Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Course code: BBOC407 IV Semester

Module 5

Trends in Bioengineering
Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds
Scaffolds and tissue engineering
Bioprinting techniques and materials
Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science
DNA origami and Biocomputing
Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis
Bioconcrete
Bioremediation
Biomining

Muscular and skeletal system as scaffolds:

The skeletal system supports the human body by acting as a scaffold to hold it up and as
protection for the soft tissues and organs within it. The muscles that attach to the various points of
the skeletal system allows for the movement of the body.

Our musculoskeletal system includes bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons and connective tissues.
Together, they support our body's weight, maintain our posture and help us move. Skeletal muscle
architecture is one of the most important properties that determine a muscle’s force and excursion
capability.

Architecture:
The musculoskeletal system (locomotor system) is a human body system that provides our body
with movement, stability, shape, and support. It is subdivided into two broad systems:

Muscular system includes all types of muscles in the body.

Skeletal muscles: Voluntary muscles attached to bones responsible for movement.
Smooth muscles: Involuntary muscles found in walls of internal organs.
Cardiac muscles: Specialized muscles forming the heart, involuntary and rhythmic.

Skeletal muscles, in particular, are the ones that act on the body joints to produce movements.
Besides muscles, the muscular system contains the tendons which attach the muscles to the bones.

Functions:
Movement and locomotion: Contraction of skeletal muscles to move bones.
Maintaining posture: By continuous small adjustments by skeletal muscles.
Heat production: Muscle activity generates heat to maintain body temperature.
Stabilizing joints: Muscle tone helps to keep joints stable.

Muscular system also stores most of the body's carbohydrates in the form of glycogen.
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Skeletal system includes bones, cartilage, ligaments and joints.

Bones: The rigid organs that forms the skeleton.

Cartilage: Flexible tissue providing support and cushioning at joints.
Ligaments: Strong connective tissues connecting bones at joints.
Joints: The structures where two or more bones meet, allowing movement.

Functions:
Structural support: Framework that supports body structure.
Protection of internal organs: Bones shield vital organs (e.g., skull protects brain)
Facilitating movement: Bones act as levers moved by muscles.
Mineral storage: Reservoir of minerals, primarily calcium and phosphorus.
Blood cell production (Haematopoiesis): Bone marrow produces blood cells.

Source: Byju’s

Mechanism:
The nervous system (our body’s command centre) controls our voluntary muscle movements.
Voluntary muscles are ones we control intentionally. Some involve large muscle groups to do
activities like jumping. Others use smaller movements, like pushing a button.

Movements happen when:

Our nervous system (brain and nerves) sends a message to activate our skeletal (voluntary)
muscles. Our muscle fibres contract in response to signals from the brain. When the muscle
activates or bunches up, it pulls on the tendon.

Tendons attach muscles to bones. The tendon pulls the bone, making it move. To relax the
muscle, your nervous system sends another message. It triggers the muscles to relax or deactivate.
The relaxed muscle releases tension, moving the bone to a resting position.
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Muscular and skeletal systems as biological scaffolds:

 Natural scaffolds:
Collagen and extracellular matrix: Provide structure and biochemical signals to cells.
Bone matrix composition:
Hydroxyapatite: Mineral component providing hardness.
Collagen fibres: Provide flexibility and tensile strength.

 Adaptability and regeneration:

Bone remodelling and healing: Continuous process where old bone is replaced by new bone.
Muscle hypertrophy and repair mechanisms: Increase in muscle size and repair of damaged
muscle fibres through protein synthesis and satellite cell activity.

Hundreds of conditions can cause problems with the musculoskeletal system. They can affect the
way we move, speak and interact with the world. Some of the most common causes of
musculoskeletal pain and movement problems are:

 Aging
 Arthritis
 Back problems
 Cancer
 Congenital abnormalities
 Injuries
 Osteoporosis
 Muscular dystrophy

Everyone has pain in their muscles and joints from time to time. One of the most common
musculoskeletal conditions is Osteoporosis. More than 60% of people in the world have
Osteoporosis at some point in their lives.

Arthritis and muscular dystrophy are also very common. Most people recover from these
disorders without long-term health problems.

