra. It symbolizes
‘deliberation’. The right palm is outward and the forefinger touches the thumb.

The mudra of the 72 Buddhas on the next three round terraces is identical. The
complicated interlocking hand position suggests revolution and symbolizes the ‘Turning of
Dharma Wheel’. As mentioned, the Buddhas on the square terraces are easily visible in their
little cubicles. In contrast, the Buddhas on the round terraces are hidden in little stupas and
can only be seen through perforations in the bell-shaped enclosure. Evidently the mudras of
the bottom terraces are quite common, while the complicated ‘Turning of Dharma
Wheel’ mudra is not so widespread.
Visiting Borobudur in 2013, the more complicated mudras haven’t survived the ravages
of time and need restoration. For instance, there were only a handful of Buddhas on the
circular terraces whose hand position was still intact. The three dimensionality of the hand
positions that project into space seem to be particularly vulnerable to destruction. In contrast,
the mudras of nearly all the Buddhas whose hands were in their laps were intact.
Right conduct, dispel fear, meditation, charity, deliberation, the turning of the Dharma
Wheel are the symbolic meanings of the 6 mudras. The hand positions of the meditating
Buddhas remind pilgrims of these important virtues as they ascend the monument walking
from terrace to terrace.
The Content of the Friezes from Chinese Mahayana

While the employment of mudras suggest the tantric influence, the content of the friezes
definitely derives from Mahayana Buddhism. The 6 square bottom terraces are filled with 3
kilometers (approximately 2 miles) of museum quality stone friezes. Of the 2672 friezes,
1460 are narrative and 1212 are decorative. The narrative friezes are devoted to Buddha’s
biography, primarily his past lives.

Recall that the goal of Mahayana Buddhists is to become a Bodhisattva through multiple
incarnations. In this regard, Mahayana de-emphasizes the importance of the historical
Buddha and instead focuses upon the events of his past lives that led to Buddhahood. Because
Mahayana denies the existence of everything, these past lives are akin to vibrations or

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emanations of the Buddha essence rather than being connected to an individual. In similar
fashion, the meditating Buddhas with their 6 mudras are perfect abstractions rather than
humans with personality accompanied by character flaws.

The hidden ‘foot’ contains 160 relief panels that indicate the law of karma. Each frieze is a
story of cause and effect. In other words, blameworthy deeds lead to retribution. For instance,
one panel shows individuals slaughtering and cooking meat and then going to Buddhist hell
where they are slaughtered and eaten by demons. Each panel is self contained with no
connection to the rest. Although there are pictures of the friezes, the visitor can only see a
small fraction of them, as the rest of the foot has been enclosed.

The remainder of the friezes on the next five terraces, i.e. the ‘body’ of the monument, are
primarily representations of stories from Buddha’s past and present lives. Most of these
derive from 3 Buddhist works – Jataka, Awadana, and Gandavhaya.

The first visible terrace and half of the second are primarily devoted to the legendary life of
the historical Buddha, i.e. Gautama Siddhartha, and the Jataka Tales. The friezes on the first
level illustrate the entire story of Buddha’s life, beginning with his descent from heaven until
he achieves enlightenment. As a white elephant with 6 tusks, Buddha enters the womb of
Queen Maya. After birth, his life is then experienced as a dream. Prince Siddhartha’s father
builds 3 palaces to distract him from the spiritual life. However he has 4 encounters, i.e. with
the old, the sick, the dead and a monk. These chance encounters introduce him to suffering
and the transitory nature of life. After much travail, he attains enlightenment. His life exhibits
the possibility of salvation from suffering. Rather than leaving this world, Buddha begins
giving sermons regarding the law of Dharma to help individuals on the path to enlightenment.
All of these events are illustrated in sequential order on the carved panels.

The Jataka Tales are past life stories, where Buddha is frequently an animal. These animal
tales contain a Buddhist message. In this sense they are somewhat akin to Aesop’s fables.
Borobdur contains depictions of all 34 Jatakas from the Jataka Mala, the primary and
traditional collection of these tales.

460 friezes on the 3rd, 4th and half of the 2nd terrace are devoted to the Gandavhaya text.
This Mahayana text tells the story of the tireless wandering of Sudhana, one of Buddha’s past
lives. Sudhana’s many experiences are depicted on the walls of Borobudur. He has no less
than 30 teachers before he attains Bodhisattvahood. The panels on top level depict Sudhana
teaching the Mahayana doctrine post-enlightenment.

The Gandavhaya text is the last chapter and culmination of the Avatamsaka sutra. Popularly
known as the Flower Garland Sutra, this sutra is exceptionally important in Eastern Asian
Buddhism. This East Asian influence indicates the importance of the Chinese in the
transmission of Buddhism to Southeast Asia’s islands.

The 40 chapter long sutra is a compilation of many works, some of which are sutras in their
own right. Central Asian monks joined the diverse literary pieces into a single sutra in the late
3rd and early 4th centuries of the Common Era. The entire work was first translated into
Chinese during the 5th century. It was one of the many sutras that the Kushan monks
employed to successfully convert the Chinese populace to Mahayana Buddhism.

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The Flower Garland’s 40 chapters are on disparate topics. However there are 2 overarching
themes: the interdependency of all phenomena (dharmas) and the Buddhist progression to
enlightenment. One of the chapters is devoted to the 10 stages it takes to become a
Bodhisattva. East Asians frequently cite this chapter as a sutra in its own right. As an
indication of its importance, this, the 10 Stages Sutra, was translated into Chinese in the 3rd
century, a few centuries before the larger Flower Garland Sutra.

Sudhana’s biography, the last chapter of the sutra, encapsulates these 10 stages in story form.
Recall that Borobudur’s 10 levels symbolize these same developmental steps. Some scholars
even believe that Borobudur means ‘Mountain of virtues of 10 stages of the Bodhisattva’.
Although others believe the name the name of the monument derives from the location –
‘monastery of Budur’, an ancient city, it is apparent that Borobudur’s 10 levels are linked
with the pilgrim’s journey to enlightenment.
Besides architectural similarities and the obvious influence of East Asian Mahayana upon
Borobudur, locals claim that the Chinese brought Buddhism to the islands. In these pregnant
times, it could be roughly said that Hinduism came to Southeast Asia’s islands from India,
while it seems that Buddhism was due at least in part to the Chinese influence.

Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues
of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on
the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides
of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to
the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth
72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[4] At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16,
which adds up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged
(mostly headless), and 43 are missing. Since the monument's discovery, heads have been
acquired by museums (mostly Western) or looted by personal collectors. Some of these
Buddha heads are now displayed in numbers of museums, such as
the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Musée Guimet in Paris, and The British
Museum in London. Germany has in 2014 returned its collection and funded their
reattachment and further conservation of the site.

Symbolic Dhyani Cardinal Location of the

Statue Mudra
meaning Buddha Point Statue

Rupadhatu niches on
Bhumisparsa Calling the Earth
Aksobhya East the first four eastern
mudra to witness
balustrades

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 Symbolic Dhyani Cardinal Location of the
Statue Mudra
meaning Buddha Point Statue

Rupadhatu niches on
Benevolence, Ratnasambha
Vara mudra South the first four southern
alms giving va
balustrades

Rupadhatu niches on
Concentration and
Dhyana mudra Amitabha West the first four western
meditation
balustrades

Rupadhatu niches on
Courage, Amoghasidd
Abhaya mudra North the first four northern
fearlessness hi
balustrades

Rupadhatu niches in
Reasoning and all directions on the
Vitarka mudra Vairochana Zenith
virtue fifth (uppermost)
balustrade

Arupadhatu in 72
Turning the
Dharmachakra perforated stupas on
Wheel Vairochana Zenith
mudra three rounded
of dharma (law)
platforms

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Head from a Borobudur Buddha statue in Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam. /Headless Buddha statue in
Borobudur. Since its discovery, numbers of heads have been stolen and installed in museums abroad.
/Lion gate guardian
At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between
them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East,
South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according
to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and
West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the
corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the
top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani
Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.
Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the East,
the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:

A Stepped Pyramid: Ancestor worship combined with Buddhism

The Buddha’s past and present lives are depicted on the friezes. There are countless
meditating Buddhas. There are also innumerable mini and medium sized stupas throughout
the monument. Plus a tall stupa tops the entire structure. Most consider Borobudur to be the
largest Buddhist stupa in the world. But is it really only a stupa?

Although it is tempting to categorize this enormous monument as a stupa, this is stretch. For
one, the top is not the dominant feature, as it is in most stupas. Instead the pilgrim/visitor
initially experiences Borobudur as an enormous stepped stone pyramid. Only after viewing
the enormity of the angular stone fortress does one notice the round stupa at the top. In terms
of direct experience, it is probably more accurate to characterize the monument as a stepped
pyramid topped by a stupa.
In the Javanese tradition, the prasada is a stepped pyramid frequently located in the
mountains. The prasada is considered to be the abode of the ancestors. Gunung Padang is a
stepped pyramid from the Megalithic that is probably associated with ancestor worship. If so,
it is the earliest known example of a prasada. Not only in Java, but throughout Southeast
Asia, the stepped pyramid is associated with ancestor worship.

As mentioned, Southeast Asians, especially the Javanese, never gave up ancestor worship.
Instead they blended and continue to blend it with the newer religions, including Buddhism,
Hinduism and even Islam. At the time that Borobudur was built, the Javanese were both

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ardent Buddhists and worshippers of their forefathers. In this regard, they respected their
elders as Bodhisattvas. As such, it makes perfect sense that the Javanese would construct a
monument that both honors their ancestors and simultaneously is a stupa, the Buddhist
symbol par excellence – an ideal fit with their inclusive temperament.

This interpretation of Borobudur was suggested by no less an authority than Professor

Soekmone, the Javanese scholar who was instrumental in the restoration of Borobudur.
Buddha Vairocana in Vajryana Buddhism

Bronze figure of Buddha Vairocana, from eastern Java, Indonesia, 10th century C.E., 29 cm
high
A Tantric Buddhist image Bronze figure of Buddha Vairocana, from eastern Java, Indonesia,
10th century C.E., 29 cm high © Trustees of the British Museum

Buddhism reached Indonesia by about the fifth century C.E., when the Mahayana and
Vajrayana or Tantric schools of Buddhism were predominant. In the eighth and ninth
centuries the main centres of activity were in central Java. The great Buddhist monument at
Borobudur was built around 800, both a huge stupa and a mandala. In Vajrayana Buddhism,
the five Cosmic Buddhas are identified by a particular gesture (mudra) and preside over one
of the directions of space. The Buddha Vairocana is the guardian of the centre and is
identified by the gesture of teaching or the "Turning of the Wheel of
Law" (dharmacakramudra). In many Vajrayana Buddhist temples in Java the five Buddhas
are arranged in a mandala with Vairocana at the centre.

Vairocana sits on a high throne and a double lotus. His hands are in the gesture of teaching.
Behind him is an elaborate throne-back with a halo of flames and a royal parasol. This image
is similar to many of the Buddhist bronzes of eastern India. Buddhists travelled between the
monasteries of eastern India and the countries of South-east Asia. Many bronzes of eastern
Indian manufacture were taken to Indonesia but this image was locally made.

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 Chapter 5
The Mountain Mystique of the Big Boro
Borobudur as a Hill and built on a hill
Also see my twin paper on the Immersive Experience of the Borobudur

Buddha is attributed many quotes about the mountains.

 He who lives with his senses well controlled, moderate in his food and drink, he will
not be overthrown, any more than the wind throws down a rocky mountain.
 When one drives away the negligent through vigilance, he climbs the heights of
wisdom, and can see the suffering masses. Serene, you look upon the lost like one that
stands on a mountain sees those that stand upon the plain.
 The ocean, king of mountains and the mighty continents Are not heavy burdens to
bear when compared To the burden of not repaying the world's kindness.
In the Avatamsaka Sutra (The Flower Garland Sutra-Practices and Vows of the Bodhisattva
Samantabhadra) it says:

Furthermore, The Mountain Spirit Jewel Peak Blooming Flowers found the door of liberation entering
the light of absorption in great quiescence. The Mountain Spirit Flower Forest Topknot found the
door of liberation cultivating and collecting good roots of kindness and developing an inconceivable
number of beings to maturity. The Mountain Spirit Lofty Banner Shining Everywhere found the door
of liberation Looking into the inclinations of all sentient beings and purifying their senses. The
Mountain Spirit Undefiled Jewel Topknot found the door of liberation of boundless eons of diligent
striving without becoming weary or remiss. The Mountain Spirit Light Illumining All Directions
found the door of liberation awakening all with lights of infinite qualities. The Mountain Spirit Light
of Great Power found the door of liberation of capability of self development and causing sentient
beings to give up deluded behavior. The Mountain Spirit Awesome Light Conquering All found the
door of liberation removing all pains so that none are left. The Mountain Spirit Light Orb of Subtle
Intensity found the door of liberation spreading the light of the teachings, showing the virtues of all
Buddhas. The Mountain Spirit Universal Eye Clearly See found the door of liberation causing all
sentient beings to make their roots of goodness grow even in dreams. The Mountain Spirit
Adamantine Eye of Mystery found the door of liberation bringing forth the great ocean of meaning.

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 At that time, the Mountain Spirit Blooming Flowers all over the Earth, imbued with power from the
Buddha, surveyed all the hosts of mountain spirits and said in verse,Having cultivated excellent
practices without bound
Now he has attained mystic powers, also infinite.
His gates of teaching are wide open, numerous as atoms,
Causing all sentient beings to deeply understand and rejoice.

His body, adorned in many ways, is omnipresent,

The lights from his pores are all pure
With compassionate techniques he teaches all
Flower Forest Topknot understands this.

The Buddha-Body appears everywhere—its boundless,

Filling all worlds in the ten directions,
All faculties pure, a joy to all beholders.
This truth High banner can Understand.

In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur
Temple" as Candi Borobudur. Candi Borobudur’s design was conceived of by the poet,
thinker, and architect Gunadharma, considered by many today to be a man of great vision and
devotion. The temple has been described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles
that of a pyramid, yet it has been also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and
a sacred mountain. In fact, the name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While
the temple exhibits characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is
that of a three-dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is
in that sense where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.The term candi also
loosely describes ancient structures, for example gates and baths. The origins of the
name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and Budur for Buddha. [ The name Borobudur
was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history. Raffles wrote about a monument
called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name. The only old
Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary
is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar of Majapahit court, in

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1365. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese
language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should
have been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern
Javanese word Buda ("ancient")-i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might
derive from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha.[13] However,
another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from
Javanese term bhudhara ("mountain").
Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers suggests
that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara
Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the
city of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still
survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place", constructed from the
stem word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur
means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill.

Lake in the LAKE & TWIN VOLCANOES IN THE EMBLEM OF THE Magelang Regency
Jawa Tengah (Central Java) province seal. The seal featuring Borobudur temple, twin volcanoes,
cotton and rice, Indonesian flag, bamboo spear, and golden star. Based on 1984 Regional Regulation
No. 9.
The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to
Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung
Regency. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building
named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached
enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri
Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī
Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of
a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the place
of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Casparis
suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means "the mountain of
combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of
Borobudur.

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Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from
Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh
mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and
Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is
active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a
curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan
Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument
looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The
story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to
keep watch over his creation through the ages."

There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th
century. The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain called
Bara-Budur in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of Matara.
The Sultan sent troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him to be
executed.

Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile volcanic plain that lies between
the volcanoes Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west, and Mount
Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east. It roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
Its northern border is limited by hills of Kendal and Mount Ungaran. The plain also borders
the Menoreh hills in the southwest and Prambanan Plain in the southeast. The Progo
River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount Sundoro to
the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant location in
Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of the Sailendra dynasty
as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the colonial Dutch East Indies period,
the Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which at that time covered what are now
the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung Regency administrative units.
When Britain took briefly control of the region in 1811, Magelang became the seat of
government. After the Napoleonic wars ended, the English turned Java back over to the
Dutch in 1816[1] and Magelang continued to play a central role in the Dutch East Indies.
There is a small hill near Magelang called Mount Tidar that is referred to as the Nail of Java.
According to Javanese legend, the gods placed the nail to prevent the island of Java from
sinking into the sea from tremors.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to
the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.

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 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its
reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya,
and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram.
The Progo River (Kali Praga ),is a river in southern central Java, Indonesia. The river passes
through two provinces; Central Java and Yogyakarta Special Region. The source of the river
is on the slopes of Mount Sindoro, Central Java.
The river runs to the southeast through the city of Magelang, then through the historical Kedu
Plain passing near the well known Borobudur, Mendut, and Pawon temples. Reaching the
province of Yogyakarta the river forms a natural boundary between Sleman Regency, Kulon
Progo Regency and Bantul Regency. The mouth of the river is located at Trisik beach on the
southern shore of Java facing Indian Ocean.

Behind the splendor of the great temple built by Shailendra dynasty on the 8th century AD
which is also known as one of the 7 wonders of the world. Till this day, the Borobudur
temple was still leaves some big question marks about its existence. The temple has been
described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a pyramid, yet it has been
also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred mountain. In fact, the
name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple exhibits
characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-
dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense
where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper
terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated
Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol
of the enlightened mind.

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 Positioning of the 3 Hindu Buddhist Mandirs/Stupas

During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples
in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line. A ritual
relationship between the three temples must have existed, although the exact ritual process is
unknown.

Geography & History

The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and mystery.
No records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the temple is based on
artistic comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia and elsewhere throughout
Southeast Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced arrived in what is now present-day
Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence
grew rapidly from c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders settled in
the region, intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading
relations between the indigenous Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the Javanese
blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own.

The name "Borobudur" itself is the subject of intense scholarly debate and is a lingering
mystery. Some scholars contend that the name stems from the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Uhr or
the "Buddhist Monastery on a Hill," while others, in turn, argue that Budur is nothing more
than a Javanese place name. A stone tablet dating from 842 CE makes mention of
Bhumisambharabhudara or the "Mountain of Virtues of Ten Stages of the Boddhisattva." It is
probable that the name "Borobudur" could be related to "Bharabhudara."

Modern historians have all disagreed amongst each other as to the political and cultural
events that led to Borobudur's construction as well. It is possible that the Hindu Sanjaya
dynasty initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on the spot where Borobudur now
sits around c. 775 CE and that they were unable to complete their temple as they were driven
out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty. (It should be noted, however, that other Javanese
historians see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that
religious patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is
that there were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.)

Ancient Indian Ship/Borobudur Model

Archaeological and scholarly consensus places the end of Borobudur's construction around c.
800-825 CE. King Samaratungga (r. c. 790-835 CE?) is traditionally regarded as the Javanese
king who oversaw the completion of Borobudur's construction. Buddhist kings, like

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Samaratungga, were the rivals of the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty for power within the Mataram
kingdom in central Java. The Hindu Javanese under the Sanjaya dynasty
constructed Prambanan - Indonesia's largest Hindu temple, located some 19 km (12 miles) to
the west of Borobudur- in the same century as Borobudur, and it is entirely possible that
Prambanan's construction was a political and cultural response to that of Borobudur.

What is known is that Buddhists made pilgrimages and took part in Buddhist rituals at
Borobudur during the early medieval period until the temple was abandoned at some point
during the 1400s CE. The root causes for the abandonment of Borobudur are moreover
debated, and the reasons why the temple was ultimately abandoned remains unknown. It is
known that in the 10th or 11th century CE, the capital of the Mataram Kingdom moved
eastwards away from Borobudur due to volcanic eruptions, which may have diminished
Borobudur as a center of pilgrimage. Although Arab, Persian, and Gujarati traders brought
Islam to what is present-day Indonesia as early as the 8th and 9th centuries CE, the
acceleration of Javanese conversion to Islam began to increase rapidly only in the 15th
century CE. As the Javanese population accepted Islam en masse, it makes sense that
Borobudur would lessen in importance. Over the following centuries, earthquakes, volcanic
eruption, and rainforest growth hid Borobudur from the Javanese, rendering it inaccessible.
There is evidence, nonetheless, that Borobudur never left the collective cultural
consciousness of the Javanese people. Even after their conversion to Islam, later Javanese
stories and myths expressed the temple's association with mystery and negative energies.

In 1814, the Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826 CE) who
oversaw the brief British occupation of the Dutch East Indes permitted the Dutch explorer
Hermann Cornelius (1774-1833 CE) to organize an expedition to find and locate Borobudur,
which he did successfully the same year. In the years following Borobudur's rediscovery, the
government of the Dutch East Indies commissioned and permitted archaeological studies of
the temple, but looting was a major problem in the 19th and early 20th century CE. Experts
recommended that Borobudur be left intact in situ, and the first restoration efforts lasted from
1907 to 1911 CE. Today, Borobudur is once again a site of Buddhist pilgrimage and a major
tourist destination in Southeast Asia, but Indonesian officials remain worried about damage
caused by the foot traffic at the temple, as well as lingering environmental and security
issues.

Art & Architecture

Borobudur is made up of three different monuments: the main temple at Borobudur and
two smaller temples located to the east of the main temple. The two smaller temples are the
Pawon Temple and the Mendut Temple, the latter of which contains a large sculpture of
Buddha surrounded by two Bodhisattvas. The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of
three monuments: namely the Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples situatued to the
east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction
of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and
Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have
been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of
Nirvana.

Borobudur is an impressive and monumental ancient Buddhist structure that can only be
rivaled in Southeast Asia by Angkot Wat in Cambodia, the Buddhist temples of Bagan in
Myanmar (Burma), the Hindu temples of Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam, and the ruins of Sukhothai in
Thailand. Borobudur's design is a mix of Javanese style and Gupta dynasty architecture,

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reflecting the blend of indigenous and Indian aesthetics in ancient Java. Over 500 statues of
Buddha are positioned around Borobudur, and Borobudur contains roughly 3,000 bas-relief
sculptures. These sculptures are all unique in that they depict the Buddha's teachings, life, and
personal wisdom. When taken all together, Borobudur can claim to have the largest amount
of Buddhist sculptures of any single site in the world today. It is known that in ancient times,
sculptors decorated and adorned the temples' various galleries before everything was covered
with paint and stucco. This method has helped better preserve these sculptures for over a
thousand years.
It is estimated that over 1.6 million blocks of andesite - a volcanic rock - were used in
Borobudur's construction. These rocks were cut and joined in a method that did not employ
any mortar. Borobudur is made up of three different monuments: the main temple at
Borobudur and two smaller temples located to the east of the main temple. The two smaller
temples are the Pawon Temple and the Mendut Temple, the latter of which contains a
large sculpture of Buddha surrounded by two Bodhisattvas. Collectively, Borobudur, Pawon,
and Mendut symbolize the path the individual takes in attaining Nirvana. All three temples lie
in a straight line as well. Another Buddhist temple - Ngawen, which dates from the 8th
century CE, is located just 10 km (6 miles) from the main temple at Borobudur. A ruined
Hindu temple, the Banon Temple, lies just several meters north of Pawon.

The main temple structure at Borobudur is constructed on three levels with a pyramid-shaped
base replete with five square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular shaped
platforms, and on the upper level, a grand monumental stupa. Fine reliefs form part of the
walls of the temples and cover an area of approximately 2,520 m2 (27,125 square feet). 72
stupas each with a statue of the Buddha inside are found around Borobudur's circular
platforms. This allocation and delineation of space conforms to the Buddhist conception of
the universe. In Buddhist cosmology, the universe is divided into three spheres known
as arupadhatu, rupadhatu, and kamadhatu. Arupadhatu is here represented by the three
platforms and large stupa, the rupadhatu is represented by the five terraces, and
the kamadhatu is represented by the temple's base.

TEMPLE TRIAD-Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples

Yogyakarta is home to several other spectacular temples, which would be perfect to complete
your temple tour. Some nearby temples around Borobudur one can explore are Mendut
Temple, Ngawen Temple, and Pawon Temple.

