Power in Single Phase AC Circuits

Let us consider the following circuit.

i(t)

+ V
− v (t) Load
I
θ V θI

Let √
v (t) = Vm sin(ωt + θV ) = 2V sin(ωt + θV )
√
i(t) = Im sin(ωt + θI ) = 2I sin(ωt + θI )
The instantaneous power delivered to the load is

p(t) = v (t)i(t)
p(t) = Vm sin(ωt + θV )Im sin(ωt + θI )
Vm Im
p(t) = (cos(θV − θI ) − cos(2ωt + θV + θI ))
2
Vm Im Vm Im
p(t) = cos(θV − θI ) − cos(2ωt + θV + θI )
2 2
p, v , i
p
Vm
v
Im
i

ωt
ϕ θI
θV

Figure: Voltage, current and power in RL circuit

Let θV − θI be ϕ.

p(t) = VI cos ϕ − VI cos(2ωt + θV + θI )

p(t) = VI cos ϕ − VI cos(2ωt + θV − θI + 2θI )

p(t) = VI cos ϕ − VI cos(2ωt + 2θI + ϕ)
p(t) = VI cos ϕ(1 − cos(2ωt + 2θI )) + VI sin ϕ sin(2ωt + 2θI )
| {z } | {z }
pI pII

pI has an average value of VI cos ϕ which is called the average

power.

pII does not have an average. But it’s maximum value is VI sin ϕ
which is called reactive power.
p
p = pI + pII
pI

Q
P

pII
ωt

Figure: Power in RL circuit

Power
The average power P is
Vm Im
P= cos(θV − θI ) = VI cos(ϕ)
2
where ϕ = θV − θI . Its unit is watts (W).
The reactive power Q is

Q = VI sin ϕ VAr
The apparent power S is

|S| = VI
Its unit is volt-ampere (VA).
The ratio of real power (P) to apparent power is called as the
power factor (pf).
VI cos ϕ
pf = = cos ϕ
VI
Since cos ϕ can never be greater than unity, P ≤ |S|.
Complex Power

Let us define voltage phasor and current phasor.

V = V ∠θV , I = I ∠θI

The complex power S is

S = VI∗
S = V ∠θV I ∠ − θI
= VI ∠(θV − θI )
S = VI cos ϕ + ȷVI sin ϕ
The real part of S is called the average power (P). The imaginary
part of S is called the reactive power (Q).

S = P + ȷQ
 Im Im

S Q
V

ϕ I
θV θI ϕ
Re P Re
Figure: RL load

If V leads I (ϕ > 0), power factor is lagging.

 Im Im

V
I
θV = θI
Re P=S Re
Figure: Resisitive Load

If V and I are in phase (ϕ = 0), power factor is unity.

 Im P
−ϕ Re

I
V
ϕ Q
θI θV S
Re Im
Figure: RC load

If I leads V (ϕ < 0), power factor is leading.

For two loads (inductive and capacitive) in parallel,

S1 P2
Q1
S2 Q2
ST QT

P1 PT

PT = P1 + P2 ; QT = Q1 + Q2
But
|ST | =
̸ |S1 | + |S2 |
Power Factor Control

▶ If pf decreases, the current will increase to supply the same

real power.
▶ This will increase the line loss. (It is an additional cost to a
utility.)
▶ Capacitors which supply reactive power are connected in
parallel to improve the power factor.

S
Q
−Qc
Load C Snew
Qnew
ϕnew
P
Example 1 : A single-phase inductive load draws 1 kW at 0.6
power-factor lagging from a 230 V AC supply.
1. Find the current it draws.
2. Find the value of a capacitor to be connected in parallel with
the load to raise the power factor to 0.9 lagging. Determine
the current under this condition.
1.
1000
I = = 7.24 A
230 × 0.6
Q = 230 × 7.24 × 0.8 = 1.332 kVAr
1.6652 kVA
I
1.332 kVAR

Load
53.13◦
1 kW
2.
pfnew = 0.9; ϕnew = 25.84◦
Qnew = QL − Qc
Qnew = P × tan 25.84◦ = 484.32 VAr
Qc = 847.68 VAr
Qc = V 2 ωC
C = 51 µF
1000
I = = 4.83 A
230 × 0.9
S
I
QL

Snew −Qc
Load C Qnew
25.84◦
1 kW
Power in Balanced Three Phase Circuits

Let va , vb and vc be the instantaneous voltages of a balanced three

phase source.
√
va = 2V sin(ωt + θV )
√
vb = 2V sin(ωt + θV − 120◦ )
√
vc = 2V sin(ωt + θV − 240◦ )