Bioengineering applications:
 Tissue engineering:
Design and fabrication of artificial scaffolds: Mimic the structure and function of
musculoskeletal tissues.
Biomaterials: Selection based on biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mechanical
properties.
 Prosthetics and implants:
Bone scaffolds: Used in orthopaedic implants, designed to integrate with natural bone.
Muscle-mimicking materials: Developed for prosthetics to replicate natural muscle
properties.
 Regenerative medicine:
Stem cell therapy: Use of stem cells to regenerate damaged muscle and bone tissues.
Growth factors and signalling molecules: Promote tissue growth and healing.
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Scaffolds and tissue engineering:

Definition: Tissue engineering is a multidisciplinary field aimed at developing biological

substitutes to restore, maintain, or improve tissue function.

Role of scaffolds:
 Provide a three-dimensional structure for cell attachment, growth, and differentiation.
 Mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the native tissue.

Basics of scaffolds:
 Temporary structures designed to support the formation of new tissue.
 Functions:
 Provide mechanical support.
 Facilitate cell attachment and migration.
 Deliver and retain cells and biochemical factors.
 Enable the diffusion of nutrients and waste products.
 Maintain the desired shape and structure of the tissue.

Scaffold materials:
Biomaterials:
 Natural polymers:
 Collagen, gelatine, alginate, chitosan, silk.
 Advantages: Biocompatibility, bioactivity, and biodegradability.
 Disadvantages: Batch-to-batch variability, potential immunogenicity.

 Synthetic polymers:
 Poly lactic acid (PLA), Poly glycolic acid (PGA), Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), Poly
caprolactone (PCL).
 Advantages: Controlled properties, reproducibility, and mechanical strength.
 Disadvantages: Lack of bioactivity, potential toxicity of degradation products.

 Ceramics and bioactive glasses:

 Hydroxyapatite, Tricalcium phosphate (TCP), bioactive glass.
 Advantages: Osteoconductivity, mechanical strength.
 Disadvantages: Brittleness, slow degradation rates.

 Composite materials:
 Combination of natural and synthetic materials.
 Tailored properties for specific applications.

Scaffold fabrication techniques:

 Conventional techniques:
 Solvent casting and particulate leaching: Creation of porous structures by dissolving
polymers in solvents and leaching out porogens.
 Freeze-drying (Lyophilisation): Freezing polymer solutions and sublimating the solvent to
create porous scaffolds.
 Electro spinning: Producing fibrous scaffolds by applying a high-voltage electric field to a
polymer solution.
 Gas foaming: Generating pores by introducing gas into polymer melts or solutions.
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 Advanced techniques:
 3D Bioprinting: Layer-by-layer deposition of bioinks containing cells and biomaterials to
create complex structures.
 Stereolithography: Using light to polymerize photosensitive resins into precise 3D
structures.
 Selective laser sintering: Fusing powdered materials using a laser to build scaffolds layer
by layer.

Scaffold design considerations:

 Biocompatibility: Ensuring that the scaffold does not induce an adverse immune response.
 Biodegradability: Scaffold degradation should match the rate of new tissue formation.
 Mechanical properties: Adequate strength and elasticity to support the tissue and withstand
physiological loads.
 Porosity and pore size: Optimal porosity and pore size to facilitate cell migration, nutrient
diffusion, and waste removal.
 Surface properties: Tailoring surface chemistry and topography to enhance cell attachment
and function.

Cell sources for tissue engineering:

 Autologous cells:
 Derived from the patient’s own tissues.
 Advantages: No immune rejection.
 Disadvantages: Limited availability, potential for disease transfer.

 Allogeneic cells:
 Derived from a donor of the same species.
 Advantages: Readily available, standardized sources.
 Disadvantages: Risk of immune rejection, ethical concerns.

 Xenogeneic cells:
 Derived from a different species.
 Advantages: Abundant sources.
 Disadvantages: High risk of immune rejection, potential for cross-species disease
transmission.

 Stem cells:
 Embryonic stem cells (ESCs), adult stem cells (e.g., mesenchymal stem cells), induced
pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
 Advantages: High proliferation potential, ability to differentiate into various cell types.
 Disadvantages: Ethical concerns (ESCs), potential for tumour formation (iPSCs).