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Mendut Temple is located around three kilometers from Borobudur. This Buddhist temple
was built around the same era as Borobudur in the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. The
temple has three Buddha Statues facing each other and the walls are graced with neatly
carved reliefs. Around 5 km before Mendut Temple if you are traveling from Yogyakarta you
will find Ngawen Temple. Same as Borobudur and Mendut Temple, Ngawen is a Buddhist
Temple and built in the same era.

To the east around 1750 meters from Borobudur Temple, lays Pawon Temple. It is actually
situated between Borobudur and Mendut Temple in Brojonalan Village, Borobudur District.
The temple is recognized to be the storage of the King Indra’s weapon known as Vajranala
shaped like lightning.

To explain the additions or extensions at Borabudur and Mendut by successive

Shailendra rulers, possibly without exception, which have come to light during restoration

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activities at those temples, one needs to understand that religious merit of the royal zealot did
increase to a great extent from the building of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the sacred
construction work would be an incentive to join the creed while it would help the initiate in
his meditations aiming at the attainment of the Bodhi. Furthermore, the “accumulation of
religious merit” which the monarch earned through the construction of a magnificent temple
would also benefit his realm — “the thriving State of the Shailendras” as it is designated in
the inscriptions of the period. This topographical relationship looks hardly casual, as probably
a processional way ran along the line in ancient times (the path is still partly mimicked by the
modern road from Borobodur to Pawon up to the river Pogo).

Borobudur Temple (Biggest Buddha’s temple in the world)

Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang, Central Java,
Indonesia. The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular,
topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha
statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated
stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist
monuments in the world.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed in
Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the
influences of Gupta art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet there are enough
indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The
monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The
journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the
monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology:
Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world
of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways
and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur
has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world.

Chandi MENDUT and Chandi PAVON supplement the temple complex. They were built
during the reign of King Indra (782–812 AD) of the Shailendra dynasty. The whole temple
complex symbolizes the way of a spiritual seeker from the mundane life to the Divine life, to
the state of Buddha. In old times a big road led from Borobudur eastern entrance to Chandi
Mendut, passing through Chandi Pavon. Along the entire road there were walls with
numerous towers, niches, and sculptures.
 Chandi Mendut,
 Chandi Pavon,
 the famous Borobudur temple complex.

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Pawon Temple
Pawon temple (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple located between two
other Buddhist temples, approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres
away from Borobudur.
, Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra
dynasty (8th–9th centuries). Examines the detail and style of its carving this temple is slightly
older than Borobudur.
The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning
that binds these temples.
“Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple
architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending
Borobudur.”

The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means “kitchen” in
Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the
word “dust” also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple
for a king. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses
the dust of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is still
unknown. Local people name this temple as “Bajranalan” based on the name of the village.
Bajranalan is derived from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist ceremonial
tool) and Anala (fire, flame). Due to its small size, Pavon resembles a memorial monument.
When the temple was found, it was in a very poor condition. Themes of decorative reliefs in
Pavon include the “heavenly tree”, vessels with gifts, bearded dwarfs spilling necklaces, rings
and jewels from boxes. Such themes are explained by the fact that Chandi Pavon is dedicated
to the deity of wealth Kubera, who was usually depicted at entrances to temples.

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Inner premises of the temple are trimmed with dark volcanic stone. Although no statues have
been preserved in Chandi Pavon, it is possible to ascertain by outer wall reliefs that the
temple once was dedicated to Kubera – the generous lord of luck and wealth. There are also
extant images of Kalpataru – the mythical tree of desires in Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
The desires ingrained in righteous thoughts and true faith will be fulfilled.

In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe
Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur.

As it has been mentioned above, between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the small
Chandi Pavon,

Mendut Temple
Mendut temple is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-
district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three
kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist
temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the
three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.

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It is commonly acknowledged that Borobudur was constructed between 750 and 850 by the
Shailendra dynasty’s rulers. The name is traced back to the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Ur,
which translates as “the Buddhist temple on the mountain,” although its exact meaning is
disputed.

The temple was eventually ‘forgotten’ as evidence points to the fact that Borobudur was
abandoned after the fourteenth century with the decline of the Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms
in Java and the conversion of the islanders to Islam. After its abandonment, the massive
pyramid temple remained hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle
growth, like many other pyramids across the planet. However, scholars have still not agreed
upon the exact cause of its abandonment.One theory suggests religion had something to do
with its abandonment. Theories argue that the temple was abandoned because much of the
population was converted to Islam during the 15th century. Another hypothesis suggests the
abandonment was due to a famine caused by a volcanic eruption (in the year 1006), which
forced the inhabitants to abandon their lands and the monument.

Borobudur was rediscovered in 1814 by Thomas Stamford Raffles, the British governor of
Java. When Raffles had heard about the ancient monument’s possible existence, he sent

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Dutch engineer H.C. Cornellius to investigate the area.Cornellius and his men spotted the
ancient pyramid temple. Cornellius and his 200 men cut trees, burned vegetation, and dug to
clear the monument for the next two months. Due to the dangers of collapse, they could not
explore the galleries. Cornellius would eventually report his findings to Raffles, including
several drawings. Raffles is credited with focusing the world’s attention on the monument.It
wasn’t until 1835 that the temple was completely excavated.

Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor
of a dried-out paleolake. The lake's existence

In 1931, the Dutch artist and student of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J.
Nieuwenkamp, formulated a theory that the Kedu plain was a lake. Borobudur represented
a lotus flower floating in it.Lotus flowers are present in nearly all Buddhist works of art,
essentially always serving as a throne for Buddha or stupas. The temple’s architecture
suggests a lotus design, where the Buddha positions in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus
Sutra, present in several Mahāyāna texts. Three circular platforms at the top of the
1
monument represent a lotus leaf.

They know about the temple, but not its past environment when the temple was built. The
history and past environment of Borobudur temple could be developed as additional
tourist attractions to make them stay longer in that area. Geological condition and the
evidences of an ancient lake could be developed as tourist objects. It is very interesting
and could be developed to educate visitors in geo-archeology. The aim of this research is
to develop archeological (temple) tourism based on geology and past environment.
Although many researches on geo-archeology have been done, the results which relate to
tourism are still not widely applied yet. The methods used are secondary data analysis and
a field survey to investigate the potential of tourist stop sites. The potential tourist
attractions were determined by geomorphology, lithology outcrops, stratigraphy,
environment, and accessibility. The result is ten stop sites which could be used to describe

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the paleoenvironment in Borobudur based on geosciences. These tourist objects could
explain the environment in the past related to the temple reliefs and ancient human
activities.2

The ninth-century world-heritage Buddhist monument of Borobudur (Java, Indonesia)

stands above the floor of a dried-out palaeolake, but it remains uncertain as to whether it
was ever constructed on a lake shore. Here we reveal through new chronological and
palaeoenvironmental data on the extant sediment record of the area that Borobudur
intentionally stood by an existing lake. For the first time, evidence of this conjunction
validates quite literally the debated cosmological interpretation of the edifice as an
aquatic lotus symbol upon which Buddha is seated. The fluctuating life history of the lake
spanned at least 20 000 years.

The generally accepted belief regarding the 9th century world-heritage Buddhist temple
of Borobudur (Java, Indonesia) is that it stands above the floor of a dried-out palaeolake
but was never constructed on a lake shore. Here we reveal through new chronological and
palaeoenvironmental data on the extant sediment record of the area that Borobudur
intentionally stood by an existing lake. Evidence of this conjunction validates the debated
cosmological interpretation of the edifice as an aquatic lotus symbol upon which Buddha
is seated. The fluctuating life history of the lake spanned at least 20,000 years. Borobudur
temple stood by a lake: chronostratigraphic evidence and historical implications.3

Borobudur Paleolake and the Cradle of Civilization

The Serayu River begins on Mount Sundoro and flows westwards through the Wonosobo-
Purwokerto plain, until it reaches the Indian Ocean in the neighborhood of Cilacap. The
Progo River is the main watercourse of historical Central Java. Unlike the other rivers
that originate from the Central depression of Java and run east or westwards, the Progo
River flows directly from north to south. Its source is located high on Mount Sundoro,
while its main tributary, the Elo River, takes its source on Mt Merbabu.

The Progo Valley hosts a large number of Dharmist and Buddhist temples dated from the
8th to the 9th century. Because of this, the Progo Valley is considered the cradle of classic
Indonesian civilization. The temples in the region include as follow.
Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by the
Sailendras.

1. Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues of
Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
2. Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is
located between Mendut and Borobudur.
3. Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of
Mendut temple.
4. Banon: The ruins of a Dharmist temple; located several hundred meters north of
Pawon temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus,
its reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and
Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum
of Indonesia, Jakarta.
5. Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Dharmist

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 temples in the area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a
Canggal inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Medang Kingdom
was discovered.
6. Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Dharmist temple on top of a hill, located near Candi
Gunung Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
7. Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram.

Figure 1. Distribution of temples in central Java

More than 300 temple remains were once visible in Central Java, scattered all over
the region. Today, however, a large part of these ruins has vanished. Some of them were
used as stone quarries to build new houses, mosques or bridges. Others were simply
victims of the ravages of time or were buried under residues from human activities. The
situation is scarcely better for the majority of the remaining sites: many former temples
have been reduced to a few dozen stones scattered in a field or along a road. On the other
hand, certain buildings were relatively well preserved and anastylosis granted them a new

112
life. Restored from top to bottom, these temples are now waiting to be visited and
admired.

Borobudur Temple

Borobudur Temple

The main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was a natural center: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three
circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are
decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m 2. Around the
circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha.

The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly
accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the
universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu,
and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to
our desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name
and form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At
Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five
square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big
stupa. The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor
worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept
of attaining Nirvana.

The Temple should also be seen as an outstanding dynastic monument of the Sailendra
Dynasty that ruled Java for around five centuries until the 10th century.
The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and two smaller temples situated to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The
two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a

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formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller
temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of
worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana.
The temple was used as a Buddhist temple from its construction until sometime between
the 10th and 15th centuries when it was abandoned. Since its re-discovery in the 19th
century and restoration in the 20th century, it has been brought back into a Buddhist
archaeological site.

Borobudur was mentioned in Serat Centhini, a twelve volume compilation of Javanese

tales and teachings, written in verse and published in 1814. Worldwide knowledge of its
existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of
Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been
preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken
between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which
the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate
Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia’s single most visited tourist
attraction.

LAKE IN THE EMBLEM OF THE Magelang Regency/Coat of arms

1.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Borobudur#:~:text=Lake%20Borobudur%20is,1)%3A%209%E2%80%9350.
2..The Ancient Borobudur Lake, History, and Its Evidences to Develop Geo-archeotourism in ,Indonesia,
Indonesian Journal on Geoscience 6(1),Helmy Murwanto,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332324135_The_Ancient_Borobudur_Lake_History_and_Its_Evidences_to_
Develop_Geo-archeotourism_in_Indonesia

3.Borobudur monument (Java, Indonesia) stood by a natural lake: chronostratigraphic evidence and historical
implications,H. Murwanto, Y. Gunnell, S. Suharsono
https://doi.org/10.1191/0959683604hl721rr

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 The Holocene 14(3):459-463

Chapter 6
The Mountain of Virtue from the Ten Phases of Bodhisattva”.
The New Concept of Borobudur Behind its Name

Sacred landscapes in Asia have generally been studied in terms of thearchitecture and
imagery of the monuments or with regard to chronology and patronage and more recently
within debates of generation of colonial knowledge. Colonial rule after centuries in South
and Southeast Asia, not only altered the nature of linkages that had existed across Asia from
at least the middle of thef irst millennium BC onwards, but more significantly redefined our
understanding of monuments such as Borobudur which were considered as essentially
religious structures have traversed to objects of artistic and aesthetic appreciation. This had
far-reaching implications for their study and understanding of the nature of Indic religions.

Paul Mus (1902–1969) was a French writer and scholar. His studies focused on Viet
Nam and other South-East Asian cultures. He was born in Bourges to an academic family,
and grew up in northern Viet Nam (Tonkin). In 1907 his father opened the College de
Protectorate in Hanoi and he would graduate from the college some 12 years later. His work
Barabuḍur: sketch of a history of Buddhism based on archaeological criticism of the texts
represents a profound and far-reaching analysis of the ideas, religious aspirations and
building techniques which contrbuted to the creation of one of the largest Buddhist edifices in
the world. Published at Hanoi in french in 1935, it is a survey of the Buddhist religious and
philosophical concepts in the background of earlier religious and metaphysical traditon in
India, as revealed in the Vedic and Upanishads texts.In his study of Borobudur published in

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1935, Paul Mus emphasised the role of architecture as a material representation of religious
doctrines of Buddhism.

Borobudur temple holds a mystery that raises questions for the people who see through.
Researchers, archaeologists, to visitors brought deeper into the mystery and the various
questions contained in it when climbing this monument.One simple question that has not
been answered until now is: whether the name Borobudur is the real name or not. It
seems that the name Borobudur is indeed the real name, but this statement has no solid
evidence that can be used to support it.

Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are

guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform
represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to
symbolize Buddhist cosmology.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden footing"
contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining
reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors,
illustrating the scenes to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the
purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered
to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is another theory that
the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed,
according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.
Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and
meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration.

Building structure
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from
neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to
the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints
between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed
in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's
high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each
with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.

Hilly Construction: Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures
built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural
hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner
spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid,
Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a
temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as
devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a
temple.

The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of
a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of

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the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact
measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around
the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of
the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the
designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that
the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as
is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.The main structure can be divided
into three components: base, body, and top. The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in
size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of
diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base.
Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.
The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of
perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the
top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level.
Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of
arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on
top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly
found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location
of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the
low-lying plain. This is a basic description of the temple. The Stugas and the reliefs on the
walls are subject matter of successive papers.
Much effort has been made to investigate this question, but no single interpretation has
been proven. So far, the way to find out the real name of Borobudur is to look at the two
parts that make up his name, Boro and Budur. This theory was initiated by Poerbatjaraka.
He revealed that “boro” can be interpreted as a monastery, which today can be regarded
as a vihara. While “budur” itself is the name of a place. Thus, Borobudur can be
interpreted as “Vihara in Budur”.

A bit of a relic from a monastery was discovered in 1952 when excavations were made in
the western courtyard of Borobudur. Found an ancient manuscript named
Nagarakrtagama from 1365 which contains the name Budur in it. In the manuscript,
budur is a sacred place of.Mahayana.Buddhism.

Dutch orientalist and indologist Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis (31 May 1916, – 19 June 2002)
succeeded in describing the obsolete portion of the stone charter found in 842 in his
seminal book Prasasti Indonesia II: Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th century A.D., (1956) as
readings as “bhumisambharabhudura”, meaning “The Mountain of Virtue from the Ten
Phases of Bodhisattva”.

The word “Bharabhudura” was taken and converted into Borobudur. The changes used
are simplifications that occur due to the pronunciation of the lisa language. On the other
hand, the first part of the word sounds similar to “Bumisegoro”, which is the name of the
village south of Borobudur.

It is interesting to note that before the word is found, there is another word found, that is
“kamulan”. This word means “The Holy Place of the Patriarch”. Therefore, it is clearly
seen the connection of Borobudur and the temple for ancestor worship.

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Another simple but difficult question to answer is: how long Borobudur temple is
actively used? When did it stop functioning as a monument to glorify the ruling dynasty,
or as a Buddhist pilgrimage center?

The general assumption is that this temple began not to be used when people converted
to Islam in the fifteenth century. Borobudur Temple may have been abandoned when the
center of political and cultural activities moved to East Java in the 10th century.

It is also spelled Barabuḍur or Baraboedoer and combines the 3 symbolic forms of

1. the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics),
2. the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and
3. the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and
the circle as heaven).

The style of Borobudur was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta art. The monument
was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991.

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 Enigmatic Construction

Borobudur was constructed between about 778 and 850 CE, under the Shailendra dynasty. :

A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916—1919) reconstructing the scene of Borobudur during its heyday

Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE. But there is no written record of who built it
or of its intended purpose. The construction time has been estimated by comparison between
carved reliefs on the temple’s hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal
charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. This corresponds to the period between 760 and
830 CE, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java, when it was under the influence of
the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been
completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.
There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The
Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at
Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus. It was during this time that many Hindu and
Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The
Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu
Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 CE, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a
Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.

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Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because
Sanjaya’s immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist
followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of
Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE. This
has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning
religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a
Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. However, it is likely that there
were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite
Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka
plateau. This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan
complex, which was believed to have been erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya
dynasty’s reply to Borobudur, but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful
coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.
Discovery: It was buried under volcanic ash from about 1000 and overgrown with
vegetation until discovered by the English lieutenant governor Thomas Stamford Raffles in
1814. A team of Dutch archaeologists restored the site in 1907–11. A second restoration was
completed by 1983.

Borobudur, Indonesia© Ramon Abasolo/Fotolia

Built with about 2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of gray volcanic stone,
Borobudur encloses a small hill and is shaped like a stepped pyramid with three major levels
—a square base, a middle level of five square terraces, and an upper level of three circular
terraces—totaling, in effect, nine lesser sections (the number nine is mystic in Buddhism).
The centre, 115 feet (35 metres) above the base, consists of a large individual stupa.

© simon gurney/Fotolia

Stupas at Borobudur

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Each of the monument’s three main levels represents a stage on the way to
the bodhisattva ideal of enlightenment; symbolizing this spiritual journey, a pilgrim begins at
the eastern stairway and walks clockwise around each of the monument’s nine levels before
reaching the top, a distance of more than 3 miles (5 km). At the lowest level, which is
partially hidden, are hundreds of reliefs of earthly desires, illustrating kama-dhatu (“the realm
of feeling”), the lowest sphere of the Mahayana Buddhist universe. On the next level, a series
of reliefs depict rupa-dhatu (the middle sphere and “the realm of form”) through events in the
life of the Gautama Buddha and scenes from the Jatakas (stories of his previous lives). The
upper level illustrates arupa-dhatu, “the realm of formlessness,” or detachment from the
physical world; there is little decoration, but lining the terraces are 72 bell-shaped stupas,
many still containing a statue of the Buddha, partly visible through the perforated stonework.
During the Waicak ceremony, which occurs once a year during a full moon, thousands of
saffron-robed Buddhist monks walk in solemn procession to Borobudur to commemorate the
Buddha’s birth,death, and enlightenment.

Borobudur- STUPA BIG BUDDHA- as a complete exposition of doctrine

Scholars disagree about the nature of Candi Borobudur, for instance, whether it is a symbolic
mountain of the Sailendra kingdom, a stupa or a mandala . At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt
burial mound faced with stone. In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the
Buddha's ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be associated with the body of the Buddha.
Adding the Buddha's ashes to the mound of dirt activated it with the energy of the Buddha
himself. Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the
form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist
cosmology and the nature of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately 118
metres (387 ft) on each side. Kesariya Stupa is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a
distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar,
India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE.
A stupa, Buddhist commemorative monument usually housing sacred relics associated
with the Buddha or other saintly persons. The hemispherical form of the stupa appears to
have derived from pre-Buddhist burial mounds in India. Many stupas are Pooja Pradakshina
on all levels? What does that mean and how to explain to non- hindus? Puja is paying
obeisance to God and pradakshina is circumambulation of the Godly image. Puja involves a
ritual= whether in Buddhism or Hinduism. Lighting Candles, Ringing bells, turning prayer
wheelsall are rituals. One such ritual kis circumambulation. In Borobudur as well as many
other Stupas some discussed below this ritual is and that Stupa are presented.One pays ones

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respect by circumambulation to the stupa.

Kesariya Stupa seen in the above picture, is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a
distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district
of Bihar, India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE. Kesariya
Stupa has a circumference of almost 400 feet (120 m) and raises to a height of about 104 feet
(32 m).
The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit. The purpose of stupas were
mainly to enshrine relics of Buddha. The design specifications are consistent within most of
the stupas, entrances to stupas are laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic
chambers.

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 SIMILARITIES WITH BOROBUDUR

It has been noted that the Kesariya stupa shares many architectural similarities with the
Buddhist temple located in Indonesia, Borobodur which points to a historical connections
between east India and South East Asia. Both monuments share a circular mandala form with
terraces containing figures of Buddha in the niches. Like Borobodur, Kesariya is also built
atop of a hill. The excavated chambers at Kesariya show a combination of statues
in bhumisparsha (of Akshobya) and dhyanimudra (of Amitabha) on the same side, whereas
Borobudur houses four Jina Buddhas, displaying their respective mudras on the four sides of
the monument.

In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur
Temple" as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for
example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and
Budur for Buddha. The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history.
Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting
the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy
Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar
of Majapahit court, in 1365. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese
language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should have
been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese
word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive
from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha. However, another
archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese
term bhudhara ("mountain").
Vihara Buddha Uhr: Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers
suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara
Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city
of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still
survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place", constructed from the stem
word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a
high place or on a hill. As far as I understand, Vihara Buddha means the Abode of Buddha and
not the city…

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Inscriptions: The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a
reference to Borobudur was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in
Kedu, Temanggung Regency.
1. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building
named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached
enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga.
2. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands
awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance
of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the
place of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of
the Sailendras.
Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra: Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which
in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was
the original name of Borobudur.That is however incorrect, even a schoolchild in India will tell
you that Bhumi means land.See the pujsa bhoomipoojan or the actress of Bollywood- Bhumi
Pednekar.
Apart from being called a most impressive monument, Borobudur is both a temple and a
complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with
only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains
at Angkor, and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of the Asian world.

Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated
and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth
(the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The
plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace
stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the
centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face
is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance. There are no internal cell shrines, and
the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense.

Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the
whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other
levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha
figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped
stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone Buddha
figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as
it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It
consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the
designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been
uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which
began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated
above.

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Borobudur: Buddha sculpture and stupas
Chapter 7
Borobudur- The Buddha Sutras and the Journey of
Sudhana
Sudhana

Statue of Sudhana
(Image: Source unknown)

The 20th day of the first Chinese lunar month is the Birthday of Sudhana Shancai Tongzi
Shengdan). Sudhana’s name is translated into Chinese as Child of Good Wealth ( Shancai
Tongzi) because it is said that when he was born, many different forms of riches suddenly
appeared in his parent’s home. The original identity of Sudhana, an Indian youth seeking
enlightenment, is given in a Buddhist scripture called the Avatamsaka (Flower Adornment)
Sutra (Dafang Guangfo Huayan Jing). This scripture is one of the longest scriptures in
Mahayana Buddhism and is often called “the king of kings of all sutras.” It is considered to

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be the epitome of Buddhist thought and contains the Buddha’s highest teachings on reality
and phenomena. In the scripture’s longest chapter entitled Entering the Dharma Realm (入法
界品 Ru Fajie Pin), Sudhana undertakes a journey to seek teachings from fifty-three spiritual
advisors in his quest for enlightenment. Along the way, he meets many great teachers and
bodhisattvas, and finally achieves Buddhahood in a single lifetime.

In later works of both Taoist and secular origins, Sudhana is said to be an acolyte of Guanyin,
and often appears in a pair with Dragon Girl Longnu) standing on either side of Guanyin in
popular Chinese art. In both the Complete Compilation of Tales of Guanyin of the South
Sea( Nanhai Guanyin Quanzhuan), a Ming dynasty novel; and the Precious Compilation of
Scrolls on Sudhana and Dragon Girl (Shancai Longnu Baozhuan), a Taoist work; the two
children are portrayed as Guanyin’s acolytes, although their stories are different.