When it supplies a balanced load,

√
ia = 2I sin(ωt + θI )
√
ib = 2I sin(ωt + θI − 120◦ )
√
ic = 2I sin(ωt + θI − 240◦ )
The instantaneous power is

p = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
√ √
p = 2Vp sin(ωt + θV ) × 2Ip sin(ωt + θI )
√ √
2Vp sin(ωt + θV − 120◦ ) × 2Ip sin(ωt + θI − 120◦ )
√ √
2Vp sin(ωt + θV − 240◦ ) × 2Ip sin(ωt + θI − 240◦ )
p =Vp Ip cos(θV − θI ) + Vp Ip cos(2ωt + θV + θI )
Vp Ip cos(θV − θI ) + Vp Ip cos(2ωt + θV + θI − 120◦ )
Vp Ip cos(θV − θI ) + Vp Ip cos(2ωt + θV + θI − 240◦ )

p = 3Vp Ip cos ϕ
where ϕ = θV − θI .
The instantaneous power in a 3 phase balanced system is constant.
p, v , i

ωt

Figure: Voltage, current and power in a R-L load

The average/real power in a 3-phase system is

P = 3Vp Ip cos ϕ Watts

√
In a Y connected load, VL = 3Vp and IL = Ip ,
√
P = 3VL IL cos ϕ
√
In a ∆ connected load, VL = Vp and IL 3Ip ,
√
P = 3VL IL cos ϕ

Therefore, the three phase real power is

√
P = 3Vp Ip cos ϕ = 3VL IL cos ϕ
Since the instantaneous power in a 3-phase balanced system is
constant, it does not mean that there is no reactive power. Still
the instantaneous power of individual phases is pulsating.
The 3-phase reactive power is
√
Q = 3Vp IP sin ϕ = 3VL IL sin ϕ VAr

The apparent power is

p √
|S| = P 2 + Q 2 = 3Vp Ip = 3VL IL VA
Per Phase Analysis

If a three phase system is balanced and there is no mutual

inductance between phases, it is enough to analyze it on per phase
basis.
1. Convert all ∆ connected sources and loads into equivalent Y
connections.
2. Solve for phase a variables using the phase a circuit with
neutrals connected.
3. Other phase variables can be found from the phase a variables
using the symmetry.
4. If necessary, find line-line variables from the original circuit.
Synchronous Machine Model

The per phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine is

Xs Ia Ra

+
+
E δ Vt 0◦
−
−
Transformer Model
The per phase equivalent circuit of a transformer is
Req Xeq

Rc Xm

▶ Since the impedance of the shunt path is larger, Rc and Xm

are neglected.
▶ Since Req is much smaller than Xeq , Req can be eliminated.
Xeq
Example 2: Consider a system where a three phase 440 V, 50 Hz
source is supplying power to two loads. Load 1 is a ∆ connected
load with a phase impedance of 10∠30◦ Ω and load 2 is a Y
connected load with a phase impedance of 5∠36.87◦ Ω.
1. Find the line current and the overall power factor of the
system.
2. Determine the capacitance per phase in µF of a three phase
bank of delta connected capacitors to be added in parallel to
the load to improve the overall power factor unity. Find the
line current under this condition.
1. The per phase equivalent circuit after using ∆ to Y
transformation,
IL
+

440 10 30◦
√ 5 36.87◦
3 3

−
√ √
440/ 3 440/ 3
IL = +
10/3 30◦ 5 36.87◦
IL = 106.64 − ȷ68.6A
IL = 126.8 −32.75◦ A

pf = cos(−32.75◦ ) = 0.84 lag

2. The per phase equivalent circuit with a capacitor bank
IL
+

440 10 30◦ Xc
√ 5 36.87◦ −ȷ
3 3 3

To make overall power factor unity, IL must be in phase with

the voltage.
∴ Ic = ȷ68.6A
3 × 440
Xc = √ = 11.11 Ω
3 × 68.6
C = 286.52 µF
Example 3: Consider a system where a three phase 400 V, 50 Hz
source is supplying power to two loads. Load 1 draws 5 kW at 0.8
pf lagging and load 2 draws 5 kW at unity power factor. The
voltage across the loads is 400 V.
1. Find the line current and the overall power factor.
2. Find the value of kVAR required from a bank of capacitors
connected across the loads to improve the overall power factor
to unity. Determine the line current under this condition.
1.
5000
IL1 = √ =9A
3 × 400 × 0.8
5000
IL2 = √ = 7.2; A
3 × 400 × 1
IL = 9 −36.87◦ + 7.2 0◦ = 15.38 −20.56◦ A
pf = 0.9363 lag
QT = Q1 + Q2 = 3.75 + 0 = 3.75 kVAR
2. To make overall power factor unity,

QC + QT = 0

QC = −3.75 kVAR
(-ve indicates that the capacitor supplies reactive power.)

∴ QC = 3.75 kVAR

When pf is unity, S = P.

PT 10 × 103
IL = √ =√ = 14.4 A
3VL 3 × 400

IL = 14.4 0◦ A