Growth factors and signalling molecules:

 Role: Regulate cell behaviour, including proliferation, differentiation, and migration.
 Types:
 Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs): Promote bone and cartilage formation.
 Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): Stimulates blood vessel formation.
 Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β): Regulates cell growth and differentiation.
 Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs): Involved in wound healing and tissue repair.
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Applications of scaffolds in tissue engineering:

 Bone tissue engineering: Use of scaffolds to treat bone defects, fractures, and osteoarthritis.
 Cartilage tissue engineering: Scaffolds for repairing damaged cartilage in joints.
 Skin tissue engineering: Development of skin substitutes for burn victims and chronic wound
patients.
 Cardiac tissue engineering: Scaffolds for regenerating heart tissue after myocardial infarction.
 Nerve tissue engineering: Scaffolds for repairing nerve injuries and treating
neurodegenerative diseases.

Bioprinting techniques and materials:

Bioprinting or 3D bioprinting is an innovative field in regenerative medicine that involves the

use of 3D printing techniques to create living tissue and organs. 3D bioprinting is a technology
where bioinks, mixed with living cells, are printed in 3D to construct natural tissue-like three
dimensional structures. It holds great promise for various applications, such as tissue engineering,
drug testing, and organ transplantation.

Bioprinting overview:
 Bioprinting is a process that involves layer-by-layer deposition of biological materials to create
three-dimensional structures.
 It combines biological materials, living cells, and biomaterials to fabricate tissues and organs
with functional properties.
 The three basic steps in the 3D bioprinting process include, selection of cells and bioink
materials, mixing of the ingredients and creating the 3D design.

Bioprinting techniques:
a. Extrusion – based Bioprinting:
 Uses a pneumatic or mechanical extruder to deposit bioinks (cell-laden biomaterials) onto a
substrate.
 Suitable for viscous bioinks and large-scale tissue fabrication.
 Allows precise control of cell placement and bioink composition.

b. Inkjet – based Bioprinting:

 Utilizes thermal or piezoelectric mechanisms to eject droplets of bioink onto a substrate.
 High-resolution printing and rapid fabrication are possible.
 Limited cell viability due to shear stress during droplet ejection.

Note: Piezoelectricity – electricity resulting from pressure and latent heat

c. Laser – assisted Bioprinting (LAB):

 Employs a laser to create pressure waves that deposit bioinks onto a receiving substrate.
 High cell viability and spatial control are achievable.
 Well-suited for delicate and sensitive cells.

d. Stereolithography – based Bioprinting:

 Uses light or laser to solidify liquid photopolymerizable bioinks layer by layer.
 Allows high precision and resolution, but limited to photopolymerizable materials.
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e. Magnetic Bioprinting:
 Relies on magnetically labeled cells or particles that are guided to specific locations.
 Non-contact and potentially higher cell viability.

Bioink materials:
 Bioinks serve as the printable materials containing living cells and biomaterials to create tissue-
like structures.
 Common biomaterials include hydrogels, decellularized extracellular matrices (dECMs), and
synthetic polymers.
 Natural hydrogels like collagen, gelatine, and alginate, provide a cell-friendly environment.
 Synthetic polymers, such as polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)
(PLGA), offer mechanical support.
 dECMs mimic the natural tissue microenvironment and support cell adhesion and
differentiation.

Challenges:
 Ensuring cell viability and functionality throughout the bioprinting process.
 Integration of blood vessels and nerves to support tissue survival and function.
 Scaling up bioprinting to create complex organs for transplantation.
 Regulatory and ethical considerations regarding the use of bioprinted tissues and organs.

Bioprinting is a rapidly evolving field, and new techniques and materials continue to emerge as
researchers make advancements in the technology.

Source: Creative commons 4.0

3D Printing of Ears:
3D printing of ears, also known as 3D bioprinting of ears, is a fascinating application of
bioprinting technology. It involves the fabrication of synthetic or biological ears using 3D printing
techniques to aid in medical research, surgical training, and potentially, in the future, for
transplantation.
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Importance of 3D printing of ears:

 Patients born with congenital ear deformities or those who have lost their ears due to accidents
or diseases can benefit from 3D-printed ears.
 Traditional ear reconstruction methods using cartilage grafts have limitations, making 3D
printing an attractive alternative.
 3D printing allows for patient-specific, customized ear structures tailored to individual needs.

3D Printing techniques for ears:

Synthetic polymer-based ears:
 Ears are 3D printed using synthetic biocompatible polymers like polycaprolactone (PCL) or
polylactic acid (PLA).
 These synthetic ears can serve as implants, providing structure and support for aesthetic
restoration.