Painting of Sudhana paying respect to Guanyin/

Sudhana meets Bodhisattva Manjushri to seek advice

The iconography of Sudhana and Dragon Girl is very similar to another popular Taoist
iconography of the Golden Youth ( Jintong) and Jade Maiden (Yunu), and it is probable that
one was influenced or derived from the other. It is also probable, but unclear if Sudhana
served as the prototype for the Wealth & Treasure Bringing Child ( Zhaocai Jinbao Tongzi)
of Taoism and popular folk religion, an assistant child deity that helps other principal wealth
deities in distributing riches and prosperity. Sudhana also should not be confused with

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the Third Prince Nazha (Nazha Santaizi), another well known child deity in Taoism and
Chinese mythology.
.
The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the final element of the experience of
Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu),
represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s earthbound base,
through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the four
galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness
(arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72
stupas and the Gandavyuha Sutra forms a major segment of the temple’s upper galleries.
The Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra (Tib. sdong po bkod pa'i mdo) is a Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of
Indian origin dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CE. The term Gaṇḍavyūha is obscure and has
been translated variously as Stem Array, Supreme Array, Excellent Manifestation. The
Sanskrit gaṇḍi can mean “stem” or “stalk” and “pieces” or “parts” or “sections,” as well as
"the trunk of a tree from the root to the beginning of the branches"). Peter Alan Roberts notes
that "as the sūtra is composed of a series of episodes in which Sudhana meets a succession of
teachers, the intended meaning could well have been 'an array of parts' or, more freely, 'a
series of episodes.' He also notes that the term gaṇḍa can also mean "great" or "supreme" in
some circumstances and thus some translators have rendered this compound as Supreme
Array.

Popular depiction of Guanyin (center) flanked by Sudhana (right) and Dragon Girl (left)

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Sudhana learning from one of the fifty-two teachers along his journey toward enlightenment. Sanskrit
manuscript,11-12th-century.

A relief of the Gandavyuha story from Borobudur 2nd level north wall ///
065 Gandavyuha relief, Level 2, North Wall Inner Wall at Borobudur//
054 Gandavyuha, Level 2, North Wall Inner Wall at Borobudur

The Chinese translations indicate that the sutra also went by another title in the 7th century
which he can be reconstructed into Sanskrit as Dharmadhātu-praveśana (Entry into
the Dharmadhatu). The sutra depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages,
and comprises the 39th chapter of the Buddhāvataṃsaka sutra. The Sutra is described as the
"Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra chronicles the journey of a disciple,
Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various teachings and Bodhisattvas until his
journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings of the Buddha.
Another Sutra that may have influenced the Borobusur design isThe last chapter of a larger
text called the Flower Garland Sutra, it relates the story of Suddhana, a youth who
commences a journey to meet fifty-three teachers while seeking the path to enlightenment.

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The concept of “path” is a central theme in the text. He eventually meets an enlightened
being (bodhisattva) named Samantabadhra. Excerpts from the larger sutra illustrate the
concepts under discussion:
“I will lead those who have lost their way to the right road. I will be a bright light for those in
the dark night, and cause the poor and destitute to uncover hidden treasures. The Bodhisattva
impartially benefits all living beings in this manner.
I vow to shut the door to evil destinies and open the right paths of humans, gods and that of
Nirvana.
Once any sentient beings see the Buddha, it will cause them to clear away habitual
obstructions. And forever abandon devilish actions: This is the path traveled by Illumination.
Sentient Beings are blinded by ignorance, always confused; the light of Buddha illuminates
the path of safety. To rescue them and cause suffering to be removed.
All sentient beings are on false paths—Buddha shows them the right path, inconceivable,
causing all worlds to be vessels of truth...”

Design with a Philosophic and spiritual underpinnings of the Buddhist religion

While the sheer size and scope of a mandala structure such as this makes the site worthy of
admiration, it is important to understand how the experience of Borobudur relates to the
philosophic and spiritual underpinnings of the Buddhist religion it reifies and commemorates.
Since its inception, roughly 2500 years ago, Buddhism has directly engaged what it sees as
the paradoxical nature of human existence. The most essential tenet the religion promulgates
is the impermanent, transient nature of existence. Transcendental wisdom via the Dharma
(the Noble Eight-Fold Path) hinges on recognizing that attachment to the idea of a fixed,
immutable “self” is a delusion.

Enlightenment entails embracing the concept of “no-self” (anattā), understood to be at the

heart of eliminating the suffering and dissatisfaction (dukkha) of sentient beings. This is the
ultimate message expressed in the sacred scriptures that are solidified in artistic magnificence
along the stone walls and railings of Borobudur. The physical movement of
circumambulating the structure symbolizes the non-physical—or spiritual—path of
enlightenment. In a real sense, then, the concept of path within Borobudur monumentalizes
the impermanent. Like a river that is never the same from moment to moment, to physically
move along the path while meditating on the spiritual message of the sutras is meant to help
one fully embrace the Buddha’s paradoxical message of impermanence.

Shakyamuni Triad in Mahayana Buddhism

What is known is that Buddhists made pilgrimages and took part in Buddhist rituals at
Borobudur during the early medieval period until the temple was abandoned at some point
during the 1400s CE. The root causes for the abandonment of Borobudur are moreover
debated, and the reasons why the temple was ultimately abandoned remains unknown. It is
known that in the 10th or 11th century CE, the capital of the Mataram Kingdom moved
eastwards away from Borobudur due to volcanic eruptions, which may have diminished
Borobudur as a center of pilgrimage. Although Arab, Persian, and Gujarati traders brought
Islam to what is present-day Indonesia as early as the 8th and 9th centuries CE, the
acceleration of Javanese conversion to Islam began to increase rapidly only in the 15th
century CE. As the Javanese population accepted Islam en masse, it makes sense that

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Borobudur would lessen in importance. Over the following centuries, earthquakes, volcanic
eruption, and rainforest growth hid Borobudur from the Javanese, rendering it inaccessible.
There is evidence, nonetheless, that Borobudur never left the collective cultural
consciousness of the Javanese people. Even after their conversion to Islam, later Javanese
stories and myths expressed the temple's association with mystery and negative energies.
In his quest for enlightenment, recounted in the last chapter of the Flower Ornament
Scripture, Sudhana would converse with a diverse array of 53 kalyāṇa-mittatā (wise
advisors), 20 of whom are female, including an enlightened prostitute named Vasumitrā,
Gautama Buddha's wife and his mother, a queen, a princess and several goddesses. Male
sages include a slave, a child, a physician, and a ship's captain. The antepenultimate master of
Sudhana's pilgrimage is Maitreya. It is here that Sudhana encounters the Tower of Maitreya,
which — along with Indra's net – is a most startling metaphor for the infinite:
In the middle of the great tower... he saw the billion-world universe... and everywhere there
was Sudhana at his feet... Thus Sudhana saw Maitreya's practices of... transcendence over
countless eons (kalpa), from each of the squares of the check board wall... In the same way
Sudhana... saw the whole supernal manifestation, was perfectly aware of it, understood it,
contemplated it, used it as a means, beheld it, and saw himself there.
The penultimate master that Sudhana visits is the Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva, the bodhisattva of
great wisdom. Thus, one of the grandest of pilgrimages approaches its conclusion by
revisiting where it began. The Gaṇḍavyūha suggests that with a subtle shift of perspective we
may come to see that the enlightenment that the pilgrim so fervently sought was not only with
him at every stage of his journey, but before it began as well—that enlightenment is not
something to be gained, but "something" the pilgrim never departed from. Fernald, Helen E..
in "A Note on the Chinese Stela of 551 A.D.." The Museum Journal XVIII, no. 1 (March,
1927): 111-114. Accessed February 07, 2023. https://www.penn.museum/sites/journal/8969/
highlights a

Chinese Votive Stela of 551 A.D regarding the Visit of Manjusri to Vimalakirti. But
Borobudur is from 750 AD and one could have inspired the other.

The final master that Sudhana visits is the bodhisattva Samantabhadra. Samantabhadra (lit.
"Universal Worthy", "All Good") is a great bodhisattva in Buddhism associated with practice

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and meditation. Together with Shakyamuni Buddha and the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, he forms
the Shakyamuni Triad in Mahayana Buddhism. He is the patron of the Lotus Sutra and,
according to the Avatamsaka Sutra, made the ten great vows which are the basis of a
bodhisattva. In Chinese Buddhism, Samantabhadra is known as Pǔxián and is associated with
action, whereas Mañjuśrī is associated with prajñā (transcendent wisdom). This Buddha
teaches him that wisdom only exists for the sake of putting it into practice; that it is only good
insofar as it benefits all living beings. Samantabhadra concludes with a prayer of aspiration to
buddhahood, which is recited by those who practice according to Atiśa's Bodhipathapradīpa,
the foundation of the lamrim textual traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.

Borobodur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was
corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it. Studies
conducted on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it shows that the
three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the
construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three
temples is linked to Mount Merapi.Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a
similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno
(Ancient Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which
excludes Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods . These studies led to an
interpretation that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples
located in the east. The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also
identifies that the three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past.
Geographically, Ngawen Temple is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no
study has been conducted revealing the association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and
Ngawen Temples in the past. To further observe the association between the four temples,
this study will focus on their location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes
that this research would provide a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding
Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in
the future.Field observation of the four temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and
Ngawen was conducted.

The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism.
Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings
surrounding it . Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples
affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from
Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in
the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river,which is, in
turn, 4 km away from Borobudur .According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and
Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic of sacred buildings
affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However the imaginary axis connecting the three temples
is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and
processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely
associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an
addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be
drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be
interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen
Temple and end in Borobudur.

The triad format composed of a Buddha and two attendants form the cult of the Dharma.
However, in accordance with the prevalence of Mahayana Buddhism, the triad format has
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Mahayana Bodhisattvas as attendants and not 2 disciples. Thereafter, the composition of the
attendant Bothisattvas in accordance with each Mahayana Buddha became fixed.
After the death of Sakyamuni who won His disciples’ and the Buddhists’ absolute worship,
the worship of Him progressed along two directions.
1. One of them, the pursuit of other Buddhas than the historic Buddha, Sakyamuni,
brought into being the cult of Buddha. At the age of Mahayana Buddhism the cult of
Buddha was widespread. Finally, this cult brought into being the religious belief that
there may be many Buddhas other than the historic Buddha, Sakyamuni.

2. The cult of the past Buddha is the belief that before the Advent of Sakyamuni there
were other Buddhas who also attained Buddhahood other than Sakyamuni. This belief
suggests that after the death of Sakyamuni other Buddhas can exist. Therefore, people
believed that not only in the past but also in the future other Buddhas than Sakyamuni
would exist.

That is, there are many Buddhas who stand for the three periods: the past, the present and the
future. Among them, Dipamkara, Sakyamuni and Maitreya are representative of the three
period Buddhas. In India a few examples of the three period Buddhas composed of them are
found in Gandhara art forms.
The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and mystery.
No records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the temple is based on
artistic comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia and elsewhere throughout
Southeast Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced arrived in what is now present-day
Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence
grew rapidly from c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders settled in
the region, intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading
relations between the indigenous Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the Javanese
blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own.

Especially digitally composed for the author by Ms. Kerry Penny,Contemporary Artist U.K.

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Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from
Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh
mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and
Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is
active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a
curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan
Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument
looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The
story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to
keep watch over his creation through the ages."

There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th
century. The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain called
Bara-Budur in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of Matara.
The Sultan sent troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him to be
executed. The Progo Valley hosts a large number of Dharmist and Buddhist temples dated
from the 8th to the 9th century. Because of this, the Progo Valley is considered the cradle of
classic Indonesian civilization. The temples in the region include as follow. Apart from
Borobudur a later temple(?) Mendut from the The 8th century is housing three large stone
statues of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.

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 THE PILGRIMAGE OF SUDHANA MIRRORS the IMMERSIVE EXPERIENCE OF
BORUBUDUR

In Buddhist art, two different ways of worshipping Shakayamuni have led to the emergence
of two types of the triad format. From the Dharma cult, due to which the Dharma (the truth)
is the essence of Buddha, has sprung the format of the Buddha surrounded by two attendants.
In the context of Mahayana Buddhism, these attendants came to be represented as Mahayana
Bodhisattvas. The Buddha cult, according to which there had been many other Buddhas
before the birth of Shakyamuni, has given rise to a format showing three Mahayana Buddhas.
They could stand for the three periods past, present and future, for three of the four directions
or the three bodies (Trikaya) of the Buddha.

Gandavyuha- Sutra: Tells the story of Sudhana a youth from India who was
seeking bodhi (enlightenment). At the behest of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, Sudhana takes a
pilgrimage on his quest for enlightenment and studies under 53 "good friends", those who
direct one towards the Way to Enlightenment. The 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō are a metaphor
for Sudhana's journey. Avalokiteśvara is the 28th spiritual master Sudhana visits at Mount
Potalaka. Sudhana's quest reaches it climax at when he meets Maitreya, the Future Buddha,
who snaps his fingers, thereby opening the doors to his marvelous tower. Within the tower,
Sudhana experiences all the dharmadhatus (dimensions or worlds) in a fantastic succession of
visions. The final master he visits is Samantabhadra, who teaches Sudhana that wisdom only
exists for the sake of putting it into practice. One should give up anger, renounce pride, and
overcome all fetters. Suffering never befalls him who clings not to mind and body and
is detached.

— Verse 221, the Dhammapada. Founded by Emperor Taizu of Song ending the Five
Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Song often came into conflict with the
contemporaneous Liao, Western Xia and Jin dynasties in northern China. After decades of
armed resistance defending southern China, it was eventually conquered by the Mongol-
led Yuan dynasty.The pilgrimage of Sudhana mirrors that of Gautama Buddha and
the Gandavyuha sutra becomes very popular in China during the Song dynasty which was

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an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279,.when it was adapted
and circulated in small amply illustrated booklets, each page dedicated to one of Sudhana's
spiritual teachers. Direct translations from the Sanskrit name Avalokitasvara in Chinese
include Guānyīn referring to the Mahāyāna bodhisattva of the same name. Another later
name for this bodhisattva is Guānzìzài. It was initially thought that the Chinese
mistransliterated the word Avalokiteśvara as Avalokitasvara which explained
why Xuanzang translated it as Guānzìzài instead of Guānyīn. However, the original form was
indeed Avalokitasvara with the ending svara ("sound, noise"), which means "sound
perceiver", literally "he who looks down upon sound" (i.e., the cries of sentient beings who
need his help). This is the exact equivalent of the Chinese translation Guānyīn. This
etymology was furthered in the Chinese by the tendency of some Chinese translators,
notably Kumārajīva, to use the variant Guānshìyīn, literally "who perceives the world's
lamentations"-wherein lok was read as simultaneously meaning both "to look" and "world"
(Sanskrit loka).

Sudhana was a youth from India who was seeking bodhi (enlightenment). At the behest of
the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, Sudhana takes a pilgrimage on his quest for enlightenment and
studies under 53 "good friends", those who direct one towards the Way to Enlightenment.
The 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō are a metaphor for Sudhana's journey. Avalokiteśvara is the
28th spiritual master Sudhana visits at Mount Potalaka. Sudhana's quest reaches it climax at
when he meets Maitreya, the Future Buddha, who snaps his fingers, thereby opening the
doors to his marvelous tower. Within the tower, Sudhana experiences all
the dharmadhatus (dimensions or worlds) in a fantastic succession of visions. The final
master he visits is Samantabhadra, who teaches Sudhana that wisdom only exists for the sake
of putting it into practice.
The pilgrimage of Sudhana mirrors that of Gautama Buddha and the Gandavyuha sutra
becomes very popular in China during the Song dynasty when it was adapted and circulated
in small amply illustrated booklets, each page dedicated to one of Sudhana's spiritual
teachers.

Tale of Guanyin and the Southern Seas : Chapter 18 of the Complete Tale of Guanyin and
the Southern Seas (,a 16th-century Ming dynasty novel, is the first text that established a
connection between Shancai and Guanyin. In the tale, Shancai was a disabled boy from India
who was very interested in studying the Buddha's teachings. At that time, Guanyin had just
achieved enlightenment and had retired to Mount Putuo, an island in the South China Sea.
When Shancai heard that there was a bodhisattva on Mount Putuo, he quickly journeyed there
to learn from her despite his disability.

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An altar for Guanyin worship.

Guanyin, after having a discussion with Shancai, decided to test his resolve to fully study the
Buddhist Dharma. She transformed the trees and plants into sword-wielding pirates, who ran
up the hill to attack them. Guanyin took off and dashed to the edge of a cliff and jumped off,
with the pirates still in pursuit. Shancai, in his desperation to save Guanyin, jumped off after
her.
Shancai and Guanyin managed to reascend the cliff, and at this point, Guanyin asked Shancai
to look down. Shancai saw his mortal remains at the foot of the cliff. Guanyin then asked him
to walk and Shancai found that he could walk normally and that he was no longer crippled.
When he looked into a pool of water, he also discovered that he now had a handsome face.
From that day onwards, Guanyin taught Shancai the entire Buddhist dharma. Guanyin and
Shancai later encountered the third daughter of the Dragon King, and in the process, Guanyin
earned Longnü as a new acolyte.
The Precious Scroll of Shancai and Longnü or Shàncái Lóngnǚ Bǎozhuàn, an 18th or 19th
century scroll comprising 29 folios, provides a different account on how Shancai and Longnü
became the acolytes of Guanyin. This tale seems to have a Taoist origin. The story is set in
the Qianfu era of the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang.
A virtuous minister Chen Bao and his wife Lady Han are still childless when they are getting
older. When Chen rejects his wife's recommendation to take a concubine, she suggested that
they pray to the bodhisattva Guanyin for help. Guanyin saw that the couple was destined to
not have any children, so she ordered a Boy Who Brings Wealth, to be born into the family.
Lady Han soon gave birth to a boy, who was named Chen Lian. She died when his son was
only five years old.

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This panorama depicts the penultimate chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, centering on Sudhana (Shàncáitóngzǐ). In the
chapter, Sudhana, in pursuit of enlightenment, goes on a pilgrimage to 53 different spiritual teachers (ranging from
non-Buddhists to Bhikkhunīs to kings to devas to Bodhisattvas and so on) of which Guanyin is one. The central statue
depicts Guanyin, the one on the right depicts Sudhana, and the rest of the figures depicts the other spiritual teachers.

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A Yuan Dynasty hanging scroll depicting Shancai (walking on waves), the Filial Parrot
(above), Guanyin and Longnü.RIGHT Kṣitigarbha

As a child, Chen Lian was not interested in civil or military pursuits, but rather, in religious
enlightenment, much to his father's disapproval. At the age of seven, his father finally gave in
to his pleas and allowed him to study under the tutelage of the Yellow Dragon Immortal.
Chen Lian was renamed to Shancai and became a dutiful apprentice of the immortal.
However, he ignored all of his father's requests to visit home during his apprenticeship.
When his father's 60th birthday approached, Shancai was once again asked to go home for a
visit. As his master was away, Shancai decided to return home since it was a special
occasion. On his way down a mountain path, he heard a voice crying out for help. Upon
investigation, he saw that it was a snake trapped in a bottle for the last 18 years. The snake
begged Shancai to release her, and after Shancai did so, she revealed her true form as a giant
serpent and wanted to eat him. When Shancai protested at the snake's behaviour, she argued
that ēn, (an act of kindness) should be repaid with a feud, as is the way of nature. However,
the snake agreed to bring the case before three judges.
The first judge was the Golden Water Buffalo Star in human form. He agreed with the snake
that given her past experiences with humans, she was right to repay Shancai's kindness by
devouring him. The Buffalo related how he was forced out of Heaven by the
1
bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha into the human world to help humans plough the fields. Kṣitigarbha
vowed that if the humans did not repay one's kindness by showing kindness in return, his
eyes would fall out. As the Buffalo landed face first on Earth, he lost all his upper front teeth.

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He later suffered greatly, and after years of toiling for his human master, he was butchered
and eaten. Because of this, Kṣitigarbha's eyes fell out and landed on Earth and transformed
into snails, which buffaloes trample on when they plough the fields.
The second judge was the Taoist master Zhuang Zhou, who also sided with the snake. He
cited an incident where he resurrected a dead man, who repaid his kindness by bringing him
to court and accusing him of stealing his money.
The third judge was a young girl. The girl told the snake that she could eat her as well if the
snake could show them how it was able to fit into the bottle she was released from. As soon
as the snake wormed itself back into the bottle, it was trapped. The girl then revealed herself
as Guanyin. When the snake begged for mercy, Guanyin told her that if she wanted to be
saved she must engage in religious exercises in the Grotto of the Sounds of the Flood
(present-day Fayu Temple) on Mount Putuo. Around this time, Guanyin also gained a new
disciple, the Filial Parrot.
Three years later, when Guanyin returned to Mount Putuo, she appeared to Shancai in the
middle of the ocean. Shancai joined her in walking across the sea and became her acolyte.
With the confirmation of his faith, Shancai's parents were reborn in Heaven. As for the snake,
she committed herself to seven years of austerity and eventually cleansed itself of venom and
produced a pearl. She transformed into Longnü and joined Shancai as an acolyte of Guanyin.

LEFT Alter of Guanyin// Longnü depicted as a female bodhisattva in China in precious scrools RIGHT

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.Kṣitigarbha - क्षितिगर्भ, is a bodhisattva primarily revered in East Asian Buddhism and usually depicted as
a Buddhist monk. His name may be translated as "Earth Treasury", "Earth Store", "Earth Matrix", or "Earth
Womb". Kṣitigarbha is known for his vow to take responsibility for the instruction of all beings in the six
worlds between the death of Gautama Buddha and the rise of Maitreya, as well as his vow not to
achieve Buddhahood until all hells are emptied. He is therefore often regarded as the bodhisattva of hell-beings,
as well as the guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture,
where he is known as Jizō or Ojizō-sama.Usually depicted as a monk with a halo around his shaved head, he
carries a staff to force open the gates of hell and a wish-fulfilling jewel to light up the darkness.

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 Dragon Girl

Painting by Thomas Elliot

Longnü (or nāgakanyā; is Sanskrit meaning daughter of the Snakes also as Dragon Girl,
along with Sudhana are considered acolytes of the bodhisattva Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara)
in Chinese Buddhism. Her presence in Guanyin's iconography was influenced by tantric
sutras celebrating the esoteric Amoghapāśa and Thousand-armed forms of Guanyin, which
mention Longnü offering Guanyin a priceless pearl in gratitude for the latter visiting the
Dragon King's palace at the bottom of the ocean to teach the inhabitants her salvific dharani.
There are no scriptural sources connecting both Sudhana and Longnü to Avalokiteśvara at the
same time. It has been suggested that the acolytes are representations of the two
major Mahāyāna texts, the Lotus Sūtra and the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, in which Longnü and
Sudhana appear, respectively.
The depiction of Longnü and Sudhana with Avalokiteśvara may have been influenced
by Yunü (Jade Maiden) and Jintong (Golden Youth) who both appear in the iconography of
the Jade Emperor. She is described as being the eight-year-old daughter of the Dragon
King- Lóng Wáng; which is King of Snakes in Sanskrit:-“ nāgarāja” of the East Sea.

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Folk Tales -Tale of the Southern Seas
A single chapter in the Complete Tale of Avalokiteśvara and the Southern Seas - Nánhǎi Guānyīn
Quánzhuàn, a sixteenth century Ming Dynasty novel is the first text that connects Longnü and
Sudhana together as being acolytes of Avalokiteśvara. When the Dragon King's third son was
out for swim in the sea in the form of a carp, he was captured by a fisherman. Unable to
transform into his dragon form due to being trapped on land, he was going to be sold and
butchered at the local market. Once Avalokiteśvara learned of his predicament, she gave Shancai
all her money and sent her disciple to buy him from the market and set him free. Because the carp
was still alive hours after it was caught, this drew a large crowd and soon a bidding war started
due to people believing that eating this fish would grant them immortality. Shancai was easily
outbid and begged the fish seller to spare the life of the fish, but to no avail and earning the scorn
of the people at the market. It was then that Avalokiteśvara projected her voice from far away
saying, "A life should definitely belong to one who tries to save it, not one who tries to take it".
The crowd realizing their mistake soon dispersed and Shancai was able to bring the carp back to
Avalokiteśvara and return it to the sea.
As a token of gratitude, the Dragon King asked Ao Guang to bring the "Pearl of Light", but his
granddaughter volunteers to go in his father's place instead. After offering the pearl to
Avalokiteśvara, she decides to stay with her and become her disciple to learn the
Buddhist Dharma.

The above short discussion is about the legand of the Sudhana and his journey towards
enlightenment. The Borobudur is also built as a BOOK. To read it one has to walk up the
monument. This travel is like a cinema. From start to “THE END”- it relates all the aspects of
Buddhism a novice needs to know so as to not exactly become enlightened but to realize
what enlightenment is- The formula or the concept of enlightenment.

Iconography for the Portrait of the Bodhisattva Guanyin In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is one who
has attained enlightenment but chooses to delay the rewards of nirvana. Instead, he or she helps
ordinary people reach enlightenment more easily and quickly. The wise and compassionate
bodhisattva known as Avalokitesvara in Sanskrit, and Guanyin in China, was frequently prayed to for
assistance. Iconography is the reading of symbols in a painting or sculpture. Be an art detective and
use the clues below to read the picture of Guanyin.

Sudhanakumara or Sudhana

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Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana or tantric Buddhism)
Sudhanakumāra (सुधनकुमार) is the name of a deity sometimes seen accompanying Mañjuśrī,
as depicted in Buddhist Iconography.—In his simplest form Mañjuśrī carries the sword in his
right hand and the Prajñāpāramitā manuscript in his left. In representations sometimes the
two symbols are placed on lotuses. Sometimes Mañjuśrī is accompanied only by Yamāri,
sometimes only by his Śakti or female counterpart, sometimes by Sudhanakumāra and
Yamāri and sometimes again by the four divinities, Jālinīprabha (also called Sūryaprabha),
Candraprabha, Keśinī and Upakeśinī. Though the last four are required to be present with
Arapacana, they are nevertheless found in others also.

The formula of Enlightenment.

According to UNESCO, the main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was
a natural centre: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone
with three circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades
are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m 2. Around the
circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha.

The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly
accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the
universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu,
and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to our
desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name and
form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At
Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five
square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa.
The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship,
related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining
Nirvana.

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The Temple should also be seen as an outstanding dynastic monument of the Syailendra
Dynasty that ruled Java for around five centuries until the 10th century.

The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and two smaller temples situatued to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The
two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable
monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose
inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three
monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana.
The temple was used as a Buddhist temple from its construction until sometime between the
10th and 15th centuries when it was abandoned. Since its re-discovery in the 19th century and
restoration in the 20th century, it has been brought back into a Buddhist archaeological site.
Criterion (i): Borobudur Temple Compounds with its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting
of ten superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome is a harmonious
marriage of stupas, temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and
monumental arts.
Criterion (ii): Borobudur Temple Compounds is an outstanding example of Indonesia’s art
and architecture from between the early 8th and late 9th centuries that exerted considerable
influence on an architectural revival between the mid-13th and early 16th centuries.
Criterion (vi): Laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur
Temple Compounds is an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of
indigenous ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten
mounting terraces of the entire structure correspond to the successive stages that the
Bodhisattva has to achieve before attaining to Buddhahood.

CREATION of the IMMERSIVE EXPERIENCE

Creating an immersive experience is no small endeavor. There are myriad opportunities to
influence your visitors’ perceptions, but they must work together in a seamless manner. Your
purpose and the story you want to tell will help guide the decisions that come after. Today the
use of technology, storytelling, and space to convey a message, educate, or entertain
transports visitors to another time and/or place. It is an opportunity to engage with
customers/Visitors/ in a unique and powerful way.

Today they have 6 Tips for Creating an Immersive Experience

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1. Know your purpose. Delivering an immersive experience is exciting. ...
2. Tell a story. ...
3. Engage the senses. ...
4. Sum of its parts
5. Personalize the experience. ...
6. Incorporate visitor interaction.

Know your purpose. Delivering an immersive experience is exciting. But to be effective,

you need to know what it is you’re trying to achieve. Are you looking to entertain? Educate?
Increase brand awareness? Understanding why you’re building an immersive experience will
help you…

Tell a story. Great content is the foundation for your immersive experience, and it shouldn’t
be taken lightly. This is your opportunity to tell a story in a way that you want it to be told—
you have control over the content as well as its delivery. Remember, a story has a beginning,
middle, and end, as well as a cast of characters. Consider what role your visitors will play in
the story, and the message you want to leave them with.

Engage the senses. The more the better. An immersive experience should evoke emotion and
imagination. The best way to do that is to incorporate the senses through details that bring the
experience to life. Sound, imagery, the temperature of the room, the smell and feel of the
air… Every detail brings visitors deeper into your story.

Sum of its parts: A successful immersive experience is the sum of its parts, and sometimes
the simplest use of technology is the best solution.

Personalize the experience. A responsive environment can help create a personalized

experience for each visitor. For example, when properly integrated, an RFID badge can
trigger a greeting in the guest’s native language while seamlessly granting them access to
various areas of a space, be it an office building, museum, or amusement park.

Incorporate visitor interaction. Involving your guest in the experience through

interaction allows them to engage in a meaningful way. This will help increase the likelihood
of buy-in and continued engagement while creating a longer lasting memory. Visitors will
have a stake in the outcome and feel empowered as an active participant as opposed to a
passive viewer.

HOW DOES BOROBUDUR CREATE THIS IMMERSIVE EXPERIENCE?

There are almost 1,300 narrative panels illustrating the life of Buddha and Buddhistic texts,
the largest and most complete collection of Buddhist relief in the world. These religious
illustrated texts consists of 6 different Mahayana Buddhist Doctrines:
KARMAVIBHANGHA, LALITAVISTARA, JATAKA, AVADANAS, GANDAVYUHA,
AND BHADRACHARI (SOEKMONO, 1976).
All of these six manuscripts are carved 2,500 meters, long of stone inscriptions on 4
consecutive galleries walls the very first engraved image of the manuscripts start from east
gate on gallery 1 circulating to the left, following round 1,2,3,------ 10, as shown.

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Table1: For every Buddhist Monks, it is Day (VESAKA DAY), and to walk around the
galleries and terraces always turning to the left & keeping the edifice to the right while either
chanting or meditating. In total, Borobudur temple represent the ten levels of a
Boddhisattav’s life which they must develop to become a perfect and full enlightenment of a
Buddha.

TABLE 1: All of 1460 Relief and Manuscript.

ROUND- RELIEF’S LOCATION – NO. OF PANELS- MANUSCRIPTS
- Hidden Basement- 160 – KARMAVIBANGGAS
- Main wall of gallery o – 1212 – DECORATIVE PANELS
1. Gallery 1, upper main wall- 120- LALITAVISTARA
2. Gallery 1, lower main wall- 120- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
3. Gallery 1, Balustrade, upper wall- 372- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
4. Gallery1, Balustrade, lower wall- 128- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
5. Gallery 2, Balustrade,- 100- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
6. Gallery 2, main wall- 128- GANDAVYUHA
7. Gallery 3, main wall- 88- GANDAVYUHA
8. Gallery 3, Balustrade- 84- GANDAVYUHA
9. Gallery 4, Balustrade- 84- GANDAVYUHA
10. Gallery 4, main wall- 72- BHADRACARI

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On the highest terrace, arupadhatu level has no relief or decoration but has 3 Sub-terraces
(balcony), circular in shape with round walls: circle without beginning or end. Here is the
place of the seventy-two Vajrasattvas or Dhyani Buddha tucked into small stupas. each of the
statues in the temple has a mudra (hand gesture) indicating one of the four directions: east,
with the mudra of calling the earth to witness (Bhumisparca mudra); South, with the hand
position symbolizing of charity and blessings (Vara mudra); west, with the gesture of
meditation (Dhyana mudra); North, the mudra of fearlessness (Abhaya mudra); and the
centre/ Zenith (DHARMACAKRA MUDRA) with land gesture of teaching.

Visitors as participants
KARMAVIBHANGHA is the first manuscript describing the doctrine of cause and effect as
well as good and evil. The pains of hell and pleasure of heaven are illustrated on the karma-
vibhanga manuscript. There are also praiseworthy activities that include charity and
pilgrimage to sanctuaries and there subsequent rewards on this relief. The complete Series of
160 panels on Karmavibhangga relief is not visible as it is hidden and surrounded by broad

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base of stone walls. Only parts of the southeast temple wall were dismantled for visitors,
which are represented by panel numbers: 19,20,21& 22.
LALITVISTARA is the second manuscript, & represent the life of Buddha Gautama from
His birth until His first sermon at Banaras. The Relief story of Lalitvistara starts from the
glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the TWSHITA HEAVEN prior to Gautam’s birth
& ends with his first serman is the Deer Park in Benares. The most famous relief on the
Lalitvistara story is the birth of Buddha as Prince Siddharta, son of king Suddhana and Queen
Maya at Lumbini Park outside the Kapilvastu city. On the full round on the first gallery
(upper main gallery) was dedicated to this manuscript with total number of 120 panels.

The 3rd script, Jatakamala or Garland of Jatakas is a collection of poems consisting of 34

Jatakas. Based on manuscript written by Aryacara in the 4 th century these Jatakas contains
stories on great deeds performed by Buddha in his former lives preparing for Buddhahood.
These episodes of reincarnations serve as example of self-sacrifice. Similar to Jatakas, 4 th
script of AVADANAS narrative is devoted for Buddha, but the main figure is not
Bodhisattva (Prince Siddharta) himself. The sainly deeds in Avadanas are attributed to other
legendary persons. Both Jatakas and Avadanas are treated in one and the same series of 720
relief panels.

The 5th and longest manuscript is described in Gandavyuha: gallery 2,3&4. Gandhavyuha,
Sometimes referred to as a Mahayana pilgrims progress. Describes Sudhana, son of a rich
merchant who meets several Bodhisattvas, in His aim to reach the highest wisdom, two of
these spiritual teachers of Bodhisattvas are Maitreya (future Buddha).

SAMANTABHADRA: The Lord of the truth in Buddhism who represents the practice and
meditation of all Buddhas. A total of 388 panels present the Gandavyuha text.

At last manuscript, Bhadrachari doctrine is represented in the 4 th gallery. It comprises panels

with the pledge of Sudhana to follow examples and teachings of the Bodhisattva
Samantabhadra. The narrative panels on Bhadrachari and with the Sudhana’s achievement of
the Supreme knowledge and the Ultimate Truth. All 72 panels on main wall of gallery 4 are
dedicated for the Bhadrachari. As a descendent of a noble family, Good wealth started a quest
of “Kingliness without and sageliness within”. This ended up in the pinnacle of the Buddhist
experience: emptiness, to be filled and overflow by the nectar of loving kindness. Apparently,
This kind of seeking by affluent youngmen is an archetypical pattern in the Buddhists lore
throughout Asia during those days.

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Stone construction details at Borobudur temple, base of platform or level. Candi Borobudur is the largest
Buddhist temple in the world.

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149
 THEMED PERSPECTIVE

From your first step to last experiencing the magic of themed perspective into Borobudur
offers the ultimate vehicle for innovations in storytelling technology and immersive
experiences that keep us all wanting more.

Even in this uncertain era and as the technological landscape reshapes, there is much to
celebrate about the innovative and impactful nature of the Stupa site and the powerful
moments and memories that lie at its core.

Leveraging Powerful Storytelling Technology that Leaves a Lasting Impact

Designers of Borubudur created a masterpiece which they knew will stun the visitor, educate
the wanderer and leave an lasting impression on the minds of all those who look at it closely.
It is great storytelling one can relate to, whether it’s about books they would have read or
even places of religion and worship they have visited.

Finding a reference that resonates with the life of the visitors is Borobudur’s key to success
as an themed entertainment experience. Forgive me for saying so and I an not being
disrespectful, but Gunadharma was himself like Sudhama when he took upon himself the
cudgels of transforming an idea that he sahed with the Srivijaya rulers and takng their
backing to see it into fruition. Attraction design, religious experience , awesome size and

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details, gigantic task to be overcome all over-whelm the visitor and all play a role, but it’s
really leaps in narrative experiences that has resulted in forging the path forward for
Borobudur as No 1 then and still No 1 now!

Narrative is at the heart of human experience, and no amount of thrill will get visitors
through the doors again and again without a story to tie it all together. Whether adapting an
existing story to the themed cinema like entertainment setting or crafting a wholly original
narrative, getting it right and making the way it’s presented has been the success factor for
the awe that Borobudur inspites in all those who visit it closely looking at it. Borobudur has
to be immersed into. If one looks at it from afar and says : “ oh wow. Big thing!” and then
goes away- Borobudur’s knockout shock is not for him because he will not have felt it.

It is only those who climg from the “Ground Floor” to the top watching the cinema of
buddhism –floor through floor will feel authentic and critical.

Visitors climbing the stairs

Having climbed the stairs, visitors reach the top but on the way they are displayed the Buddhist scriptures to
enlighten and educate them.

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Here are some strategies that Gunadharma used to create this memorable experience through
storytelling:

 Pan out and display the entirety of the story and setting to bring it to life in a way that
feels holistic.
 Think about the narrative in layers of engagement. From visitors just passing through
to the most obsessive of Buddhism fans, everyone needs to identify with and
understand the story you’re looking to tell.
 Use of carvings, statutes, Balustrades, stairs, passages all technology of those days to
enlighten and entertain but not to become the STAR.
 Consideration of the location and region of the structure. Giving the visitor or
“audience” more information to truly be immersed in the story step by step.

No narrative or memorable experience reaches its full impact without immersion:

When guests take in themed entertainment they want to be transported. They want to be fully
immersed in the world that has been created, not feel like they’re an outsider looking in at the
fun. The quickest way to ensure immersion is to engage and surround the guest with the
experience, not have them simply watch it unfold on a screen or in person before them. At the
same time, however, immersion can also be broken by “technology” that’s too overbearing
and in the guests’ face. The goal should be to integrate technological solutions into the world
that has been created in such a way that the visitor never knows it’s there, yet feels its impact
at all time.

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To achieve this, it’s critical to work in delivering end-to-end, holistic strategies and plans that
result in powerful experiences. They did not think it enough to simply throw the
“technology” into a space – it was thoroughly integrated into the very bones of the physical
location and narrative atmosphere.

The idea of “We are all SUDHANAS”

Education as Key to liberation according to Buddhism: Buddhism is an unworldly tradition

and way of life that originated to teach people to appreciate life as it in a more meaningful way
that leads to inner satisfaction and peace. They all follow the basic path and teach simple tenets
that guide mankind to attain perfect enlightement and peace just like Lord Buddha. It aspires
human beings to live in complete harmony with utmost kindness, sincerity and generosity.
Doing so involves training one’s mind to gain complete control over their thoughts and actions.
Buddhism preaches to rely upon one’s own inner strength than external factors and it can be done
at any moment of time, all a person needs is absolute determination and strong will to transform
any situation good or worst. As, if we wait for better time to come on their own, we will never
begin to find right motivation to practise Dharma. The greatest purpose of life, as per Lord
Buddha was to provide a means of liberation and enlightenment to fellow human beings. And this
can be achieved by gaining control over the mind. Explore more about the Path of Buddhism and
educate yourself with its simple yet powerful wisdom teachings!

Borobudur is said to have been built by King Samaratungga, one of the kings of the old
Mataram Kingdom, the descendants of the Sailendra dynasty. Based on Kayumwungan
inscription, an Indonesian named Hudaya Kandahjaya had a revelation in which he was told
that Borobudur had once been a place for prayer that was supposed to be completed on 26
May 824, almost one hundred years after the construction had started. The name of
Borobudur, as some people say, means a mountain having terraces (budhara), while other
says that Borobudur means monastery on a high place.

The carved panels are all on the walls of the terraces. In order to see them, as I mentioned
earlier, one has to climb the stairs of each of the terraces and then do a pradikshina or
circumambulation in a clockwise direction round it. This is the correct way to discover the
beauties of the temple and also derive maximum spiritual benefit. Each terrace has its own
panels showing how skillful the sculptors were. Some of these panels tell the legendary story
of the Ramayana. Besides these, there are panels depicting the condition of the society at that
time. Some show farmers working in the fields and some show sailors in boats, thus giving
us a glimpse of the advanced state of the navigation techniques of that age.

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java,
from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also
depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular
architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier,
soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual
beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and
apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research
for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also
mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia.

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Borubudur is a movie in stone. Gunadharma is the director, Sudana is the main character and
Buddha is the real hero. As one walks through each narrow passage in Borobudur with a
competent guide one canl come to know much of the philosophy of Buddhism. Atisha, a
Buddhist monk from India in the tenth century once visited this temple that was built 3
centuries before Angkor Wat in Cambodia and 4 centuries before the Grand Cathedrals in
Europe. After gathering a lot of information from these reliefs he returned to India and started
another sect known as Vikramashila Buddhism. Later he became the leader of the
Vikramashila monastery and became a teacher in Tibet. Six scripts from Serlingpa were then
summarized as the core of the teaching called "The Lamp for the Path to
Enlightenment" known as Bodhipathapradipa. The function of arts to their culture of
Borobudur Temple is that it blends geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents
toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a
physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of
consciousness.

The sculpture of the panels must have left him, just as you and me, spellbound. Buddha’s
dictum was that karma or action alone decides our life both now and in there hereafter. The
mystery of why the temple was constructed in the first place and how it was buried for
centuries is still not clear.

In that sense we, the visitor, the novice, the aspirant, student, fledgling, members of the
sangha, the Buddhist monastic order, traditionally composed of four groups: monks, nuns,
laymen, and laywomen,the explorer, theseeker of entertainment and the seeker of
enlightenment

- We are all SUDHANAS: “The Buddhist way of life as modeled by the Buddha’s life story
and as delineated in the Borobudur’s allegory of good wealth, provide us with an archetypical
template illustrating that leading an affluent life might pave the way to extening a quest for
life’s meaning. Living in relative comfort, or even perhaps in “princely” circumstances,
middle class people all over the world are in principal all Sudhanas who are ready to seek and
learn what life is about, and to start on a profound inner journey of discovering wisdom.

Adhering to the message of the BOROBUDUR, relational Buddhism submits that the
wisdom of sustainable happiness amidst adversity is largely an intrapersonal equilibrating

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experience of relationship and an ephiphenomenon of harmonious interpersonal interactivity-
of being genuinely kind, compassionate, and joyful in a mutually balanced togetherness and
Individual don’t exist independently from one another, but rely on interconnectness and
interdependence for this very survival.

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 Chapter 8
Borobudur as a Vihara
Vihara, early type of Buddhist monastery consisting of an open court surrounded by open
cells accessible through an entrance porch. The viharas in India were originally constructed
to shelter the monks during the rainy season, when it became difficult for them to lead the
wanderer’s life. They took on a sacred character when small stupas (housing sacred relics)
and images of the Buddha were installed in the central court.
A clear idea of their plan can be obtained from examples in western India, where the viharas
were often excavated into the rock cliffs. This tradition of rock-cut structures spread along
the trade routes of Central Asia (as at Bamiyan, Afghanistan), leaving many splendid
monuments rich in sculpture and painting (the statues in Afghanistan were destroyed in 2001
by the country’s ruling Taliban).
As the communities of monks grew, great monastic establishments (mahaviharas,
“great viharas”) developed that consisted of clusters of viharas and associated stupas and
temples. Renowned centres of learning, or universities, grew up at Nalanda, in present-
day Bihar state, during the 5th to 12th centuries and at Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, in
the 3rd–4th centuries.
Vihāra

Kanha Cave vihara in the Nasik Caves, 1st century BCE, is one of the earliest]/5th century
Cave 4 at the Ajanta Caves with a Buddha statue in the centre shrine cell.

Buddhism had arrived in the Indonesian archipelago from the India subcontinent and began
with trading along the sea routes during the second century. Around the 9th century, the
rulers of the Sailendra Dynasty built the Buddhist temple in Java. The Chandi Borobudur had
unique connotations of Buddha statues with mudras, stupas, sculptural reliefs, and ornamental
motifs, these were combined successfully. And the temple was decorated brilliantly with
traditional Javanese arts with the influence of Hindu elements.

Many Buddhist stupas, pagodas and temples contain relics such as the hair relics of Buddha,
statues and the Buddhist credos enshrined in the chamber. The Borobudur’s main stupa had
two empty chambers, one above the other, and now there is nothing inside it. According to

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scholar panhtwa myosein in Cultural Evidence of the Buddha at the Borobudur Presentation,
https://www.academia.edu/50467609/Cultural_Evidence_of_the_Buddha_at_the_Borobud
ur_Presentation_University_of_Sydney_pdf) though Borobudur frescos depict acts of
Gautama Buddha in his life until he attains Nivana and focus on the Borobudur’s crowning
stupa the questain remains? Did Borobudur’s central dome contain the relics as a concept of
the Buddhist stupa? If it did, what’s inside the inner chambers of the central stupa?
If it didn’t, the inner chambers of the main stupa are supposed to be empty.

Vihāra generally refers to a Buddhist monastery for Buddhist renunciates, mostly in

the Indian subcontinent. The concept is ancient and in early Sanskrit and Pali texts, it meant
any arrangement of space or facilities for dwellings . The term evolved into an architectural
concept wherein it refers to living quarters for monks with an open shared space or courtyard,
particularly in Buddhism. The term is also found in Ajivika, Hindu and Jain monastic
literature, usually referring to temporary refuge for wandering monks or nuns during the
annual Indian monsoons.[2][4][5] In modern Jainism, the monks continue to wander from town
to town except during the rainy season (Chaturmas), and the term "vihara" refers to their
wanderings.[6][7]
Vihara or vihara hall has a more specific meaning in the architecture of India, especially
ancient Indian rock-cut architecture. Here it means a central hall, with small cells connected
to it, sometimes with beds carved from the stone. Some have a shrine cell set back at the
centre of the back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later.
Typical large sites such as the Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Karli Caves, and Kanheri
Caves contain several viharas. Some included a chaitya or worship hall nearby. The vihara
originated as a shelter for monks when it rains.

Vallimalai Jain caves are located in Vallimalai village in Katpadi taluk of Vellore district, Tamil
Nadu.

Inscriptions below the Jain sculptures inside the cave

Vallimalai Jain caves contains natural caverns that were inhabited by Digambar monks in early historic period.
The monks from Bihar used to come here during the late-maurya period. The smooth and polished beds were
carved during the rule of Satavahana dynasty. A total of five inscription are found with one of the inscriptions
dating back to 8th century. The Jain carvings were created during the reign of Ganga King Rachamalla II in c.
870 CE after conquest of this region from Chola kings. An inscription, below the sculptures, states the name of
Devasena of Bana Kingdom along with his Jain monks Bhavanandin and Aryanandin.
Vallaimalai was an important Jain center during 8th-9th century.

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 Jain sculpture
Vallimalai is an important Jain site with several carvings of sculptures of tirthankara. The caverns is 40 by
20 feet (12.2 m × 6.1 m) with height varying between 7–10 feet (2.1–3.0 m). There is also a temple in the
region which was converted to a Hindu temple. The caves consist of three chambers, two of these
chambers contain images of Jain tirthankar. Above this group, there are the remains of a wall, believed to
have been a small fort occupied by Jains. A torana is found above Jain images similar to carvings
of Badami cave temples.
The Jain sculpture are engraved on two spots, one on the norther side of Murugan temple and second on
the southern side, with one sculpture with superhuman dimensions. There is an image
of Ambika in sukhasana position wearing a necklace, armbands, and crown. Ambika is depicted sitting on
a lion with carvings of her two sons below her pedestal. There is also image of Padmavati with 4 hands,
holding goad and noose in upper right and left hands.