3D printing of bone:
3D printing of bone, also known as 3D bioprinting of bone, is an emerging field in regenerative
medicine that aims to create bone-like structures using additive manufacturing techniques. These
3D-printed bones constructs hold potential for bone tissue engineering, patient-specific implants,
and bone repair.

Importance of 3D printing of bone:

 Bone defects and injuries resulting from trauma, diseases, or congenital conditions can lead to
functional impairment.
 Traditional bone grafts have limitations, such as donor site morbidity and limited availability.
 3D bioprinting of bone provides a promising approach to create patient-specific bone grafts
with suitable mechanical properties.

3D Printing techniques for bone:

a. Synthetic polymer-based bone constructs:
 3D printing uses synthetic polymers like polycaprolactone (PCL) and polylactic acid (PLA)
to create bone-like structures.
 These scaffolds can be designed to mimic the porous structure of natural bone, facilitating
cell attachment and tissue growth.

b. Bioceramic-based bone constructs:

 Bioceramic materials such as hydroxyapatite (HA) and tricalcium phosphate (TCP) closely
resemble the mineral composition of natural bone.
 3D printing with bioceramics allows for the creation of bioactive bone scaffolds that
promote tissue regeneration.

3D printing of skin:
3D printing of skin, also known as 3D bioprinting of skin, is a cutting-edge technique in the field
of regenerative medicine that aims to create artificial skin constructs. This technology holds
tremendous potential for applications in wound healing, burn treatment, and cosmetic testing,
among others.

Importance of 3D printing of skin:

 Skin injuries, such as burns, chronic wounds, and skin ulcers, can lead to severe complications
if left untreated.
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 Traditional skin grafting techniques have limitations, including limited donor availability and
potential scarring.
 3D bioprinting of skin offers a personalized and more efficient approach to generate skin
constructs for transplantation.

3D printing techniques for skin:

a. Bioprinting with cellular bioinks:
 Bioinks containing living cells (keratinocytes, fibroblasts, etc.) and biomaterials are used to
create skin-like structures.
 The bioprinted skin constructs mimic the complex architecture and functionality of natural
skin.

b. Dermal substitutes:
 Dermal substitutes, such as collagen-based matrices, can be 3D printed to create the
underlying support structure of the skin.
 These dermal constructs can promote cell migration and tissue regeneration.

3D printed food:
3D printed foods are a fascinating application of 3D printing technology that involves the
fabrication of edible food products layer by layer using specialized 3D printers. This innovative
field holds potential for customized nutrition, sustainable food production, and personalized
culinary experiences.

Types of 3D printed foods:

a. Pasta and Noodles: 3D printers can create intricate pasta and noodle shapes that would be
challenging to produce manually.
b. Chocolates and Confectionery: Custom-shaped chocolates and intricate confectioneries can
be easily fabricated.
c. Plant-based and Meat alternatives: 3D printing allows for the creation of plant-based meats
with unique textures and structures.
d. Snacks and Crackers: Complex snack designs can be produced, making them visually
appealing and enjoyable.
e. Personalized nutrition: 3D printers can be used to create nutritionally balanced foods tailored
to individual dietary needs.

Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science:

The terms "Electrical tongue" and "Electrical nose" refer to analytical instruments used in food
science to mimic the human senses of taste and smell, respectively. These electronic sensor
systems are employed for food quality evaluation, process optimization, and authenticity
assessment. They are used to analyse and identify flavours, aromas and chemical compositions in
various substances, particularly in the food and beverage industry.

Electrical Tongue:

Definition and function:

 An electrical tongue, also known as an electronic tongue or e-tongue, is an analytical tool
designed to assess the taste properties of food and beverages.
 It measures the electrical response of taste sensors or electrodes to different chemical
compounds present in the sample.
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Components:
 Sensors: Typically made from electrochemical or biochemical materials. Each sensor responds
to different taste stimuli (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami).
 Signal processing unit: Converts the sensor responses into digital signals.
 Data analysis system: Uses pattern recognition and machine learning algorithms to interpret
the signals and identify the taste profile.

Working principle:
 An electrical tongue comprises an array of sensors, each designed to be sensitive to specific
taste attributes (e.g., sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami).
 When the sample comes into contact with the sensor array, the interaction between the taste
compounds and the sensors generates unique electrical signals.
 The signals are then processed, compared to a database of known tastes and taste profile of the
food or beverage.
 The e-tongue can provide qualitative and quantitative analysis of the taste.