Vihāra is a Sanskrit word that appears in several Vedic texts with context-sensitive meanings.
It generally means a form of "distribution, transposition, separation, arrangement", either of
words or sacred fires or sacrificial ground. Alternatively, it refers to a form of wandering
roaming, any place to rest or please oneself or enjoy one's pastime in, a meaning more
common in late Vedic texts, the Epics and grhyasutras.

Its meaning in the post-Vedic era is more specifically a form of rest house, temple or
monastery in ascetic traditions of India, particularly for a group of monks. [2] It particularly
referred to a hall that was used as a temple or where monks met and some walked about. [2]
[11]
In the context of the performative arts, the term means the theatre, playhouse, convent or
temple compound to meet, perform or relax in. Later it referred to a form of temple or
monastery construction in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, wherein the design has a central
hall and attached separated shrines for residence either for monks or for gods, goddesses and
some sacred figure such as Tirthankaras, Gautama Buddha, or a guru. The word means
a Jain or Hindu temple or "dwelling, waiting place" in many medieval era inscriptions and
texts, from vi-har which means "to construct".

It contrasts with Sanskrit: araṇya or Punjabi: arañña, which means "forest".In medieval era,
the term meant any monastery, particularly for Buddhist monks. Matha is another term for
monastery in Indian religious tradition,[13] today normally used for Hindu establishments.
The northern Indian state of Bihar derives its name from vihāra due to the abundance of
Buddhist monasteries in that area. The word has also been borrowed in Malay as biara,
denoting a monastery or other non-Muslim place of worship. It is called a wihan in Thai,
and vĭhéar in Khmer.

Viharas as pleasure centers

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During the 3rd-century BCE era of Ashoka, vihara yatras were travel stops aimed at
enjoyments, pleasures and hobbies such as hunting. These contrasted with dharma
yatras which related to religious pursuits and pilgrimage. [3] After Ashoka converted to
Buddhism, states Lahiri, he started dharma yatras around mid 3rd century BCE instead of
hedonistic royal vihara yatras.

Viharas as monasteries
The early history of viharas is unclear. Monasteries in the form of caves are dated to centuries
before the start of the common era, for Ajivikas, Buddhists and Jainas. The rock-cut
architecture found in cave viharas from the 2nd-century BCE have roots in the Maurya
Empire period.[15] In and around the Bihar state of India are a group of residential cave
monuments all dated to be from pre-common era, reflecting the Maurya architecture. Some of
these have Brahmi script inscription which confirms their antiquity, but the inscriptions were
likely added to pre-existing caves. The oldest layer of Buddhist and Jain texts mention
legends of the Buddha, the Jain Tirthankaras or sramana monks living in caves.[15][16][17] If
these records derived from an oral tradition accurately reflect the significance of monks and
caves in the times of the Buddha and the Mahavira, then cave residence tradition dates back
to at least the 5th century BCE. According to Allchin and Erdosy, the legend of First
Buddhist Council is dated to a period just after the death of the Buddha. It mentions monks
gathering at a cave near Rajgiri, and this dates it in pre-Mauryan times. However, the square
courtyard with cells architecture of vihara, state Allchin and Erdosy, is dated to the Mauryan
period. The earlier monastic residences of Ajivikas, Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains were likely
outside rock cliffs and made of temporary materials and these have not survived.

The earliest known gift of immovable property for monastic purposes ever recorded in an
Indian inscription is credited to Emperor Ashoka, and it is a donation to the Ajivikas.
[19]
According to Johannes Bronkhorst, this created competitive financial pressures on all
traditions, including the Hindu Brahmins. This may have led to the development of viharas as
shelters for monks, and evolution in the Ashrama concept to agraharas or Hindu
monasteries. These shelters were normally accompanied by donation of revenue from villages
nearby, who would work and support these cave residences with food and services. The Karle
inscription dated to the 1st century CE donates a cave and nearby village, states Bronkhorst,
"for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at Valuraka [Karle] without any distinction
of sect or origin". Buddhist texts from Bengal, dated to centuries later, use the term asrama-
vihara or agrahara-vihara for their monasteries.

Cave 12, Ellora, a late multi-story rock-cut vihara. Further decoration of the pillars was probably intende/Plan of
cave 1 at Ajanta, a large vihara hall for prayer and living, 5th century

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Buddhist viharas or monasteries may be described as a residence for monks, a centre for
religious work and meditation and a centre of Buddhist learning. Reference to five kinds of
dwellings (Pancha Lenani) namely, Vihara, Addayoga, Pasada, Hammiya and Guha is found
in the Buddhist canonical texts as fit for monks. Of these only the Vihara (monastery)
and Guha (Cave) have survived.

At some stage of Buddhism, like other Indian religious traditions, the wandering monks of
the Sangha dedicated to asceticism and the monastic life, wandered from place to place.
During the rainy season (cf. vassa) they stayed in temporary shelters. In Buddhist theology
relating to rebirth and merit earning, it was considered an act of merit not only to feed a monk
but also to shelter him, sumptuous monasteries were created by rich lay devotees.

The only substantial remains of very early viharas are in the rock-cut complexes, mostly in
north India, the Deccan in particular, but this is an accident of survival. Originally structural
viharas of stone or brick would probably have been at least as common everywhere, and the
norm in the south. By the second century BCE a standard plan for a vihara was established;
these form the majority of Buddhist rock-cut "caves". It consisted of a roughly square
rectangular hall, in rock-cut cases, or probably an open court in structural examples, off
which there were a number of small cells. Rock-cut cells are often fitted with rock-cut
platforms for beds and pillows. The front wall had one or more entrances, and often
a verandah. Later the back wall facing the entrance had a fairly small shrine-room, often
reached through an ante-chamber. Initially these held stupas, but later a large
sculpted Buddha image, sometimes with reliefs on the walls. The verandah might also have
sculpture, and in some cases the walls of the main hall. Paintings were perhaps more
common, but these rarely survive, except in a few cases such as Caves 2, 10, 11 and 17 at
the Ajanta Caves. As later rock-cut viharas are often on up to three storeys, this was also
probably the case with the structural ones

As the vihara acquired a central image, it came to take over the function of the chaitya
worship hall, and eventually these ceased to be built. This was despite the rock-cut vihara
shrine room usually offering no path for circumambulation or pradakshina, an important
ritual practice.[21]
In early medieval era, Viharas became important institutions and a part of
Buddhist Universities with thousands of students, such as Nalanda. Life in "Viharas" was
codified early on. It is the object of a part of the Pali canon, the Vinaya Pitaka or "basket of
monastic discipline". Shalban Vihara in Bangladesh is an example of a structural monastery
with 115 cells, where the lower parts of the brick-built structure have been
excavated. Somapura Mahavihara, also in Bangladesh, was a larger vihara, mostly 8th-
century, with 177 cells around a huge central temple.

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Cave 12, Ajanta Caves, cell entries off a vihara hall//Mahabodhi Temple in India.

Variants in rock-cut viharas

Usually the standard form as described above is followed, but there are some variants. Two
vihara halls, Cave 5 at Ellora and Cave 11 at Kanheri, have very low platforms running most
of the length of the main hall. These were probably used as some combination of benches or
tables for dining, desks for study, and possibly beds. They are often termed "dining-hall" or
the "Durbar Hall" at Kanheri, on no good evidence.

Cave 11 at the Bedse Caves is a fairly small 1st-century vihara, with nine cells in the interior
and originally four around the entrance, and no shrine room. It is distinguished by
elaborate gavaksha and railing relief carving around the cell-doors, but especially by having a
rounded roof and apsidal far end, like a chaitya hall.
The earliest Buddhist rock-cut cave abodes and sacred places are found in the western
Deccan dating back to the 3rd century BCE. These earliest rock-cut caves include the Bhaja
Caves, the Karla Caves, and some of the Ajanta Caves.

Vihara with central shrine containing devotional images of the Buddha, dated to about the
2nd century CE are found in the northwestern area of Gandhara, in sites such
as Jaulian, Kalawan (in the Taxila area) or Dharmarajika, which states Behrendt, possibly
were the prototypes for the 4th century monasteries such as those at Devnimori in Gujarat.
This is supported by the discovery of clay and bronze Buddha statues, but it is unclear if the
statue is of a later date. According to Behrendt, these "must have been the architectural
prototype for the later northern and western Buddhist shrines in the Ajanta
Caves, Aurangabad, Ellora, Nalanda, Ratnagiri and other sites".

The early stone viharas mimicked the timber construction that likely preceded them.
Inscriptional evidence on stone and copper plates indicate that Buddhist viharas were often
co-built with Hindu and Jain temples. The Gupta Empire era witnessed the building of
numerous viharas, including those at the Ajanta Caves.Some of these viharas and temples
though evidenced in texts and inscriptions are no longer physically found, likely destroyed in
later centuries by natural causes or due to war. Devotional worship of Buddha is traceable,
for example, to Bharhut Buddhist monuments dated between 2nd and 1st century BCE.
The Krishna or Kanha Cave (Cave 19) at Nasik has the central hall with connected cells, and
it is generally dated to about the 1st century BCE.

Viharas as a source of major Buddhist traditions

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Viharas found at Thotlakonda// The ruins of Shalvan Vihara, the Buddhist monastery that
operated between 7th-12th century in what is now Mainamati, Bangladesh.

As more people joined Buddhist monastic sangha, the senior monks adopted a code of
discipline which came to be known in the Pali Canon as the Vinaya texts These texts are
mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha. The rules are preceded by stories telling how
the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to
the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various
behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. Each major early Buddhist tradition
had its own variant text of code of discipline for vihara life. Major vihara appointed a vihara-
pala, the one who managed the vihara, settled disputes, determined sangha's consent and
rules, and forced those hold-outs to this consensus.

Three early influential monastic fraternities are traceable in Buddhist history. [32] The
Mahavihara established by Mahinda was the oldest. Later, in 1st century BCE, King
Vattagamani donated the Abhayagiri vihara to his favored monk, which led the Mahavihara
fraternity to expel that monk. In 3rd century CE, this repeated when King Mahasena donated
the Jetavana vihara to an individual monk, which led to his expulsion. The Mahinda
Mahavihara led to the orthodox Theravada tradition. The Abhayagiri vihara monks, rejected
and criticized by the orthodox Buddhist monks, were more receptive to heterodox ideas and
they nurtured the Mahayana tradition. The Jetavana vihara monks vacillated between the two
traditions, blending their ideas.

Viharas of the Pāla era

A range of monasteries grew up during the Pāla period in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar)
and Bengal. According to Tibetan sources, five great mahaviharas stood out: Vikramashila,
the premier university of the era; Nalanda, past its prime but still
illustrious, Somapura, Odantapurā, and Jagaddala. According to Sukumar Dutt, the five
monasteries formed a network, were supported and supervised by the Pala state. Each of the
five had their own seal and operated like a corporation, serving as centers of learning.[35]
Other notable monasteries of the Pala Empire were Traikuta, Devikota (identified with
ancient Kotivarsa, 'modern Bangarh'), and Pandit Vihara. Excavations jointly conducted by
the Archaeological Survey of India and University of Burdwan in 1971–1972 to 1974–1975
yielded a Buddhist monastic complex at Monorampur, near Bharatpur via Panagarh Bazar in
the Bardhaman district of West Bengal. The date of the monastery may be ascribed to the
early medieval period. Recent excavations at Jagjivanpur (Malda district, West Bengal)
revealed another Buddhist monastery (Nandadirghika-Udranga Mahavihara) of the ninth
century.
Nothing of the superstructure has survived. A number of monastic cells facing a rectangular
courtyard have been found. A notable feature is the presence of circular corner cells. It is

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believed that the general layout of the monastic complex at Jagjivanpur is by and large
similar to that of Nalanda. Beside these, scattered references to some monasteries are found
in epigraphic and other sources. Among them Pullahari (in western Magadha), Halud
Vihara (45 km south of Paharpur), Parikramana vihara and Yashovarmapura vihara (in Bihar)
deserve mention. Other important structural complexes have been discovered
at Mainamati (Comilla district, Bangladesh). Remains of quite a few viharas have been
unearthed here and the most elaborate is the Shalban Vihara. The complex consists of a fairly
large vihara of the usual plan of four ranges of monastic cells round a central court, with a
temple in cruciform plan situated in the centre. According to a legend on a seal (discov

Southeast Asia

\
Vihara, locally called wihan, of Wat Chedi Luang in Northern Thailand
As Buddhism spread in Southeast Asia, monasteries were built by local kings. The
term vihara is still sometimes used to refer to the monasteries/temples, also known as wat,
but in Thailand it also took on a narrower meaning referring to certain buildings in the temple
complex. The wihan is a building, apart from the main ubosot (ordination hall) in which a
Buddha image is enshrined.[37] In many temples, the wihan serves as a sermon hall or an
assembly hall where ceremonies, such as the kathina, are held.Many of these Theravada
viharas feature a Buddha image that is considered sacred after it is formally consecrated by
the monks.[38]

Entrance to a vihara hall at Kanheri Caves// Wall carvings at Kanheri Caves

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Simple slab abode beds in vihara at Kanheri Caves/ Doorways of a Vihara, Bedse Caves

Viharas were for the purpose of living, Chaityas were assemblies for the purpose of
discussions. Further, Chaityas were with Stupas, Viharas did not have stupas.
Both early Chaityas and Viharas were made by woods and later stone-cut Chaityas and
Viharas were made. Chaitya was a rectangular prayer hall with a stupa placed in the centre,
the purpose was prayer. The Chaitya was divided into three parts, and had an apsidal ending,
that is, a semicircular rear end, The central part of the hall (also called the nave) was
separated from the two aisles by two rows of pillars, The chaityas also had polished interior
walls, semicircular roofs and horse-shoe shaped windows called the Chaitya windows.
Viharas were the residences of the monks.

Borobudur relief

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 Chapter 9
The 5 of Borobudur
One should give up anger, renounce pride, and overcome all fetters. Suffering never befalls
him who clings not to mind and body and is detached.

— Verse 221, the Dhammapada[

Education as Key to liberation according to Buddhism: Buddhism is an unworldly tradition
and way of life that originated to teach people to appreciate life as it in a more meaningful way
that leads to inner satisfaction and peace. They all follow the basic path and teach simple tenets
that guide mankind to attain perfect enlightement and peace just like Lord Buddha. It aspires
human beings to live in complete harmony with utmost kindness, sincerity and generosity.
Doing so involves training one’s mind to gain complete control over their thoughts and actions.
Buddhism preaches to rely upon one’s own inner strength than external factors and it can be done
at any moment of time, all a person needs is absolute determination and strong will to transform
any situation good or worst. As, if we wait for better time to come on their own, we will never
begin to find right motivation to practise Dharma. The greatest purpose of life, as per Lord
Buddha was to provide a means of liberation and enlightenment to fellow human beings. And this
can be achieved by gaining control over the mind. Explore more about the Path of Buddhism and
educate yourself with its simple yet powerful wisdom teachings!

Borobudur is said to have been built by King Samaratungga, one of the kings of the old
Mataram Kingdom, the descendants of the Sailendra dynasty. Based on Kayumwungan
inscription, an Indonesian named Hudaya Kandahjaya had a revelation in which he was told
that Borobudur had once been a place for prayer that was supposed to be completed on 26
May 824, almost one hundred years after the construction had started. The name of
Borobudur, as some people say, means a mountain having terraces (budhara), while other
says that Borobudur means monastery on a high place.

Borubudur is a movie in stone. Gunadharma its architect is the director, Sudana is the main
character and Buddha is the real hero. As one walks through each narrow passage in

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Borobudur with a competent guide one canl come to know much of the philosophy of
Buddhism. Atisha, a Buddhist monk from India in the tenth century once visited this temple
that was built 3 centuries before Angkor Wat in Cambodia and 4 centuries before the Grand
Cathedrals in Europe. After gathering a lot of information from these reliefs he returned to
India and started another sect known as Vikramashila Buddhism. Later he became the leader
of the Vikramashila monastery and became a teacher in Tibet. Six scripts from Serlingpa
were then summarized as the core of the teaching called "The Lamp for the Path to
Enlightenment" known as Bodhipathapradipa. The function of arts to their culture of
Borobudur Temple is that it blends geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents
toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a
physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of
consciousness.

The carved panels are all on the walls of the terraces. In order to see them, as I mentioned
earlier, one has to climb the stairs of each of the terraces and then do a pradikshina or
circumambulation in a clockwise direction round it. This is the correct way to discover the
beauties of the temple and also derive maximum spiritual benefit. Each terrace has its own
panels showing how skillful the sculptors were. Some of these panels tell the legendary story
of the Ramayana. Besides these, there are panels depicting the condition of the society at that
time. Some show farmers working in the fields and some show sailors in boats, thus giving
us a glimpse of the advanced state of the navigation techniques of that age.

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java,
from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also
depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular
architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier,
soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual
beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and
apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research
for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also
mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia.

The sculpture of the panels must have left him, just as you and me, spellbound. Buddha’s
dictum was that karma or action alone decides our life both now and in there hereafter. The
mystery of why the temple was constructed in the first place and how it was buried for
centuries is still not clear.
In that sense we, the visitor, the novice, the aspirant, student, fledgling, members of the
sangha, the Buddhist monastic order, traditionally composed of four groups: monks, nuns,
laymen, and laywomen,the explorer, theseeker of entertainment and the seeker of
enlightenment

- We are all SUDHANAS: “The Buddhist way of life as modeled by the Buddha’s life story
and as delineated in the Borobudur’s allegory of good wealth, provide us with an archetypical
template illustrating that leading an affluent life might pave the way to extening a quest for
life’s meaning. Living in relative comfort, or even perhaps in “princely” circumstances,

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middle class people all over the world are in principal all Sudhanas who are ready to seek and
learn what life is about, and to start on a profound inner journey of discovering wisdom.
Adhering to the message of the BOROBUDUR, relational Buddhism submits that the
wisdom of sustainable happiness amidst adversity is largely an intrapersonal equilibrating
experience of relationship and an ephiphenomenon of harmonious interpersonal interactivity-
of being genuinely kind, compassionate, and joyful in a mutually balanced togetherness and
Individual don’t exist independently from one another, but rely on interconnectness and
interdependence for this very survival.

The Borobudur is a mixture between art and spiritual wisdom in the three-dimensional
mandala. The Borobodur is big, in the form of a mandala; it has extensive reliefs on 7 levels
(or five depending on how they are counted) with the intention of guiding us (using the life of
the Buddha) through life to harmony with people, nature and God until enlightenment.

It is a portrait of life in all its activity both permanently and continuous with all its
connotations thus becoming an enshrinement, a book about the path to that absolute peace
that comes with self-realization or enlightenment. We just need to be able to read “the book”.
Furthermore the book includes each pilgrim and his inner struggle.

This Cosmologoical science rests on a global concept. Whether in Buddhist philosophy or

any other philosophy of India or indeed the world - the starting point of wisdom is to realize
that we perceive the world through our five senses. What we perceive are five different
energy fields, with different characteristics, issues, benefits and problems. They are the
observable manifestations on the gross level of a variety of processes from the subtle to the
gross and are better known as the Five Elements. The entire cosmos, including us, is made of
these five energy fields. This means the Stupa can be looked upon as a representation of the
cosmos, or indeed the human “body, mind, spirit entity”. Both cosmos and man are then
expressed in the five primary levels and the 5 directions of the stupa (East, South, West,
North and Zenith).

Some wisdom teachings say that we as human beings have evolved five instruments of
perception in order to “compute” these five fields of energy we call: earth, water, fire, air and
space.

These five fields of energy (solidity, fluidity, trans-formation and transcendence,

discrimination and movement, creativity and source spirituality) are manifesting the entire
creation including ourselves; hence they are the “building blocks of creation” (as much as the
building blocks of Borobodur) and can be found across the globe in all manner of knowledge
from medicine to art, architecture to music, martial art to astrology…and spiritual wisdom!

Buddhist teachings, especially in the Mahayana tradition, makes ample use of these Elements
(aggregates and skandas). The Venerable Thich Nhat Hahn lets Buddha himself explain to his
son Rahul what to learn from and how to harmonize these 5 powers (in the biography of
Buddha: Old Path White Clouds).

The Tibetan Book of the Dead has many references of dissolution to the same. Furthermore
all suffering is understood to come from the ignorance, i.e not understanding the temporary,
ever changing and ever interacting nature of the five, which results in attachment and

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distortions which in turn are the cause not just of emotional suffering, but actual physical
illness.

Moreover Buddhism uses these energies in its psychology and typology of human nature
talking of “families” displaying certain behavior and tendencies. (Vajra/ Buddha/ Ratna/
Padma/ Karma).

In Yoga we know of the five koshas, the five chakras which have their origin in the same
observation.

Encoded into the stupa mandala of Borobodur is a very detailed map of human
consciousness, from its grossest and most impulsive state- up through successive higher
levels of purity until it reaches the pinnacle of human development-full enlightenment and
awakening of the Buddha mind. The way this is done in the stupa is placing one specific
symbolic Buddha in each direction, as well as dedicating each level to one of the elements
and embodying their wisdom in the form of a Meditation (Dhyan) Buddha.

These Meditation symbols are called Dhyani Buddhas.

Symbolic Dhyani Cardina Location of

Statue Mudra
meaning Buddha l Point the Statue

Rupadhatu niche
Bhumisparsa Calling the s on the first four
Aksobhya East
mudra Earth to witness eastern
balustrades

Rupadhatu niche
Benevolence, Ratnasambhav s on the first four
Vara mudra South
alms giving a southern
balustrades

Rupadhatu niche
Dhyana Concentration s on the first four
Amitabha West
mudra and meditation western
balustrades

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 Symbolic Dhyani Cardina Location of
Statue Mudra
meaning Buddha l Point the Statue

Rupadhatu niche
Courage, s on the first four
Abhaya mudra Amoghasiddhi North
fearlessness northern
balustrades

Rupadhatu niche
s in all directions
Reasoning and
Vitarka mudra Vairochana Zenith on the fifth
virtue
(uppermost)
balustrade

Arupadhatu in 72
Turning the perforated stupas
Dharmachakr Wheel on three rounded
Vairochana Zenith platforms
a mudra of dharma (law
)

These Buddhas represent energies with certain tendencies, that we have to work through and
they help bringing harmony into these within ourselves and the world. They seem at
first glance all looking the same, but their energy-field and their wisdom teaching, in fact
their healing power lies in their respective placement and mudra.

Furthermore the reliefs on each level show and support this inner work with stories from the
life of Buddha (which usually are what attracts attention).So after the base plinth (the first
undecorated level), we find the grosser world represented, with the levels of Earth and Water
respectively illustrated with the Dhyani Buddha Akshobya and Ratnasambhava.

Akshobya, (belonging to the Vajra family) facing east - is portrait with the mudra of
witnessing, or rather calling upon the earth to witness the process, (bhumiparsha). He
himself represents the energy of Water; whereas Ratnasambhava (belonging to the Ratna
family) represents the energy of Earth (facing South) with the Mudra of supreme giving
(wealth and support which the earth provides); the gesture of varada.Many details are
enshrined and associated with these simingly simple facts; such as, for example: colors are
energy vibrations, so each Buddha has a color – even though there is no color! Each Buddha
brings a certain type of wisdom and healing. In this way Akshobya is associated with blue
and wisdom that mirrors the facts of the world and Ratnasambhava with yellow, and the
wisdom needed to recognize sameness, thus providing stability.

Akshobya

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Akshobya associated with the water energy points to the constant flow and change, which
brings uncertainty and fear; hence the issues we have to face on this first level are associated
with safety and security in the world; amongst the chaos of the physical world we have to
find our place. We live with the illusion that we find that by identifying with the gross
physical body. From here derives the will to live and stand up for ourselves. A focus on the
material world results from this.