Applications:
 Quality control: Electrical tongues can be used for batch-to-batch consistency testing,
identifying taste defects, and evaluating taste changes during storage.
 Product development: They aid in the formulation of new food products by optimizing taste
profiles based on consumer preferences.
 Authentication: E-tongues can distinguish between genuine and counterfeit food products by
comparing their taste profiles.
 Safety testing: Detects contaminants and off-flavours.

Electrical Nose:

Definition and function:

 An electrical nose, also known as an electronic nose or e-nose, is an analytical instrument
designed to detect and identify odours.
 It employs an array of sensors to mimic the human olfactory system.

Components:
Sensors: Often made from metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS), conducting polymers, or organic
polymers, quartz crystal and even gas-chromatography (GC) or combined with mass spectroscopy
(MS) can be used. Each sensor reacts to different volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Signal processing unit: Converts the sensor responses into digital signals.
Data analysis system: Uses algorithms for pattern recognition and machine learning to analyse
and classify the odours.

Working principle:
 When volatile compounds interact with these sensors, they induce changes in electrical
conductivity or resistance.
 The pattern of responses (signals) from the sensor array creates a unique aroma fingerprint for
the sample. These signals are compared with a database of know odours.
 The e-nose provides an identification and concentration analysis of the odour.

Applications:
 Quality assessment: E-noses can assess the freshness and spoilage of food products based on
their aroma profiles.
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 Flavour optimization: They aid in developing new flavours by analysing the aroma profiles of
different ingredients and blends.
 Process monitoring: E-noses can be used to monitor aroma changes during food processing
and storage.
 Safety testing: Detects contamination and off-odours.
 Packaging testing: Evaluates the integrity and effectiveness of packaging.

Advantages of Electrical Tongue and Electrical Nose:

 Objective analysis: Unlike human sensory panels, electronic tongues and noses provide
consistent and objective measurements.
 Speed: They offer rapid analysis, allowing for high-throughput screening of food samples.
 Non-destructive: These techniques are non-destructive, preserving the sample for further
analysis.
 Cost effectiveness: Reduce the need for extensive sensory panels and human testers.
 Reproducibility: Ensure consistent results, eliminating variability associated with human
perception.

Limitations:
 Complexity: Developing and calibrating sensor arrays can be challenging due to the
complexity of taste and aroma perception.
 Specificity: Achieving high selectivity for different taste or aroma compounds remains a
challenge.

Both electrical tongue and electrical nose technologies continue to advance in the field of food
science. As their accuracy and versatility improve, they hold great promise for enhancing food
quality control, product development, and authenticity assessment in the food industry.

DNA origami and Biocomputing:

Biological materials are self-assembled with near-atomic precision in living cells, whereas
synthetic 3D structures generally lack such precision and controllability. Recently, DNA
nanotechnology, especially DNA origami technology, has been useful in the bottom-up
fabrication of well-defined nanostructures ranging from tens of nanometres to sub-micrometres.

DNA origami:
Definition and concept:
 DNA origami is a nanotechnology technique that involves the folding of DNA strands into
precise and predetermined shapes at the Nano scale level.
 The concept is based on using short synthetic DNA strands called "staple strands" to guide a
longer single-stranded DNA (scaffold) into a desired shape.
 The current method of DNA origami was developed by Paul Rothemund at the California
Institute of Technology. The process involves the folding of a long single strand of viral DNA
(typically the 7,249 bp genomic DNA of M13 bacteriophage) aided by multiple smaller
"staple" strands.
 These shorter strands bind the longer strands in various places, resulting in the formation of a
pre-defined two- or three-dimensional shape. Examples include a smiley face and a coarse map
of China and the Americas, along with many three-dimensional structures such as cubes.
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Working principle:
 The scaffold strand serves as the foundation, and the staple strands interact with specific
regions on the scaffold to bend and fold it into the desired structure.
 By carefully designing the sequence of staple strands, complex two- and three-dimensional
shapes can be achieved.

Applications:
 Many potential applications have been suggested in literature, including enzyme
immobilization, drug delivery systems, and nanotechnological self-assembly of materials.
 DNA origami has the immense potential to contribute significantly in a wide range of fields,
such as diagnosis and drug delivery. Cancer therapy and diagnosis is one such potential domain
where DNA origami showed significant anticancer efficacy and may contribute immensely.
 Nano scale devices: DNA origami has been used to create various Nano scale structures,
including Nano robots, Nano cages, and Nano scale drug delivery systems.
 Bioimaging: DNA origami can be functionalized with fluorescent markers to act as Nano
probes for high-resolution bioimaging.
 Templating: It has been utilized as a scaffold for organizing and assembling other
nanoparticles and molecules.
 Structural Biology: Studying protein interactions and molecular mechanisms.
 Material Science: Developing novel materials with unique properties.
 Biosensing: Creating sensors for detecting molecules or changes in the environment.

Advantages:
 Precision: DNA origami allows for the creation of complex nanostructures with high precision
and controllability.
 Biocompatibility: DNA is biocompatible, making DNA origami an attractive option for
biomedical applications.
 Scalability: Potential for mass production of complex nanostructures.

Challenges:
 Scalability: Current DNA origami techniques are limited in their ability to scale up production
and achieve large-scale structures.
 Stability: Maintaining the structural integrity of DNA origami in various biological
environments can be challenging.
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Biocomputing:
Definition and concept:
 Biocomputing, also known as DNA computing or molecular computing, is a computational
paradigm that uses biological molecules (such as DNA) to perform computation.
 It explores the intersection of biology and computer science, leveraging the information
processing capabilities of biological entities.
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Working principle:
 DNA-based computation relies on the ability of DNA molecules to store and process
information through hybridization and enzymatic reactions.
 Information is encoded as DNA sequences, and operations are performed by manipulating
these sequences using biochemical reactions.

Applications:
 Diagnostic tools: DNA computing has been used to develop biosensors and diagnostic devices
for detecting specific biological targets.
 Environmental monitoring: Engineering microorganisms to detect and respond to pollutants.
 Data storage: Using DNA as a medium for high-density data storage.
 Bio-manufacturing: Production of chemicals, fuels and materials using engineered organisms.
 Optimization problems: DNA computing can be applied to solve optimization problems in
various fields, including biology and engineering.

Advantages:
 Massive parallelism: DNA molecules can process multiple pieces of information
simultaneously, leading to high computational power.
 Data density: DNA can store vast amounts of information in a compact form, making it
attractive for data storage applications.
 Scalability: Potential to scale down to the molecular level.

Challenges:
 Error rates: Biological processes are subject to errors, which can affect the accuracy of
biocomputing operations.
 Readout and output: Translating the results of DNA computations into a readable output
remains a challenge.

Both DNA origami and biocomputing are exciting fields that showcase the potential of DNA as a
versatile material for nanotechnology and computation. Continued research and advancements in
these areas hold promise for numerous practical applications in medicine, nanotechnology, and
information processing.

Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis:

Bioimaging:
 Bioimaging refers to the visualization and creation of images of biological structures and
processes using various imaging techniques. It does not inhibit the various life processes such
as movement, respiration, etc., and it helps to report the 3D structure of specimens apart from
inference physically.
 It is helpful in connecting the observation of subcellular structures and all the tissues in the
multicellular organisms.
 It plays a crucial role in medical diagnosis, research, and treatment planning.
 Nanoparticle fluorescence imaging has been used in gene detection, protein analysis, enzyme
activity evaluation, element tracing, cell tracking, early stage disease diagnosis, tumour related
research, and monitoring real time therapeutic effects.

Imaging modalities:
 Various imaging modalities are used in bioimaging, including X-ray, computed tomography
(CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, positron emission tomography (PET),
and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT).
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Applications:
 Medical diagnosis: Bioimaging is widely used for diagnosing and monitoring various
diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disorders, neurological conditions, and
musculoskeletal issues.
 Research: It enables the study of cellular and molecular processes, organ function, and disease
progression.
 Treatment planning: Bioimaging helps physicians plan surgeries and treatments by providing
detailed information about the patient's anatomy.
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Advancements:
 Functional imaging: Besides structural imaging, functional imaging techniques, such as
functional MRI (fMRI) and PET, allow the assessment of physiological processes in real-time.
 Molecular imaging: Molecular imaging techniques use specific tracers to visualize cellular
processes and molecular interactions.

Challenges:
 Image interpretation: Analysing complex bioimages can be time-consuming and subject to
variability among different experts.
 Image quality: Obtaining high-quality images while minimizing radiation exposure remains a
challenge.

Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis:

Introduction:
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that aims to create machines
capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence.
 AI is increasingly being applied to medical imaging and disease diagnosis to enhance accuracy
and efficiency.