As we experience the gross world basically through the senses in this context /on this level
we experience much pleasure and pain.

Akshobya encourages us to find the needed security in ourselves rather than the outside
world, and asks us to overcome hatred, lust, anger, greed and delusion. He offers to help us
overcome the emphasis on the physical, material world and learn instead to give and receive.

Many of us are stuck on this first level to more or less degree; we need help. Imbalances and
stagnation in this energy-field can eventually lead even to physical illnesses (lower back-
pain, gynecological and urinary track problems, rectal tumors and cancer and also depression,
etc.), but Akshobya can help.

These Dhyani Buddhas are looked upon as healers and guides and we can call upon these
with seed-syllables and mantras. For Akshobya the seed syllable is Hum (or bam in some
context) and the mantra: om vajra akshobya hum.

(All disturbing energies, on all five levels can be let –go-of, balanced also with the
mantra: shudde shudde soha plus the respective seed-syllable)

Ratnasambhava

Ratnasambhava is the next one that helps us discover and heal ourselves; representing the
earth element he gives stability and support which is needed in the ever changing world,
especially on the mental level. Self-respect and self-confidence in relationship with others
grow from his energy. With his help our perception widens and we learn from him, to give
spiritually and mentally.

However, if this energy is imbalanced, it can be expressed on the emotional level as pride,
delusion and jealousy and on the physical level with such illnesses as gastric and duodenal
ulcers, anorexia/bulimia, liver dis-functioning, etc.

Whether we need balancing mentally or physically Ratnasambhava will help us, if we call
upon his energy with the seed syllable Tram (or lam in some context) or the mantra: Om
Ratnasambhava tram

Amitaba

The third Meditation Symbol is Amitaba. He faces West and lives on the third level of the
stupa. We find he represents the energy-field of fire, has red as his color and represents the
Element of Fire. He belongs to the Padma family.

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His mudra is that of meditation itself from here comes all transformation, even
transcendence. Transformation comes from burning, burning leaves what is not needed
behind; hence the gift of Amitabha is discriminating wisdom (Interesting that in many culture
the direction of the West is the direction that brings concentration and clarity; it’s like the
autumn that leaves summer/the world behind and “shrinks to the essence”).

Amoghasiddhi

In the North-face and on the fourth level we find Buddha Amoghasiddhi. He represents the
Air Element (in many cultures, the North is the direction of the ancestral wisdom, and the air
element is that which brings clarity).

His mudra is abhaya (do not fear); he is green in color and belongs to the Karma kula
(family).

Encouraged to walk the higher path, one now has to decided what to leave behind, so to
ascend one leaves the more manifest levels behind and walk towards enlightenment; now,
that we have learned to discriminate what is useful on this path, what not - he protects,
encourages and grants us freedom from fear.

He encourages us to turn fear and anger into joy and love. If we achieve this, he grants us his
blessing, the all- accomplishing wisdom.

His mudra says: stand back, do not get involved, cultivate non- object- orientated love; let go
of self-interest, loneliness, resentment …

If there are imbalances they manifest on the physical level as lung disease, asthma,
pneumonia, upper back problems etc. and on the emotional level as issues with clarity,
intellect, with acceptance of change, with the ability to let go, etc.

Yet Amoghasiddhi will help us; to call upon him we practice with the seed syllable ah
(yam) and the mantra om ah amoghasiddhi hum.

Vairochana

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The three statues inside the ninth century Mendut buddhist temple, Magelang, Central
Java, Indonesia, at the center is 3 metres tall statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, at the left is
Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara, at the right is Boddhisatva Vajrapani

Finally towards the top of the stupa, there is the last level, but within are several smaller
levels, elevated circles – just as “Space” has many levels; on these top- layers we find the
fifth Dhyani Buddha: Vairochana, and the final great bell-stupa.Vairochana is associated with
the Zenith, (Buddha or Tathagata family) and he grants the dhamadhatu wisdom.He appears
in two forms, one (more related to manifest Space/as in the mahabhutas) with the gesture of
reasoning and virtuous, and secondly we find him with the Dharmachakra mudra, turning the
wheel of dharma. (Please note, not karma – but dharma).

One could say the mudra represents the upholding the dharma beyond space and time; we
would say in Yogic language, the sanatah dharma; the eternal laws.

With this we reached the level that is no more concerned with the manifest, the mahabhutas,
but we now find ourselves with Vairochana in the mahatattva, the higher mind, the higher
buddhi, the great mind beyond the confines of individual mind.Some say this is the level of
enlightenment; others connect it to the world of unlimited ideas, the highest intelligence, or
even the experiencing of ultimate peace and divine love.Conventionally we can say we have
reached the higher Chakras of mind and consciousness, Ajna Chakra and the Sahasra.

Vairochana stands for that level where individual mind is open towards the total mind, the all
mind –pure consciousness.And it is said if these energy are imbalanced they might manifest
as brain tumours and neurological disturbances, chronic fatigue, extreme sensitivity to light
and sound etc… on the physical level.

For working with Vairochana’s energy we work with his seed syllable - om (eh) and the
mantra om vairochana hum. With his help total integration of the personality might be
achieved and one develops trust into the divine – with his help only the highest ethical and
humanitarian values are left, and a life to be lived in expanded consciousness governed by
divine inspiration.

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On the top of the stupa

On the top of the stupa in the three sub-circles we find 72 Mediation - Buddhas enclosed in
their own stone- bells, their own caves, meditating for the benefit of the world, turning the
wheel of dharma. Here is the soul’s place to rest in eternal meditation and live in
unconditional joy.

The pilgrim too has reached a state of inner peace, and rejoices having concluded the
meditative walk encircling each level, meditating on the relevant Buddha with its mantra.

Now the pilgrim, with a calm peaceful mind can look from high above the land onto the
green fertile landscape below…until the security guards comes and gestures to “move on” –
no sitting down to meditate! Keep walking….this is after all Indonesia’s biggest, most busy
Tourist site!

We are all Sudanas…in search of the Buddha

THE PILGRIMAGE OF SUDHANA MIRRORS the IMMERSIVE EXPERIENCE OF

BORUBUDUR

Gandavyuha- Sutra: Tells the story of Sudhana a youth from India who was
seeking bodhi (enlightenment). At the behest of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, Sudhana takes a
pilgrimage on his quest for enlightenment and studies under 53 "good friends", those who direct
one towards the Way to Enlightenment. The 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō are a metaphor for
Sudhana's journey. Avalokiteśvara is the 28th spiritual master Sudhana visits at Mount Potalaka.
Sudhana's quest reaches it climax at when he meets Maitreya, the Future Buddha, who snaps his
fingers, thereby opening the doors to his marvelous tower. Within the tower, Sudhana
experiences all the dharmadhatus (dimensions or worlds) in a fantastic succession of visions. The
final master he visits is Samantabhadra, who teaches Sudhana that wisdom only exists for the
sake of putting it into practice.

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_______________________________________________________________________
1.Founded by Emperor Taizu of Song ending the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Song often
came into conflict with the contemporaneous Liao, Western Xia and Jin dynasties in northern China. After
decades of armed resistance defending southern China, it was eventually conquered by the Mongol-led Yuan
dynasty

The pilgrimage of Sudhana mirrors that of Gautama Buddha and the Gandavyuha sutra becomes
very popular in China during the Song dynasty which was an imperial dynasty of China that
began in 960 and lasted until 1279,.when it was adapted and circulated in small amply illustrated
booklets, each page dedicated to one of Sudhana's spiritual teachers.1
Direct translations from the Sanskrit name Avalokitasvara in Chinese include Guānyīn
referring to the Mahāyāna bodhisattva of the same name. Another later name for this
bodhisattva is Guānzìzài. It was initially thought that the Chinese mistransliterated the
word Avalokiteśvara as Avalokitasvara which explained why Xuanzang translated it
as Guānzìzài instead of Guānyīn. However, the original form was indeed Avalokitasvara with
the ending svara ("sound, noise"), which means "sound perceiver", literally "he who looks
down upon sound" (i.e., the cries of sentient beings who need his help). This is the exact
equivalent of the Chinese translation Guānyīn. This etymology was furthered in the Chinese
by the tendency of some Chinese translators, notably Kumārajīva, to use the
variant Guānshìyīn, literally "who perceives the world's lamentations"-wherein lok was read
as simultaneously meaning both "to look" and "world" (Sanskrit loka).

Sudhana was a youth from India who was seeking bodhi (enlightenment). At the behest of
the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, Sudhana takes a pilgrimage on his quest for enlightenment and
studies under 53 "good friends", those who direct one towards the Way to Enlightenment.
The 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō are a metaphor for Sudhana's journey. Avalokiteśvara is the
28th spiritual master Sudhana visits at Mount Potalaka. Sudhana's quest reaches it climax at
when he meets Maitreya, the Future Buddha, who snaps his fingers, thereby opening the
doors to his marvelous tower. Within the tower, Sudhana experiences all
the dharmadhatus (dimensions or worlds) in a fantastic succession of visions. The final
master he visits is Samantabhadra, who teaches Sudhana that wisdom only exists for the sake
of putting it into practice.
The pilgrimage of Sudhana mirrors that of Gautama Buddha and the Gandavyuha sutra
becomes very popular in China during the Song dynasty when it was adapted and circulated
in small amply illustrated booklets, each page dedicated to one of Sudhana's spiritual
teachers.

Tale of Guanyin and the Southern Seas : Chapter 18 of the Complete Tale of Guanyin and
the Southern Seas (,a 16th-century Ming dynasty novel, is the first text that established a
connection between Shancai and Guanyin. In the tale, Shancai was a disabled boy from India
who was very interested in studying the Buddha's teachings. At that time, Guanyin had just
achieved enlightenment and had retired to Mount Putuo, an island in the South China Sea.
When Shancai heard that there was a bodhisattva on Mount Putuo, he quickly journeyed there
to learn from her despite his disability.

175
An altar for Guanyin worship.

Guanyin, after having a discussion with Shancai, decided to test his resolve to fully study the
Buddhist Dharma. She transformed the trees and plants into sword-wielding pirates, who ran
up the hill to attack them. Guanyin took off and dashed to the edge of a cliff and jumped off,
with the pirates still in pursuit. Shancai, in his desperation to save Guanyin, jumped off after
her.
Shancai and Guanyin managed to reascend the cliff, and at this point, Guanyin asked Shancai
to look down. Shancai saw his mortal remains at the foot of the cliff. Guanyin then asked him
to walk and Shancai found that he could walk normally and that he was no longer crippled.
When he looked into a pool of water, he also discovered that he now had a handsome face.
From that day onwards, Guanyin taught Shancai the entire Buddhist dharma. Guanyin and
Shancai later encountered the third daughter of the Dragon King, and in the process, Guanyin
earned Longnü as a new acolyte.
The Precious Scroll of Shancai and Longnü or Shàncái Lóngnǚ Bǎozhuàn, an 18th or 19th
century scroll comprising 29 folios, provides a different account on how Shancai and Longnü
became the acolytes of Guanyin. This tale seems to have a Taoist origin. The story is set in
the Qianfu era of the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang.
A virtuous minister Chen Bao and his wife Lady Han are still childless when they are getting
older. When Chen rejects his wife's recommendation to take a concubine, she suggested that
they pray to the bodhisattva Guanyin for help. Guanyin saw that the couple was destined to
not have any children, so she ordered a Boy Who Brings Wealth, to be born into the family.
Lady Han soon gave birth to a boy, who was named Chen Lian. She died when his son was
only five years old.

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A Yuan Dynasty hanging scroll depicting Shancai (walking on waves), the Filial Parrot (above),
Guanyin and Longnü.RIGHT Kṣitigarbha

177
This panorama depicts the penultimate chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, centering on Sudhana (Shàncáitóngzǐ). In the
chapter, Sudhana, in pursuit of enlightenment, goes on a pilgrimage to 53 different spiritual teachers (ranging from
non-Buddhists to Bhikkhunīs to kings to devas to Bodhisattvas and so on) of which Guanyin is one. The central statue
depicts Guanyin, the one on the right depicts Sudhana, and the rest of the figures depicts the other spiritual teachers.

As a child, Chen Lian was not interested in civil or military pursuits, but rather, in religious
enlightenment, much to his father's disapproval. At the age of seven, his father finally gave in
to his pleas and allowed him to study under the tutelage of the Yellow Dragon Immortal.
Chen Lian was renamed to Shancai and became a dutiful apprentice of the immortal.
However, he ignored all of his father's requests to visit home during his apprenticeship.
When his father's 60th birthday approached, Shancai was once again asked to go home for a
visit. As his master was away, Shancai decided to return home since it was a special
occasion. On his way down a mountain path, he heard a voice crying out for help. Upon
investigation, he saw that it was a snake trapped in a bottle for the last 18 years. The snake
begged Shancai to release her, and after Shancai did so, she revealed her true form as a giant
serpent and wanted to eat him. When Shancai protested at the snake's behaviour, she argued
that ēn, (an act of kindness) should be repaid with a feud, as is the way of nature. However,
the snake agreed to bring the case before three judges.
The first judge was the Golden Water Buffalo Star in human form. He agreed with the snake
that given her past experiences with humans, she was right to repay Shancai's kindness by
devouring him. The Buffalo related how he was forced out of Heaven by the
1
bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha into the human world to help humans plough the fields. Kṣitigarbha
vowed that if the humans did not repay one's kindness by showing kindness in return, his
eyes would fall out. As the Buffalo landed face first on Earth, he lost all his upper front teeth.
He later suffered greatly, and after years of toiling for his human master, he was butchered
and eaten. Because of this, Kṣitigarbha's eyes fell out and landed on Earth and transformed
into snails, which buffaloes trample on when they plough the fields.
The second judge was the Taoist master Zhuang Zhou, who also sided with the snake. He
cited an incident where he resurrected a dead man, who repaid his kindness by bringing him
to court and accusing him of stealing his money.
The third judge was a young girl. The girl told the snake that she could eat her as well if the
snake could show them how it was able to fit into the bottle she was released from. As soon
as the snake wormed itself back into the bottle, it was trapped. The girl then revealed herself
as Guanyin. When the snake begged for mercy, Guanyin told her that if she wanted to be
saved she must engage in religious exercises in the Grotto of the Sounds of the Flood
(present-day Fayu Temple) on Mount Putuo. Around this time, Guanyin also gained a new
disciple, the Filial Parrot.
Three years later, when Guanyin returned to Mount Putuo, she appeared to Shancai in the
middle of the ocean. Shancai joined her in walking across the sea and became her acolyte.
With the confirmation of his faith, Shancai's parents were reborn in Heaven. As for the snake,
she committed herself to seven years of austerity and eventually cleansed itself of venom and
produced a pearl. She transformed into Longnü and joined Shancai as an acolyte of Guanyin.

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LEFT Alter of Guanyin// Longnü depicted as a female bodhisattva in China in precious scrools RIGHT

Dragon Girl

Painting by Thomas Elliot

Longnü (or nāgakanyā; is Sanskrit meaning daughter of the Snakes also as Dragon Girl,
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.Kṣitigarbha - क्षितिगर्भ, is a bodhisattva primarily revered in East Asian Buddhism and usually depicted as
a Buddhist monk. His name may be translated as "Earth Treasury", "Earth Store", "Earth Matrix", or "Earth
Womb". Kṣitigarbha is known for his vow to take responsibility for the instruction of all beings in the six
worlds between the death of Gautama Buddha and the rise of Maitreya, as well as his vow not to
achieve Buddhahood until all hells are emptied. He is therefore often regarded as the bodhisattva of hell-beings,
as well as the guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture,
where he is known as Jizō or Ojizō-sama.Usually depicted as a monk with a halo around his shaved head, he
carries a staff to force open the gates of hell and a wish-fulfilling jewel to light up the darkness.
along with Sudhana are considered acolytes of the bodhisattva Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara)

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in Chinese Buddhism. Her presence in Guanyin's iconography was influenced by tantric
sutras celebrating the esoteric Amoghapāśa and Thousand-armed forms of Guanyin, which
mention Longnü offering Guanyin a priceless pearl in gratitude for the latter visiting the
Dragon King's palace at the bottom of the ocean to teach the inhabitants her salvific dharani.
There are no scriptural sources connecting both Sudhana and Longnü to Avalokiteśvara at the
same time. It has been suggested that the acolytes are representations of the two
major Mahāyāna texts, the Lotus Sūtra and the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, in which Longnü and
Sudhana appear, respectively.
The depiction of Longnü and Sudhana with Avalokiteśvara may have been influenced
by Yunü (Jade Maiden) and Jintong (Golden Youth) who both appear in the iconography of
the Jade Emperor. She is described as being the eight-year-old daughter of the Dragon
King- Lóng Wáng; which is King of Snakes in Sanskrit:-“ nāgarāja” of the East Sea.
Folk Tales -Tale of the Southern Seas
A single chapter in the Complete Tale of Avalokiteśvara and the Southern Seas - Nánhǎi Guānyīn
Quánzhuàn, a sixteenth century Ming Dynasty novel is the first text that connects Longnü and
Sudhana together as being acolytes of Avalokiteśvara. When the Dragon King's third son was
out for swim in the sea in the form of a carp, he was captured by a fisherman. Unable to
transform into his dragon form due to being trapped on land, he was going to be sold and
butchered at the local market. Once Avalokiteśvara learned of his predicament, she gave Shancai
all her money and sent her disciple to buy him from the market and set him free. Because the carp
was still alive hours after it was caught, this drew a large crowd and soon a bidding war started
due to people believing that eating this fish would grant them immortality. Shancai was easily
outbid and begged the fish seller to spare the life of the fish, but to no avail and earning the scorn
of the people at the market. It was then that Avalokiteśvara projected her voice from far away
saying, "A life should definitely belong to one who tries to save it, not one who tries to take it".
The crowd realizing their mistake soon dispersed and Shancai was able to bring the carp back to
Avalokiteśvara and return it to the sea.
As a token of gratitude, the Dragon King asked Ao Guang to bring the "Pearl of Light", but his
granddaughter volunteers to go in his father's place instead. After offering the pearl to
Avalokiteśvara, she decides to stay with her and become her disciple to learn the
Buddhist Dharma.

The above short discussion is about the legand of the Sudhana and his journey towards
enlightenment. The Borobudur is also built as a BOOK. To read it one has to walk up the
monument. This travel is like a cinema. From start to “THE END”- it relates all the aspects of
Buddhism a novice needs to know so as to not exactly become enlightened but to realize
what enlightenment is- The formula or the concept of enlightenment.

Iconography for the Portrait of the Bodhisattva Guanyin In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is one who
has attained enlightenment but chooses to delay the rewards of nirvana. Instead, he or she helps
ordinary people reach enlightenment more easily and quickly. The wise and compassionate
bodhisattva known as Avalokitesvara in Sanskrit, and Guanyin in China, was frequently prayed to for
assistance. Iconography is the reading of symbols in a painting or sculpture. Be an art detective and
use the clues below to read the picture of Guanyin.

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Sudhanakumara or Sudhana

Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana or tantric Buddhism)

Sudhanakumāra (सुधनकुमार) is the name of a deity sometimes seen accompanying Mañjuśrī,
as depicted in Buddhist Iconography.-In his simplest form Mañjuśrī carries the sword in his
right hand and the Prajñāpāramitā manuscript in his left. In representations sometimes the
two symbols are placed on lotuses. Sometimes Mañjuśrī is accompanied only by Yamāri,
sometimes only by his Śakti or female counterpart, sometimes by Sudhanakumāra and
Yamāri and sometimes again by the four divinities, Jālinīprabha (also called Sūryaprabha),
Candraprabha, Keśinī and Upakeśinī. Though the last four are required to be present with
Arapacana, they are nevertheless found in others also.

The formula of Enlightenment according to UNESCO

According to UNESCO, the main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was
a natural centre: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone
with three circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades
are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m 2. Around the
circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha.

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The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly
accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the
universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu,
and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to our
desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name and
form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At
Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five
square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa.
The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship,
related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining
Nirvana.

The Temple should also be seen as an outstanding dynastic monument of the Syailendra
Dynasty that ruled Java for around five centuries until the 10th century.

The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and two smaller temples situatued to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The
two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable
monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose
inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three
monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana.
The temple was used as a Buddhist temple from its construction until sometime between the
10th and 15th centuries when it was abandoned. Since its re-discovery in the 19th century and
restoration in the 20th century, it has been brought back into a Buddhist archaeological site.
Criterion (i): Borobudur Temple Compounds with its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting
of ten superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome is a harmonious
marriage of stupas, temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and
monumental arts.
Criterion (ii): Borobudur Temple Compounds is an outstanding example of Indonesia’s art
and architecture from between the early 8th and late 9th centuries that exerted considerable
influence on an architectural revival between the mid-13th and early 16th centuries.
Criterion (vi): Laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur
Temple Compounds is an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of
indigenous ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten
mounting terraces of the entire structure correspond to the successive stages that the
Bodhisattva has to achieve before attaining to Buddhahood.

CREATION of the IMMERSIVE EXPERIENCE

Creating an immersive experience is no small endeavor. There are myriad opportunities to

influence your visitors’ perceptions, but they must work together in a seamless manner. Your

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 purpose and the story you want to tell will help guide the decisions that come after. Today the
use of technology, storytelling, and space to convey a message, educate, or entertain
transports visitors to another time and/or place. It is an opportunity to engage with
customers/Visitors/ in a unique and powerful way.

Today they have 6 Tips for Creating an Immersive Experience

7. Know your purpose. Delivering an immersive experience is exciting. ...
8. Tell a story. ...
9. Engage the senses. ...
10. Sum of its parts
11. Personalize the experience. ...
12. Incorporate visitor interaction.

Know your purpose. Delivering an immersive experience is exciting. But to be effective,

you need to know what it is you’re trying to achieve. Are you looking to entertain? Educate?
Increase brand awareness? Understanding why you’re building an immersive experience will
help you…

Tell a story. Great content is the foundation for your immersive experience, and it shouldn’t
be taken lightly. This is your opportunity to tell a story in a way that you want it to be told—
you have control over the content as well as its delivery. Remember, a story has a beginning,
middle, and end, as well as a cast of characters. Consider what role your visitors will play in
the story, and the message you want to leave them with.

Engage the senses. The more the better. An immersive experience should evoke emotion and
imagination. The best way to do that is to incorporate the senses through details that bring the
experience to life. Sound, imagery, the temperature of the room, the smell and feel of the
air… Every detail brings visitors deeper into your story.

Sum of its parts: A successful immersive experience is the sum of its parts, and sometimes
the simplest use of technology is the best solution.

Personalize the experience. A responsive environment can help create a personalized

experience for each visitor. For example, when properly integrated, an RFID badge can
trigger a greeting in the guest’s native language while seamlessly granting them access to
various areas of a space, be it an office building, museum, or amusement park.

Incorporate visitor interaction. Involving your guest in the experience through

interaction allows them to engage in a meaningful way. This will help increase the likelihood
of buy-in and continued engagement while creating a longer lasting memory. Visitors will
have a stake in the outcome and feel empowered as an active participant as opposed to a
passive viewer.

HOW DOES BOROBUDUR CREATE THIS IMMERSIVE EXPERIENCE?

There are almost 1,300 narrative panels illustrating the life of Buddha and Buddhistic texts,
the largest and most complete collection of Buddhist relief in the world. These religious
illustrated texts consists of 6 different Mahayana Buddhist Doctrines:

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KARMAVIBHANGHA, LALITAVISTARA, JATAKA, AVADANAS, GANDAVYUHA,
AND BHADRACHARI (SOEKMONO, 1976).

All of these six manuscripts are carved 2,500 meters, long of stone inscriptions on 4
consecutive galleries walls the very first engraved image of the manuscripts start from east
gate on gallery 1 circulating to the left, following round 1,2,3,------ 10, as shown.