Role of AI in disease diagnosis:

 AI algorithms can analyse large volumes of medical data and images to identify patterns and
make accurate predictions.
 AI can assist medical professionals in detecting diseases earlier, improving patient outcomes,
and reducing diagnostic errors.

AI techniques in disease diagnosis:

 Machine learning: AI algorithms can be trained on large datasets to recognize patterns in
medical images and aid in disease classification.
 Deep learning: Deep neural networks, a type of machine learning, excel in feature extraction
and image recognition tasks.

Applications:
 Cancer diagnosis: AI is used to analyse radiological images, pathology slides, and genomic
data to detect cancerous lesions and tumours.
 Neurological disorders: AI helps in early detection and monitoring of conditions like
Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis.
 Cardiac imaging: AI can analyse cardiac images to detect heart abnormalities and assess
cardiovascular risk.

Advantages:
 Enhanced accuracy: AI algorithms can achieve high accuracy levels in disease diagnosis,
potentially surpassing human performance.
 Efficiency: AI can process vast amounts of medical data quickly, leading to faster diagnosis
and treatment planning.

Challenges:
 Data quality: The performance of AI models relies heavily on the quality and diversity of the
training data.
 Interpretability: Some AI models, particularly deep learning algorithms, are often considered
"black boxes," making it challenging to understand the decision-making process.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Conclusion: The integration of bioimaging and artificial intelligence has the potential to
revolutionize disease diagnosis and healthcare by providing accurate and efficient tools for
medical professionals. Continued research and development in these areas will lead to further
advancements and improved patient care.

Self-healing Bioconcrete:

Self-healing bioconcrete is an innovative construction material that has the ability to repair cracks
and damage on its own without human intervention. It is achieved by incorporating bacterial
spores, calcium lactate nutrients, and biomineralization processes into the concrete matrix.

Introduction to self-healing Bioconcrete:

 Bioconcrete is a type of concrete that incorporates living organisms, typically bacterial spores,
to promote self-healing capabilities.
 The use of bacteria in concrete allows for in-situ repair of cracks, prolonging the service life of
structures and reducing maintenance costs.

Mechanism of self-healing:
 The self-healing process in bioconcrete is triggered when cracks form and allow water to enter
the concrete matrix.
 Bacterial spores, such as Bacillus species, become activated in the presence of water and
calcium lactate nutrients.
 The activated bacteria consume the calcium lactate, producing calcium carbonate through a
biomineralization process.
 This calcium carbonate precipitation fills the cracks, sealing them and restoring the structural
integrity of the concrete.

Advantages of self-healing Bioconcrete:

 Extended service life: Self-healing bioconcrete can extend the service life of structures,
reducing the need for frequent repairs and replacements.
 Sustainable solution: The self-healing process reduces the consumption of additional
materials and minimizes construction waste.
 Cost-effective: Over time, the reduced maintenance costs make bioconcrete a cost-effective
option.

Challenges:
 Longevity: The viability and longevity of the bacterial spores in the concrete matrix can vary
depending on environmental conditions and the specific bacteria used.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

 Crack size limitations: Self-healing is most effective for small and hairline cracks; larger
cracks may still require traditional repair methods.

Field applications:
 The concept of self-healing bioconcrete has been tested in various lab settings and pilot
projects.
 Real-world applications are gradually being explored in infrastructure projects, including
roads, bridges, and buildings.

Environmental impact:
 Self-healing bioconcrete has the potential to contribute to more sustainable and eco-friendly
construction practices.
 The reduction in repair materials and energy consumption aligns with sustainable development
goals.

Self-healing bioconcrete holds promise as a solution to address the issue of concrete cracking and
degradation, improving the durability and resilience of concrete structures. As research and
development continue, the application of self-healing bioconcrete is likely to expand, offering a
sustainable and cost-effective option for the construction industry.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Bioremediation and Bio mining:

Bioremediation:
 Bioremediation is a natural or engineered process that uses microorganisms to degrade,
transform, or remove pollutants from contaminated environments.
 It is a sustainable and eco-friendly approach for the cleanup of polluted soils, sediments, and
water bodies.

Microbial Bioremediation:
 Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, play a vital role in bioremediation by metabolizing
or immobilizing toxic pollutants.
 These microorganisms have the ability to break down or adsorb heavy metals, converting them
into less toxic forms or sequestering them from the environment.