Table1: For every Buddhist Monks, it is Day (VESAKA DAY), and to walk around the
galleries and terraces always turning to the left & keeping the edifice to the right while either
chanting or meditating. In total, Borobudur temple represent the ten levels of a
Boddhisattav’s life which they must develop to become a perfect and full enlightenment of a
Buddha.

TABLE 1: All of 1460 Relief and Manuscript.

ROUND- RELIEF’S LOCATION – NO. OF PANELS- MANUSCRIPTS
- Hidden Basement- 160 – KARMAVIBANGGAS
- Main wall of gallery o – 1212 – DECORATIVE PANELS
1. Gallery 1, upper main wall- 120- LALITAVISTARA
2. Gallery 1, lower main wall- 120- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
3. Gallery 1, Balustrade, upper wall- 372- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
4. Gallery1, Balustrade, lower wall- 128- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
5. Gallery 2, Balustrade,- 100- JATAKAS & AYADANAS
6. Gallery 2, main wall- 128- GANDAVYUHA
7. Gallery 3, main wall- 88- GANDAVYUHA
8. Gallery 3, Balustrade- 84- GANDAVYUHA
9. Gallery 4, Balustrade- 84- GANDAVYUHA
10. Gallery 4, main wall- 72- BHADRACARI

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On the highest terrace, arupadhatu level has no relief or decoration but has 3 Sub-terraces
(balcony), circular in shape with round walls: circle without beginning or end. Here is the
place of the seventy-two Vajrasattvas or Dhyani Buddha tucked into small stupas. each of the
statues in the temple has a mudra (hand gesture) indicating one of the four directions: east,
with the mudra of calling the earth to witness (Bhumisparca mudra); South, with the hand
position symbolizing of charity and blessings (Vara mudra); west, with the gesture of
meditation (Dhyana mudra); North, the mudra of fearlessness (Abhaya mudra); and the
centre/ Zenith (DHARMACAKRA MUDRA) with land gesture of teaching.

Visitors as participants

KARMAVIBHANGHA is the first manuscript describing the doctrine of cause and effect as
well as good and evil. The pains of hell and pleasure of heaven are illustrated on the karma-
vibhanga manuscript. There are also praiseworthy activities that include charity and

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pilgrimage to sanctuaries and there subsequent rewards on this relief. The complete Series of
160 panels on Karmavibhangga relief is not visible as it is hidden and surrounded by broad
base of stone walls. Only parts of the southeast temple wall were dismantled for visitors,
which are represented by panel numbers: 19,20,21& 22.

LALITVISTARA is the second manuscript, & represent the life of Buddha Gautama from
His birth until His first sermon at Banaras. The Relief story of Lalitvistara starts from the
glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the TWSHITA HEAVEN prior to Gautam’s birth
& ends with his first serman is the Deer Park in Benares. The most famous relief on the
Lalitvistara story is the birth of Buddha as Prince Siddharta, son of king Suddhana and Queen
Maya at Lumbini Park outside the Kapilvastu city. On the full round on the first gallery
(upper main gallery) was dedicated to this manuscript with total number of 120 panels.

The 3rd script, Jatakamala or Garland of Jatakas is a collection of poems consisting of 34

Jatakas. Based on manuscript written by Aryacara in the 4 th century these Jatakas contains
stories on great deeds performed by Buddha in his former lives preparing for Buddhahood.
These episodes of reincarnations serve as example of self-sacrifice. Similar to Jatakas, 4 th
script of AVADANAS narrative is devoted for Buddha, but the main figure is not
Bodhisattva (Prince Siddharta) himself. The sainly deeds in Avadanas are attributed to other
legendary persons. Both Jatakas and Avadanas are treated in one and the same series of 720
relief panels.

The 5th and longest manuscript is described in Gandavyuha: gallery 2,3&4. Gandhavyuha,
Sometimes referred to as a Mahayana pilgrims progress. Describes Sudhana, son of a rich
merchant who meets several Bodhisattvas, in His aim to reach the highest wisdom, two of
these spiritual teachers of Bodhisattvas are Maitreya (future Buddha).

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SAMANTABHADRA: The Lord of the truth in Buddhism who represents the practice and
meditation of all Buddhas. A total of 388 panels present the Gandavyuha text.

At last manuscript, Bhadrachari doctrine is represented in the 4 th gallery. It comprises panels

with the pledge of Sudhana to follow examples and teachings of the Bodhisattva
Samantabhadra. The narrative panels on Bhadrachari and with the Sudhana’s achievement of
the Supreme knowledge and the Ultimate Truth. All 72 panels on main wall of gallery 4 are
dedicated for the Bhadrachari. As a descendent of a noble family, Good wealth started a quest
of “Kingliness without and sageliness within”. This ended up in the pinnacle of the Buddhist
experience: emptiness, to be filled and overflow by the nectar of loving kindness. Apparently,
This kind of seeking by affluent youngmen is an archetypical pattern in the Buddhists lore
throughout Asia during those days.

Stone construction details at Borobudur temple, base of platform or level. Candi Borobudur is the largest
Buddhist temple in the world.

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188
 THEMED PERSPECTIVE
From your first step to last experiencing the magic of themed perspective into Borobudur
offers the ultimate vehicle for innovations in storytelling technology and immersive
experiences that keep us all wanting more.

Even in this uncertain era and as the technological landscape reshapes, there is much to
celebrate about the innovative and impactful nature of the Stupa site and the powerful
moments and memories that lie at its core.Leveraging Powerful Storytelling Technology
that Leaves a Lasting Impact

Designers of Borubudur created a masterpiece which they knew will stun the visitor, educate
the wanderer and leave an lasting impression on the minds of all those who look at it closely.
It is great storytelling one can relate to, whether it’s about books they would have read or
even places of religion and worship they have visited.

Finding a reference that resonates with the life of the visitors is Borobudur’s key to success
as an themed entertainment experience. Forgive me for saying so and I an not being
disrespectful, but Gunadharma was himself like Sudhama when he took upon himself the
cudgels of transforming an idea that he sahed with the Srivijaya rulers and takng their
backing to see it into fruition. Attraction design, religious experience , awesome size and
details, gigantic task to be overcome all over-whelm the visitor and all play a role, but it’s
really leaps in narrative experiences that has resulted in forging the path forward for
Borobudur as No 1 then and still No 1 now!

Narrative is at the heart of human experience, and no amount of thrill will get visitors
through the doors again and again without a story to tie it all together. Whether adapting an
existing story to the themed cinema like entertainment setting or crafting a wholly original
narrative, getting it right and making the way it’s presented has been the success factor for
the awe that Borobudur inspites in all those who visit it closely looking at it. Borobudur has
to be immersed into. If one looks at it from afar and says : “ oh wow. Big thing!” and then
goes away- Borobudur’s knockout shock is not for him because he will not have felt it.

It is only those who climg from the “Ground Floor” to the top watching the cinema of
buddhism –floor through floor will feel authentic and critical.

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Visitors climbing the stairs

Having climbed the stairs, visitors reach the top but on the way they are displayed the Buddhist scriptures to
enlighten and educate them.

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191
Here are some strategies that Gunadharma used to create this memorable experience through
storytelling:

 Pan out and display the entirety of the story and setting to bring it to life in a way that
feels holistic.
 Think about the narrative in layers of engagement. From visitors just passing through
to the most obsessive of Buddhism fans, everyone needs to identify with and
understand the story you’re looking to tell.
 Use of carvings, statutes, Balustrades, stairs, passages all technology of those days to
enlighten and entertain but not to become the STAR.
 Consideration of the location and region of the structure. Giving the visitor or
“audience” more information to truly be immersed in the story step by step.

No narrative or memorable experience reaches its full impact without immersion:

When guests take in themed entertainment they want to be transported. They want to be fully
immersed in the world that has been created, not feel like they’re an outsider looking in at the
fun. The quickest way to ensure immersion is to engage and surround the guest with the
experience, not have them simply watch it unfold on a screen or in person before them. At the
same time, however, immersion can also be broken by “technology” that’s too overbearing
and in the guests’ face. The goal should be to integrate technological solutions into the world
that has been created in such a way that the visitor never knows it’s there, yet feels its impact
at all time.

To achieve this, it’s critical to work in delivering end-to-end, holistic strategies and plans that
result in powerful experiences. They did not think it enough to simply throw the
“technology” into a space – it was thoroughly integrated into the very bones of the physical
location and narrative atmosphere.

Borobudur and the experience of meaning

Read my article (https://www.scribd.com/document/547160527/Geometry-Geomancy-And-Theology-at-

Borobudurv)

Experience is the fact or state of having been affected by or gained knowledge through direct
observation or participationand includes practical knowledge, skill, or practice derived from

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direct observation of or participation in events or in a particular activity and meaning on the
other hand includes the thing one intends to convey especially by language - implication of a
hidden or special significance. Borobudur is one such monument that one has to experience
and understand the meaning of.

One of the most impressive monuments ever created by humans. It is both a temple and a
complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with
only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains
at Angkor (see above Cambodia and Vietnam), and in its own day it must have been one of
the wonders of the Asian world. Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and
was overgrown. It was excavated and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now
appears as a large square plinth (the processional path) upon which stand five terraces
gradually diminishing in size. The plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central
projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces
carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped
stupa.

Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance.
There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing
into any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the
niches contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the
72 lesser bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a
huge stone Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the
ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the
major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original
bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of
which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the
bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and
stone accumulated above.

The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of
reality at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the
ultimate condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument
effectively proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was
meant to be transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering
illustrations of progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost
terrace, whose main stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the
spectator’s view, symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas
on the circular terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete
states of enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay
reverence to a Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast
series of reliefs about three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would
thus be read by the visitor in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll
panels, and a hundred monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on
the stairways between terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala
monster at the apex spouting his scrolls.

The reliefs of the lowest level illustrate scenes that show the causal workings of good and bad

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deeds through successive reincarnations. They show, for example, how those who hunt, kill,
and cook living creatures, such as tortoises and fish, are themselves cooked in hells or die as
children in their next life. They show how foolish people waste their time at entertainments.
From these scenes of everyday life, one moves to the terraces above, where the subject matter
becomes more profound and metaphysical. It illustrates important Mahayana texts dealing
with the self-discovery and education of the bodhisattva, conceived as being possessed by
compassion for and devoted wholly to the salvation of all creatures. The reliefs on the
uppermost terraces gradually become more static. The sensuous roundness of the forms of the
figures is not abated, but, in the design, great emphasis is laid upon horizontals and verticals
and upon static, formal enclosures of repeated figures and gestures. At the summit all
movement disappears, and the design is entirely subordinated to the circle enclosing the
stupa.

The aesthetic and technical mastery of Borobudur, and also its sheer size, has evoked the
sense of grandeur and pride for Indonesians. Just like Angkor Wat for Cambodia, Borobudur
has become a powerful symbol for Indonesia — to testify for its past greatness. Indonesia's
first President Sukarno made a point of showing the site to foreign dignitaries.
The Suharto regime — realized its important symbolic and economic meanings — diligently
embarked on a massive project to restore the monument with the help from UNESCO. Many
museums in Indonesia contain a scale model replica of Borobudur. The monument has
become almost an icon, grouped with the wayang puppet play and gamelan music into a
vague classical Javanese past from which Indonesians are to draw inspiration.
Several archaeological relics taken from Borobudur or its replica have been displayed in
some museums in Indonesia and abroad. Other than Karmawibhangga Museum within
Borobudur temple ground, some museums boast to host relics of Borobudur, such
as Indonesian National Museum in Jakarta, Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, British
Museum in London, and Thai National Museum in Bangkok. Louvre museum in
Paris, Malaysian National Museum in Kuala Lumpur, and Museum of World Religions in
New Taipei also displayed the replica of Borobudur. The monument has drawn global
attention to the classical Buddhist civilization of ancient Java.
The rediscovery and reconstruction of Borobudur has been hailed by Indonesian Buddhists as
the sign of the Buddhist revival in Indonesia. In 1934, Narada Thera, a missionary monk
from Sri Lanka, visited Indonesia for the first time as part of his journey to spread the
Dharma in Southeast Asia. This opportunity was used by a few local Buddhists to revive
Buddhism in Indonesia. A Bodhi Tree planting ceremony was held in Southeastern side of
Borobudur on 10 March 1934 under the blessing of Narada Thera, and some Upasakas were
ordained as monks. Once a year, thousands of Buddhist from Indonesia and neighboring
countries flock to Borobudur to commemorate national Waisak celebration.
Behind the splendor of the great temple built by Syailendra dynasty on the 8th century AD
which is also known as one of the 7 wonders of the world. Till this day, the Borobudur
temple was still leaves some big question marks about its existence. The temple has been
described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a pyramid, yet it has been
also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred mountain. In fact, the
name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple exhibits
characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-
dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense
where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

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The emblem of Central Java province and Magelang Regency bears the image of Borobudur.
It has become the symbol of Central Java, and also Indonesia on a wider scale. Borobudur has
become the name of several establishments, such as Borobudur University, Borobudur
Hotel in Central Jakarta, and several Indonesian restaurants abroad. Borobudur has appeared
on Rupiah banknotes and stamps and in numbers of books, publications, documentaries and
Indonesian tourism promotion materials. The monument has become one of the main tourism
attraction in Indonesia, vital for generating local economy in the region surrounding the
temple. The tourism sector of the city of Yogyakarta for example, flourishes partly because of
its proximity to Borobudur and Prambanan temples.
Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper
terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated
Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol
of the enlightened mind. While the sheer size and scope of a mandala structure such as this
makes the site of Borobudur, worthy of admiration, it is important to understand how the
experience of Borobudur relates to the philosophic and spiritual underpinnings of the
Buddhist religion it reifies and commemorates. Since its inception, roughly 2500 years ago,
Buddhism has directly engaged what it sees as the paradoxical nature of human existence.
The most essential tenet the religion promulgates is the impermanent, transient nature of
existence. Transcendental wisdom via the Dharma (the Noble Eight-Fold Path) hinges on
recognizing that attachment to the idea of a fixed, immutable “self” is a delusion.

Enlightenment entails embracing the concept of “no-self” ( anattā), understood to be at the

heart of eliminating the suffering and dissatisfaction ( dukkha) of sentient beings. This is the
ultimate message expressed in the sacred scriptures that are solidified in artistic magnificence
along the stone walls and railings of Borobudur. The physical movement of
circumambulating the structure symbolizes the non-physical—or spiritual—path of
enlightenment. In a real sense, then, the concept of path within Borobudur monumentalizes
the impermanent. Like a river that is never the same from moment to moment, to physically
move along the path while meditating on the spiritual message of the sutras is meant to help
one fully embrace the Buddha’s paradoxical message of impermanence.
Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this
purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill.
However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces

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seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur
was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is
intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols
of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous
complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple.
Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the complex. His name is recounted from
Javanese folk tales rather than from written inscriptions.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of
a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of
the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact
measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9
around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions
of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the
designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that
the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as
is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and topThe base is
123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls. The body is composed of
five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft)
from the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a
narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage
supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome
at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above
ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a
number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head
carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is
commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side,
the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the
monument to the low-lying plain.
The Art of Mandala – Rituals
Today Buddhist lamas or priests draw Mandalas which are beautiful works of art.
They also aid in the exploration of deep and divine concepts. Initiation rituals help
to define the sacred space of a mandala. They come with a beautiful set of highly
symbolic accessories. Before the mandala ritual takes place, practitioners use the
tantric hand dagger to eliminate negative forces that may inhabit the space.

The mandala is a central entity in Hinduism and Buddhism and is the generic
name for any plan or chart, which represents the cosmos (MICHEL, 1977). In
Sanskrit mandala means ‘circle and center’ or ‘Holy Circle’ and points to its cyclic
character. This circle is often embedded in a square, being a symbolic rendering of
the surface of the earth (Prithvi). The earth is ‘Caturbhsti’ or ‘four cornered’.

The Vaasta Purusha mandala is a specific type of mandala used in Vaastu

Shastra, representing a metaphysical plan of a building or temple in relation to the
course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. Purusha refers to the
energy and power, which is generated by the understanding of this cosmic
presence. The form is a square, subdivided in smaller squares. The number of
subdivisions can vary and each type has a distinct name and is used in a specific
context. The central area is called the Brahma-sthana, because Brahma or some

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other prominent deity concerned with the creation usually occupies it. The building
(of a temple) takes place from a chosen grid, dedicated to a particular deity.
Planetary divinities are arranged around the Bramasthana. The central place, being
the most important part of the building, remains unbuilt.

The cosmic man or mahapurusha, drawn on a temple mandala indicates the

relation between parts of the body and the meaning of its position within the
architectonic setting. The outlay of a temple is subject to the principle of vimana,
meaning ‘well-measured’ or ‘well-proportioned’. This picture is derived from an
ancient manual of architecture. The main axis runs here from south-east to north
west (head), but an orientation from south-west to north-east is also known.

The square and rectangular outlay: The ‘Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple

Architecture’ by Michael MEISTER (1988/1991) says that the Indian temple
architecture, both in its northern and southern variety, are deeply inspired by a
tetradic consciousness.
The square and rectangular outlay, if possible orientated along an east-west axis,
with the entrance to the east, is the main characteristic. In front of the doorway is
often a pillared hall, or mandapa. The attention to the four directions, either in the
form of entrances or stairs, is prominent.
The layout of Borobudur is in fact a cosmological map of the Buddhist universe.
Seen from above the shape of the pyramid is that of a traditional mandala whereby
a square with four cardinal entry points gives way to a circular centre point.
Moving from outside to inside one crosses three regions of Buddhist
cosmology; Kamadhatu is the realm of desires, that of ordinary
people; Rupadhatu is the realm of forms, where beings have controlled their
earthly desires but are still bounded by physical form; Arupadhatu is the formless
realm, of beings who have achieved sufficient merit to escape not just desires but
even form and location.

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Aerial view of the concentric circulatory

The beginnings of the Buddhist school of architecture can be traced back to B.C. 255 when
the Mauryan emperor Asoka established Buddhism as the state religion of his large empire.
Buddhism spread rapidly throughout India and other parts of Asia. Buddhism was, as it were,
a graphic creed, and correspondingly its expansion was accompanied by a distinctive style of
architecture that expressed the teachings of the Buddha. In India this early Buddhist art was
influenced to a large extent by Asoka. He was responsible for the construction of
several stupas, which are sacred mounds of brick commemorative of the Buddha. Asoka also
constructed stone pillars symbolizing his creed. These were lofty free-standing monolithic
columns erected on sacred sites. The most famous of these is at Sarnath.
From at least the third century B.C., Buddhist ritual focused on stupas, stylized replicas of the
mounds of earth in which early Buddhists interred relics of the Buddha. Beginning in the first
century B.C., Buddhist monks in western India began manipulating the physical shape of monastic
stupas to make them appear taller and more massive than they actually were.
These manipulations were used to help assert authority over the Buddhist laity. Employing
theories of practice, materiality, and semiotics, later stupas became symbols of the Buddha and
Buddhist theology.
The Buddhist image cult and Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the first through fifth centuries
A.D. due to this change.The development of Mahayana Buddhism and Buddha images signified a
return to iconic worship of the Buddha. 1

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 Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture
The Stupa in India first built in the second century BCE to house the Buddha’s relics was
later used as symbolic or commemorative purposes. Then Buddhism which started in India
reached China at the Han Dynasty (67CE). Together with the literature of teachings came the
need for architecture to receive the holy relics as well as to establish educational institutions
for Buddhism. So this is the beginning of Buddhist architecture in China. With the fusion of
Buddhism and the Han culture and technology, pagodas were built. These buildings find their
shapes and sizes in great variety as they appeared in different places. How these forms relate
to the philosophy of Buddhism will be discussed. On the other hand, Buddhism was
disseminated directly into Tibet in the seventh century. Indian Stupas were also transformed
through local culture and technology into Tibetan Chorten. These can be placed within
temples or individually. different symbolic meanings of these Stupa, Pagoda and Chorten in
the context of the philosophy of Buddhism. 1
 Stupas evolved over time from simple funerary monuments to elaborately decorated
objects of veneration.
 Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 274–236 BCE during the Maurya Dynasty , is said to
have redistributed the relics housed in the original stupas of the Buddha into thousands
of stupas throughout India.
 All stupas contain a treasury , a Tree of Life, and small offerings known as Tsa-Tsas. It
is believed that the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa’s
energy.
 There are five types of stupas: Relic stupas, Object stupas, Commemorative stupas,
Symbolic stupas and Votive stupas. A stupa is thought to bring enlightenment to the
one who builds and owns it; it is also considered a placed of worship for many
Buddhists.
Structure and Style
While they can vary visually, all stupas have a few features in common. Every stupa contains
a treasury filled with various objects—small offerings, or Tsa-Tsas, fill the majority of the
treasury, while jewelry and other precious objects are also placed within. It is believed that
the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa’s energy.
The Tree of Life, a wooden pole covered with gems and mantras , is an important element of
every stupa and is placed in the stupa’s central channel during an initiation ceremony , where
participants’ most powerful wishes are stored.
There are five types of stupas:
1. Relic stupas, in which the relics of Buddha and other religious persons are buried.
2. Object stupas, in which the objects belonging to Buddha or his disciples are buried.
3. Commemorative stupas, built to commemorate events in the life of Buddha and his
disciples.
4. Symbolic stupas, built to symbolize various aspects of Buddhist theology.
5. Votive stupas, constructed to commemorate visits or gain spiritual benefits.
In the Buddhist religion, it is believed that a stupa brings enlightenment to the one who builds
and owns it. In addition, the stupa is considered a place of worship, and many Buddhists
complete pilgrimages to significant stupas.
___________________________________________________________________________
___
1. Stupa, Pagoda and Chorten: origin and meaning of Buddhist Architecture
W.Wong,2014https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Stupa%2C-Pagoda-and-Chorten%3A-origin-and-
meaning-of-Wong/512d89e26a97af79c13b81d7d231525fb4ab86ba#paper-header
According to Shubham Jaiswal in his paper Genesis of Stupas (Conference: International
Conference of Architectural Science Association 2019,Geethanjali Raman,Shubham Jaiswal,Avlokita Agrawal
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339676008_GENESIS_OF_STUPAS)

199
Architecturally speaking, the earliest and most basic interpretation of stupa is nothing but a
dust burial mound. However, the historic significance of this built form has evolved through
time, as has its rudimentary structure. The massive dome-shaped “anda” form which has now
become synonymous with the idea of this Buddhist shrine, is the result of years of cultural,
social and geographical influences.

The beauty of this typology of architecture lies in its intricate details, interesting motifs and
immense symbolism, reflected and adapted in various local contexts across the world. Today,
the word “stupa” is used interchangeably while referring to monuments such as pagodas, wat,
etc. This paper is, therefore, an attempt to understand the ideology and the concept of a stupa,
with a focus on tracing its history and transition over time. The main objective of the research
is not just to understand the essence of the architectural and theological aspects of the
traditional stupa but also to understand how geographical factors, advances in material, and
local socio-cultural norms have given way to a much broader definition of this word,
encompassing all forms, from a simplistic mound to grand, elaborate sanctums of great value
to architecture and society as a whole.

This word is now used for the pre-eminent type of Buddhist monument, which is at least a
freestanding mound, usually with a circular drum (Medhi) forming the base for a massive
solid dome (anda) topped by a turret (chattri), while the bell or dome-shaped mound covers
the relics or holy objects At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial mound faced with stone.
Stupas exist all over the world and are one of the oldest Buddhist monuments.

Historically, stupas have been symbolize and represent the following elements:
1. The Buddha,
2. The path to Enlightenment,
3. A mountain and
4. The universe all at the same time.

200
A stupa, which was conceived as a simple monument for the Buddha’s corporeal relics, has
over time transformed in its form and nomenclature and resulted in various types of structures
all over the world. In some regions, even supplementary structures like monasteries have
come up alongside stupas, fuelling the inception of new Buddhist orders and sects.

However, the core ideology of the stupa remains constant throughout each new development,
as
does its symbolism and several crucial architectural features. These characteristics must,
therefore, be given due consideration and importance while designing any stupa project.

Simple pic to introduce the perspective of stupas

201
202
In her article on Symbolism of a Stupa1 , Supriya Sinha believes that Containment finds
significance in the vedic corpus, and, antedates it, as is evident from depictions in Indus
valley seals .This decryption at the emblematic level begs an obvious question. What would
compel a heterodox religion to attach itself with conventional symbolism? The dichotomy is
explicable if one views the stupa as a product of its times. A time when structural aspects
were based not on functional, utilitarian foundations but on deeply spiritual conceptions. The
act of creation, as Coomarswamy has famouly said, was an act of replication.”We must do
what the gods did in the beginning. Thus the gods did; thus men do.” The stupa, in its
meaning, is replete with this primordial injunction and its appropriation reflects fundamental,
primal, human motivations.

At another level, this inclusion may have been necessitated by the dynamics of the existing
religious milieu. A rudimentary situation analysis of the moment in time when this fledgling
religion operated, and, when the first stupa was instituted, reveals the case of a relatively new
entrant jostling for space against a dominant ideology. Of an incumbent mythology replete
with cosmological interpretations and paradigmatic creator gods. In this setting, legitimacy
would require equally potent antecedents. What better way to consecrate the remains of the
one, who, like the Vedic god, Indra was born from his mother’s side than to have the sacred
place of his interment evoke the archetypal feat of Indra?
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1. (http://thesacredspace.in/?p=163#:~:text=In%20its%20most%20fundamental%20essence,the
%20remains%20of%20the%20Buddha%20.&text=In%20its%20earliest%20meanings%2C
%20the,the%20remains%20of%20the%20Buddha%20)

Parikrama or Pradakshina refers to circumambulation of sacred places to imbibe their energy

in Sikh, Hindu, Jain or Buddhist context, and the path along which this is
performed. Parikrama means "the path surrounding something" in Sanskrit, and is also
known as Pradakshina ("to the right"), representing circumambulation. Both words are
mostly used in the context of religious deities in a temple, sacred rivers, sacred hills and a
close cluster of temples, and "doing a parikrama" as a symbol of prayer is an integral part
of Hindu worship. In Hinduism and other Indian religions, the Parikrama inside temples or
sacred sites is traditionally clockwise.

Most Hindu temples and Buddhist Stupa include various Pradakshina paths. Pradakshina
paths are defined. as:
Circumbulatory or pathway around the shrine of the temples by keeping time is a common
form of prayer in India.It includes Narmada,Shetrunjaya,Girnar. This pathway made of
stone around the shrine is called Pradakshina path.

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Parikrama is also practiced in Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.

Pic shows circumambulatory path of a STUPA( Left Pic ) and Hindu temple.

There could be one surrounding the main deity, other paths could be broader being concentric
to the main path. However, it is not uncommon to find non-concentric parikrama paths in a
single temple structure. At times the outermost parikrama path covers the whole
village/town/city, thereby implying that the length of the path can stretch.
Parikrama is done around sacred fire (Agni – the fire God), Tulsi plant (Ocimum
tenuiflorum) and Peepal tree. Parikrama of Agni or Agni Pradakshina is a part of
the Hindu marriage ceremony. Some of the Parikramas are Narmada River, Govardhan
hill, Vrindavan, Vraj Mandala, Dwadash Madhav parikrama Tirthraj Prayag, Ayodhya,
Girnar, Chitrakoot hill, Varanasi, Mathura, and Mathura-Vrindavan yugalabandi in Kartik .....
Typically, Parikrama is done after the completion of traditional worship (puja) and after
paying homage to the deity. Parikrama is supposed to be done with a meditative mood.
 The pathway made of granite stone around the shrine is called the Pradakshina path.
 Pradakshina around the sacred fire is a part of the Hindu marriage ceremony.

204
Schematic drawing of traffic (in black) and circumambulation (in blue) routes around
stupa, south end of Zhongdian Town.

In Buddhism circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual since early

times. Sacred structures such as stupa or images have a pradakhshina path around them.
The chaitya is a distinct ancient type of building that only survives in Indian rock-cut
architecture, a hall with a stupa at the far end, always built with a rounded apse-like end, to
allow pradakhshina.[14] A mandapa (prayer hall), added in the front transforms the original
stupa into the stupa shrine — as a sacred entity which requires a circumambulatory path
around it for the purpose of worship. The whole structure is planned in such a way that it
becomes the centre of the mandala and symbolically represents Mount Meru.

Buddhist faithful may perform pradakhshina by prostrating themselves at every step, thus
greatly prolonging the process. The most extreme pradakhshina is that of the sacred Mount
Kailash in Tibet, a mountain trek some 52 km (32 mi) long, at altitudes between 15,000 ft
(4,600 m) and 18,200 ft (5,500 m). This may also be undertaken by Hindus and Jains, and
some pilgrims progress by prostration, taking some weeks.

Further according to Ms. Supriya Sinha in her brilliant article” Thus in the design of the
Stupa the vedika enclosure marks off a path (Pradakshina Path) for the ritual of
circumambulation. An important rite, it involved a physical engagement with the stupa and
was performed by entering the precinct through the east gate and walking clockwise. The
directional emphasis related the devotee to the passage of the sun, “the transcendent centre of
the universe” , “cosmic intelligence” whose light is “intellectual wisdom”. In vedic
mythology Indra is credited with releasing the sun , setting its “wheel in motion” and
“making a pathway through the darkness” .

The Buddha, whose birth is likened to the rising of the sun , compares his abhijana
(“superknowledge”) to a rediscovery of ancient wisdom , “ clearing of an ancient jungle path
from the brush that has overgrown and concealed it for generations” – a veritable pathway, a
casting of light on what has been hidden in the darkness. And thence he proceeds to “turn the
wheel of law”. With these inherent parallels, the ritual act performs the important function of

205
 linking the worshipper with the wheel turning Buddha, and the Sun , on a path that is
homologous with the archetypal path .A further instrument to re-emphasize this symbolism is
seen in the alignment of the gateways, which form a cosmological diagram in the form of a
swastika- a metonymical symbol evoking the wheel and the movement of the light giving
sun.
This act, replete with cosmological significance puts the worshipper in harmony with the
cosmos while it also reminds him of the Buddha and his odyssey across several lifetimes to
attain final liberation-transcendental nirvana.

At the centre of the stupa complex is the solid hemispherical dome described variously in
Buddhist texts as garbha, container or alternatively as anda . It bears within itself the seed
(bija)-relic. Symbolically this links the dome to the cosmic womb eg: the vedic hiranyagarbha
(golden womb) which emerges from the primordial waters of chaos . This analogy is explicit
in reliefs at Sanchi and on some early coins where the stupa is shown floating on water .So
deep are the cosmological interlinkages that the mythic womb, the embodiment of life and
prosperity, was said to encompass the riches of the universe. In a ritual enactment of the
myth, the relic caskets are often made of precious metals/stone and routinely suffused with
precious elements.
In the brahmanical context, the womb represents the creative unity. In the Buddhist context, it
is the enfolder of the seed and signifies the involutional tendency of the spiritual path- the
return to the centre, to unity. “The stupa symbolically designates this centre to which the
seeker directs his life’s pilgrimage”. and it bears within itself the “pivotal presence” of the
wheel turning Buddha .

This is significant in the light of inscriptions , which state that the corporeal remains of the
Buddha are “endowed with life” ( “prana sammada”) for it implies that the dome not only
allows the devotee to experience proximity to the Buddha, but also makes him aware of his
involutional unity.

The cosmological theme continues with the axial pillar which represents the world axis . This
pole is symbolic of the link between the human and the divine worlds. It indicates a pathway
of spiritual acscent, an upward movement away from the confines of the physical world , to
the limitless realm. In this sense, the pole is a beacon, a representation of the devotee’s goal,
for in its verticality, one can measure one’s own progress towards the supreme attainment, a
goal triumphantly achieved by the Buddha in nirvana. 1

Perspective or View or position in design architecture

What are the 4 types of perspective drawing?

In linear perspective, there are 4 major types of perspective defined by the number of primary
Vanishing Points lying on the Horizon Line:
 1-point perspective,
 2-point perspective,
 3-point perspective,
 and Multi-point perspective.

206
 Linear or point-projection perspective (from Latin: perspicere 'to see through') is one of two
types of graphical projection perspective in the graphic arts; the other is parallel projection.
Linear perspective is an approximate representation, generally on a flat surface, of an image
as it is seen by the eye. The most characteristic features of linear perspective are that objects
appear smaller as their distance from the observer increases, and that they are subject
to foreshortening, meaning that an object's dimensions along the line of sight appear shorter
than its dimensions across the line of sight. All objects will recede to points in the distance,
usually along the horizon line, but also above and below the horizon line depending on the
view used. The main characteristic of perspective is that objects appear smaller the further
they are from the observer.
Perspectiv

http://thesacredspace.in/?p=163#:~:text=In%20its%20most%20fundamental%20essence,the
%20remains%20of%20the%20Buddha%20.&text=In%20its%20earliest%20meanings%2C
%20the,the%20remains%20of%20the%20Buddha%20.
e is often used to generate 'realistic' images of buildings to help people understand how they
will look on the inside, from the outside, or within their context. Perspective is the space in
which the drawings – and the architecture that they propose – occur. ' This unique wall hang
according to the logic of vanishing points and perspective lines provides the viewer with their
own unique perspective on artwork by some of the most talented designers in history.

Perspective works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary
rectangle (realized as the plane of the painting), to the viewer's eye, as if a viewer were
looking through a window and painting what is seen directly onto the windowpane. If viewed
from the same spot as the windowpane was painted, the painted image would be identical to
what was seen through the unpainted window. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat,
scaled down version of the object on the other side of the window. Because each portion of
the painted object lies on the straight line from the viewer's eye to the equivalent portion of
the real object it represents, the viewer sees no difference (sans depth perception) between the
painted scene on the windowpane and the view of the real scene. All perspective drawings
assume the viewer is a certain distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to
that viewer. An object is often not scaled evenly: a circle often appears as an ellipse and a
square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening.

Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite
the viewer's eye, represents objects infinitely far away. They have shrunk, in the distance, to
the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to (and named after) the Earth's horizon.
Any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or
more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that
the drawing has a single vanishing point, usually (though not necessarily) directly opposite
the viewer's eye and usually (though not necessarily) on the horizon line. All lines parallel
with the viewer's line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the
standard "receding railroad tracks" phenomenon. A two-point drawing would have lines
parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing,
one for each set of parallel lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing.

Perspectives consisting of many parallel lines are observed most often when drawing
architecture (architecture frequently uses lines parallel to the x, y, and z axes). Because it is
rare to have a scene consisting solely of lines parallel to the three Cartesian axes (x, y, and z),
it is rare to see perspectives in practice with only one, two, or three vanishing points; even a

207
simple house frequently has a peaked roof which results in a minimum of six sets of parallel
lines, in turn corresponding to up to six vanishing points.

Of the many types of perspective drawings, the most common categorizations of artificial
perspective are one-, two- and three-point. The names of these categories refer to the number
of vanishing points in the perspective drawing.

View or position (Pali diṭṭhi, Sanskrit dṛṣṭi) is a central idea in Buddhism

View or position (Pali diṭṭhi, Sanskrit dṛṣṭi) is a central idea in Buddhism. In Buddhist
thought, a view is not a simple, abstract collection of propositions, but a charged
interpretation of experience which intensely shapes and affects thought, sensation, and
action. Having the proper mental attitude toward views is therefore considered an integral
part of the Buddhist path, as sometimes correct views need to be put into practice and
incorrect views abandoned, and sometimes all views are seen as obstacles to enlightenment.

In describing the highly diverse intellectual landscape of his day, the Buddha is said to
have referred to "the wrangling of views, the jungle of views".
Views are produced by and in turn produce mental conditioning. They are symptoms of
conditioning, rather than neutral alternatives individuals can dispassionately choose. The
Buddha, according to early texts, having attained the state of unconditioned mind, is said to

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have "passed beyond the bondage, tie, greed, obsession, acceptance, attachment, and lust of
view."[
Those who wish to experience nirvana must free themselves from everything binding them to
the world, including philosophical and religious doctrines. Right view as the first part of the
Noble Eightfold Path leads ultimately not to the holding of correct views, but to a detached
form of cognition.

What is perspective and where does it come from?

Perspective is a method of representing three-dimensional space on a flat surface. It depicts

an idea of space that seems to coincide with our understanding of reality. Yet, it is not reality.
It is a system, an artificial construct, that manipulates and distorts our visual perception while
enabling accessible and popular representation of a design in three dimensions.

The depiction of space has a long and wide-reaching history as Sam Jacob writes in the
accompanying essay to the exhibition:

'If we scan a history of how space has been drawn, either as representation of the world or as
architectural proposition, we see just how fluid and varied conceptions of space have been …
from, say, Neolithic cave paintings through medieval maps, Byzantine paintings, Asian
handscrolls to Google Maps we see how different worldviews are codified through
representation. We see space itself shifting like a camera pulling focus.'

Pers
pective was evidenced and formalised in the Italian Renaissance, but of course existed long
before this era. Vitruvius, who published the first architectural treatise 'Ten Books of
Architecture', credits the painter Agatharchus (fifth century BC) with knowledge of
perspective when designing stage sets. However, it was Leon Battista Alberti in 'De pictura'
(1435), who first described the principle.

Since then, a number of architects, mathematicians and artists have written extensively on the
subject with Sebastiano Serlio being the first architect to dedicate an entire book to
perspective in the mid-sixteenth century.

Through clear instructive text accompanied by woodcuts, Serlio explains the basic use of a
vanishing point, perspective lines and horizon to draw in three-dimensions. Not long after its

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usage in depicting and decorating architecture was the technique of perspective deployed by
the military and the navy, for topographic surveying, designing fortifications, calculating
projectile trajectories and navigation. Similarly, the iconography of Borobudur suggests that
the legend of the royal bodhisattva recounted in many of the reliefs was meant to
“authenticate” some king or dynasty. Yet, it hardly seems possible that Borobudur was the
focus of a specific royal cult, as there is no provision at all for the performance of royal ritual.
It must have been, then, in some sense a monument for the whole people, the focus for their
religion and life, and a perpetual reminder of the doctrines of their religion.

R E L I E F S

Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of terraces, showing
intricate architecture that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain
in Arupadhatu circular terraces. The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief
sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient
Buddhist world.
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java,
from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also
depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular
architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier,
soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual
beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras,
gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often
served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of
architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-
century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast
Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship. Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur
Ship that had sailed from Indonesia to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa
Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur.

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The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline, such as pose and
gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of noblemen, noble
women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed
in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one
upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the
figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.
During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered colour pigments of blue, red, green,
black, as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded that the monument that we see today – a
dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in colour – was probably once coated
with varjalepa white plaster and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon
of Buddhist teaching. The same vajralepa plaster can also be found
in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-reliefs of Borobudur was
originally quite colourful, before centuries of torrential tropical rainfalls peeled-off the colour
pigments.

Narrative panels distribution

Section Location Story No. of panels

hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160

Lalitavistara 120
main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
first gallery
Jataka/Avadana 372
balustrade
Jataka/Avadana 128

balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100

second
gallery
main wall Gandavyuha 128

main wall Gandavyuha 88

third gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha 88

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 main wall Gandavyuha 84
fourth gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha 72

Total 1,460

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and
1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is
2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu)
and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu)
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara, are grouped into 11
series that encircle the monument with a total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden
foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels, and the remaining 10 series are
distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern
entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while those
on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of
circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping
the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts
the biography of Lord Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also the balustrades in the
first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. [94] The remaining
panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his
attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.
The law of karma (Karmavibhangga) The Karmavibangga scene on Borobudur's hidden foot,
on the right depicting sinful act of killing and cooking turtles and fishes, on the left those who
make living by killing animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive, being cut, or
being thrown into a burning house.
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete
illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to
murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell
and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with
the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death). The encasement base of
the Borobudur temple was disassembled to reveal the hidden foot, and the reliefs were
photographed by Casijan Chepas in 1890. It is these photographs that are displayed
in Borobudur Museum (Karmawibhangga Museum), located just several hundred meters
north of the temple. During the restoration, the foot encasement was reinstalled, covering the
Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today, only the southeast corner of the hidden foot is revealed and
visible for visitors.

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 Borobudur represents the Buddhist cosmos

As one climbs the temple of Borobudur one enters each of these realms. These first
four levels around the temple represent the Rupadhatu realm, of beings who have
controlled desire. Starting at the east facing entrance the carved stone reliefs depict
mainly Jataka scenes, that is scenes from the Buddha’s life, organised to instruct
devotees as they proceed clockwise around each of the first four levels in turn.

East facing Buddha statues in the Calling the Earth to Witness posture
One of the lower Rupadhatu galleries of Borobudur
On the four Rupadhatu levels there are also 432 Buddha statues located in niches
along each side of the temple . On the east facing terraces these statues are all in
the Calling the Earth to Witness posture. Moving round to the south the statues are
in the Alms Giving posture and then to the west they are in the Concentration &
Meditation posture. On the north facing levels they are in the posture of Courage,
fearlessness. Around the fifth uppermost balustrade of the Rupadhatu levels the

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Buddha images facing in all directions are in the Reasoning & Virtue posture.

On reaching the fifth level one moves into the Arupadhatu formless realm of
nirvana, represented by the shift to a circular layout. This realm is perhaps the
most famous aspect of Borobudur due to its iconic perforated stupas. A total of 72
of these stupas are arranged on three circular terraces around the main central
stupa. On the first two Arupadhatu levels the stupas have rhombic perforations
whereas on the third and highest level the openings are square. In each of the 72
stupas there is a Buddha statue in the posture of Turning the Wheel of Dharma.

The upper Arupadhatu levels of Borobudur representing nirvana

The central stupa represents the centre of the Buddhist universe. It looks rather
truncated because it is missing its original chattra, a three-tiered stone parasol that
would have topped the stupa. There is known to be an empty room at the centre of
the stupa which would be expected to contain the most highly revered images and
relics. It is not known when or how these were lost.
Archaeologists have discovered traces of coloured pigments and gold leaf on the
reliefs and believe that rather than the drab volcanic stone we see today Borobudur
was once covered in white plaster, painted in vivid colours and covered in gold. It
would have been a truly awe inspiring sight 1000 years ago.

The Hidden Foot

One of the mysteries of Borobudur concerns the lowest level of the temple
representing the Kamadhatu realm of desires. On an initial climb of the temple the
first level appears to start in the second level realm of Rupadhatu with tales of the
Buddha’s life. In fact the lowest Kamadhatu realm is represented by a gallery of
carved reliefs which are hidden under an encasement and are hence known as the
“hidden foot”. This Hidden Foot was only re-discovered during European led
restoration activities in 1885. It is not known exactly why this lower level has been
covered up. Some postulate that the encasement had to be add

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The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha
Gautama
The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from the Tushita heaven and ends with his
first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares. The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince
Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in the heavens and on the
earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[96] Before descending from Tushita
heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He
descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen
Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his
son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama became an ascetic hermit.

While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park
outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right
hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until
the prince becomes the Buddha.

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The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other legendary people (Avadana)

A relief of Jataka story of giant turtle that saving drowned sailors.

Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. They are the
stories that tell about the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and animal form. The
future Buddha may appear in them as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever
form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. [98] Avadanas are similar to
jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are
attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same
series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict
the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the
same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[99] The
remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do the lower series and panels in
the second gallery. Some jatakas are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi
(Rama's forefather).
Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha

A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra/A relief of the Gandavyuha story
from Borobudur 2nd level north wall.

Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's
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tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and
fourth) and also half of the second gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels. [100] The principal
figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the
16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during
Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.
Sudhana was instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, his first spiritual friend. As
his journey continues, Sudhana meets 53 teachers, such as Supratisthita, the physician Megha
(Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of
Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess
Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker
Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and
then back to Manjusri. Each spiritual friend gives Sudhana specific teachings, knowledge,
and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.
After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth
gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with
Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues
of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on
the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides
of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to
the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth
72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[4] At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16,
which adds up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged
(mostly headless), and 43 are missing. Since the monument's discovery, heads have been
acquired as collector's items, mostly by Western museums. Some of these Buddha heads are
now displayed in numbers of museums, such as the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Musée
Guimet in Paris, and The British Museum in London. Germany has in 2014 returned its
collection and funded their reattachment and further conservation of the site.

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 Head from a Borobudur Buddha statue in Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam./Headless Buddha
statue in Borobudur. Since its discovery, numbers of heads have been stolen and installed in
museums abroad.//Lion gate guardian
At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between
them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East,
South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according
to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and
West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the
corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the
top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani
Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.[ Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise
circumumbulation) starting from the East, the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:
The aesthetic and technical mastery of Borobudur, and also its sheer size, has evoked the
sense of grandeur and pride for Indonesians. Just like Angkor Wat for Cambodia, Borobudur
has become a powerful symbol for Indonesia — to testify for its past greatness. Indonesia's
first President Sukarno made a point of showing the site to foreign dignitaries.
The Suharto regime — realized its important symbolic and economic meanings — diligently
embarked on a massive project to restore the monument with the help from UNESCO. Many
museums in Indonesia contain a scale model replica of Borobudur. The monument has
become almost an icon, grouped with the wayang puppet play and gamelan music into a
vague classical Javanese past from which Indonesians are to draw inspiration.
Several archaeological relics taken from Borobudur or its replica have been displayed in
some museums in Indonesia and abroad. Other than Karmawibhangga Museum within
Borobudur temple ground, some museums boast to host relics of Borobudur, such
as Indonesian National Museum in Jakarta, Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, British
Museum in London, and Thai National Museum in Bangkok. Louvre museum in
Paris, Malaysian National Museum in Kuala Lumpur, and Museum of World Religions in
New Taipei also displayed the replica of Borobudur. The monument has drawn global
attention to the classical Buddhist civilization of ancient Java.
The rediscovery and reconstruction of Borobudur has been hailed by Indonesian Buddhists as
the sign of the Buddhist revival in Indonesia. In 1934, Narada Thera, a missionary monk
from Sri Lanka, visited Indonesia for the first time as part of his journey to spread the
Dharma in Southeast Asia. This opportunity was used by a few local Buddhists to revive
Buddhism in Indonesia. A Bodhi Tree planting ceremony was held in Southeastern side of
Borobudur on 10 March 1934 under the blessing of Narada Thera, and some Upasakas were
ordained as monks. Once a year, thousands of Buddhist from Indonesia and neighboring
countries flock to Borobudur to commemorate national Waisak celebration.
The emblem of Central Java province and Magelang Regency bears the image of Borobudur.
It has become the symbol of Central Java, and also Indonesia on a wider scale. Borobudur has
become the name of several establishments, such as Borobudur University, Borobudur
Hotel in Central Jakarta, and several Indonesian restaurants abroad. Borobudur has appeared
on Rupiah banknotes and stamps and in numbers of books, publications, documentaries and
Indonesian tourism promotion materials. The monument has become one of the main tourism
attraction in Indonesia, vital for generating local economy in the region surrounding the
temple. The tourism sector of the city of Yogyakarta for example, flourishes partly because of
its proximity to Borobudur and Prambanan temples.

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Behind the splendor of the great temple built by Syailendra dynasty on the 8th century AD
which is also known as one of the 7 wonders of the world. Till this day, the Borobudur
temple was still leaves some big question marks about its existence. The temple has been
described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a pyramid, yet it has been
also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred mountain. In fact, the
name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple exhibits
characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-
dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense
where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper
terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated
Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol
of the enlightened mind.

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