Types of Bioremediation:
Bioremediation is of three types –
1. Biostimulation:
As the name suggests, the bacteria is stimulated to initiate the process. The contaminated soil is
first mixed with special nutrients substances including other vital components either in the form of
liquid or gas. It stimulates the growth of microbes thus resulting in efficient and quick removal of
contaminants by microbes and other bacteria.

2. Bioaugmentation:
At times, there are certain sites where microorganisms are required to extract the contaminants,
e.g. municipal wastewater. In these special cases, the process of bioaugmentation is used, where
bacterial cultures are introduced to enhance the contaminant degradation. There’s only one major
drawback in this process. It almost becomes impossible to control the growth of microorganisms
in the process of removing the contaminant.

3. Intrinsic Bioremediation:
The process of intrinsic bioremediation is most effective in the soil and water because of these
two biomes which always have a high probability of being full of contaminants and toxins. The
process of intrinsic bioremediation is mostly used in underground places like underground
petroleum tanks. In such place, it is difficult to detect a leakage and contaminants and toxins can
find their way to enter through these leaks and contaminate the petrol. Thus, only microorganisms
can remove the toxins and clean the tanks.

Biomass accumulation:
 Some microorganisms can accumulate heavy metals within their biomass through a process
called biosorption.
 The metal ions bind to the cell surface functional groups, such as carboxyl, amine, and
phosphate groups, in a reversible manner.

Applications:
 Heavy metal removal: Bioremediation is applied to remove heavy metals like lead, cadmium,
mercury, and arsenic from contaminated sites.
 Organic pollutant degradation: It is also used to treat organic pollutants, such as
hydrocarbons and pesticides.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Advantages:
 Environmentally friendly: Bioremediation is a natural process that avoids the use of harsh
chemicals.
 Cost-effective: It can be a cost-effective alternative to traditional cleanup methods.
 Minimizes disruption: Bioremediation can often be carried out on-site, reducing the need for
excavation and transportation of contaminated materials.

Bioremediation helps clean up water sources, create healthier soil, and improve air quality around
the globe. But unlike excavation-based remediation processes, which can be disruptive,
bioremediation is less intrusive and can facilitate remediation of environmental impacts without
damaging delicate ecosystems.
Immobilization of microbial cells and enzymes by adsorption takes place through their physical
interaction with the surface of water-insoluble carriers. This method, commonly used in
bioremediation processes, is quick, simple, eco-friendly and cost-effective.
Microorganisms are utilized in bioremediation because of their ability to degrade environmental
pollutants due to their metabolism via biochemical pathways related to the organism’s activity and
growth.

Biomining via microbial surface adsorption:

 Biomining is a biohydrometallurgical approach that utilizes microorganisms to recover metals
of economic interest from low-grade ores or mining waste materials. It is also used to clean up
sites that have been polluted with metals.
 Valuable metals are commonly bound up in solid minerals. Some microbes can oxidise these
metals, allowing them to dissolve in water and facilitate metal extraction.

Bioleaching:
 Bioleaching involves the use of microorganisms to solubilize metals from ores by oxidizing
metal sulfides and converting them into metal ions.
 The metal ions are then leached from the ore, making it easier to recover them.
 Microbes from the Acidthiobacillus and Leptospirillum genera are used generally to do the job.

Biooxidation:
 In biooxidation, microorganisms oxidize metal sulfides to release metal ions, making them
accessible for extraction.
 This process is particularly useful for the extraction of copper, gold, and uranium from low-
grade ores.

Applications:
 Metal extraction: Biomining is applied to extract valuable metals from mineral ores and
mining waste materials.
 Environmental remediation: It can also be used to recover metals from contaminated soils
and industrial waste streams. The metal ions of wastewater adhere to the surface of nanoporous
adsorbents, which has a high surface area due to its porosity. The adsorption process could be
selective for one or more metals. The regeneration process could be achieved using a desorbing
agent.

Advantages:
 Low environmental impact: Biomining is considered more environmentally friendly than
traditional mining methods.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

 Lower energy consumption: It often requires less energy compared to conventional metal
extraction techniques.

Both bioremediation and biomining via microbial surface adsorption offer sustainable and
efficient approaches for dealing with heavy metal contamination and metal extraction from ores.
As research and technological advancements continue, these methods are expected to play an
increasingly important role in environmental restoration and mineral resource recovery.