Review Artcile

International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

ISSN: 2582-7634
Volume 3, Issue - 7

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 13

July 2022
 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634
Access the article online

International Journal of
Indian Medicine

‘Conceptual review of Kasa with reference to Kaphaj Kasa according to Ayurveda.’

Danga SK, Kadu V.
Associate Professor, Department of Kumarbhrutya, Jupiter Ayurved Medical College, Nagpur.
Professor, Department of Kayachikitsa, Bhausaheb Mulak Ayurved College & Research Hospital, Nagpur.

Abstract:
The respiratory ailment that affects everyone at some point in their lives is a cough. The incidence of
respiratory system-related incidents has significantly increased in recent years. The fifth most typical
symptom for which a patient seeks medical attention is kasa. In the Ayurvedic classics, Kasa is
considered as an independent disease. It may also occur as Lakshana (symptom) or Upadarava
(complication) in other diseases. It is an example of Pranavaha Srotas Dushti. According to Acharya
Charaka, the Moola of Pranavaha Srotas are Hridya (Brain, Heart) and Mahasrotas. Acharyas have
described definition, etiological factors, prodromal symptoms, symptoms, types of Kasa along with all
Pathya (wholesome) and Apathya (unwholesome) and therapeutic measures. Kasa is manifested with
the vitiation of Vata and Kapha. Understanding and differentiating Kasa is important for its effective
treatment. The study of Kasa is necessary as it can be associated with many complications if left
untreated.
Key-words – Kaphajakasa, chronic bronchitis, cough, Pranvahastrotas, Kasa.

Corresponding Author:
Dr. Sundarsingh K Danga
Associate Professor, Department of Kumarbhrutya,
Jupiter Ayurved Medical College, Nagpur.
Email id: sunder147@gmail.com

How to cite this article : Danga SK, Kadu V. Conceptual review of Kasa with reference to Kaphaj Kasa
according to Ayurveda. Int J Ind Med 2022;3(7):14-24 http://doi.org/10.55552/IJIM.2022.3703

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 14

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

INTRODUCTION: increased urbanisation. respiratory tract

The respiratory ailment that affects everyone disorders have been the most frequently
at some point in their lives is a cough. The reported diseases in recent years. This needs
incidence of respiratory system-related ongoing medical care.
incidents has significantly increased in recent According to the Charaka Samhita, one
years. The fifth most typical symptom for should administer care based on the severity
which a patient seeks medical attention is of the illness or the predominance of the
kasa.[1] Due to excessive air pollution brought doshas. Given that the severity of each form
on by globalisation, urbanisation, of Kasa grows in turn across the doshic
industrialization, and embrace of western categories of the most crucial condition to
culture, the prevalence of a respiratory cure is kasa kaphaja kasa, which if neglected
ailment has increased. exposure to a variety or ignored may result in crises such tamaka
of chemicals, heavy metals, organic shwas, kshataja kasa, or kshayaja kasa. While
compounds, and inorganic materials. Kasa treating, one should concentrate on kapha
has been characterised by Acharya Charaka nirharan or shaman and vata shaman by
as a distinct illness. It has been noted as a normalising its path because in samprapti of
symptom, complication, and sequela in kaphaja kasa, kapha dosha obstructs the gati
certain disorders as well as a separate of vata and as a result, vata follows aberrant
disease. One of the most prevalent diseases course. Kasa is a rapidly degrading condition
affecting pranvaha strotas, according to that, if untreated, can progress to shwas,
Ayurveda, is kasa. The Kaphaja kasa, one of kshaya, chhardi, swarsad, etc. Kasa should
the five varieties of kasa, has gained more thus be addressed right away.[3,4]
prevalence.[2] Literary view: [5-8]

Environmental variables including According to:

pollutants, allergens, smoke, dust, both • Rigveda - Bibhitaka is recommended
active and passive smoking, air pollution, for kasa roga .
occupational risks, etc. are having a growing • Atharva veda - Kasa roga is described
impact on it, and these situations are as one of the upadrava of takman
inescapable in daily life. Overcrowding and (jwara).
unclean circumstances are caused by

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 15

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

• Charaka Samhita - In Charaka related illnesses, as well as their causes,

Samhita, Kasa vyadhi is described kinds, and treatments.
mainly in its chikitsa sthana. Here are five types of Kasa (cough)
• Sushrut Samhita - In this Samhita 1) Vatika kaasa
description of Kasa vyadhi and its 2) Paitika kaasa
treatment is mentioned in uttar 3) Kaphaja kaasa
tantra. 4) Kshataja kaasa
• Ashtang Hrudaya - In Nidana-sthana 5) Kshayaja kaasa.
kasa vyadhi is described along with ❖ Premonitory signs and symptoms of
Rakta-Pitta. It is having five types Kasa (bronchitis)
namely Vataja – Kasa, Pittaja Kasa 1) A sensation as if the throat and mouth
,Kaphaja Kasa, Khataja kasa, Kshayaja are filled with bristles
kasa and its chikitsa has been 2) Itching sensation in the throat
explained in chikitsasthan. 3) Obstruction to the movement of food
• Sharandhar Samhita - Kasa vyadhi is in the gullet.
explained with all its types in chapter The patient during the premonitory stage of
7th of poorvakhand. kasa becomes incapable of taking food
• Bhavprakash - In madhyam khanda because of associated anorexia or because of

12th chapter, Kasa vyadhi is his inability to swallow food.

described. ❖ Purvaroopa of kasa 11,12

Etymology of Kasa 1) Shukapurna galasyata (a feeling of

Basically, it has been derived from Ku-shabde congestion in throat).
that means production of vikrut dhwani. 2) Kanthe kandu (Itching sensation in throat)
According to Acharya charaka9-10 3)Bhojyanam Avrodh (Obstruction to the
Kasa is the word for loud, obstructed air that movement of food in the gut)
is ejected through the larynx. Chapter 18 of ❖ Pathogenesis (samprapti)13
Chikitsasthan contains an explanation of The bottom region of the body is where

Kasa and how it is treated by Charaka. It Vatadosha becomes blocked. As it goes

covers the ayurvedic remedies for cough and higher, it affects the upper body's circulatory

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 16

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

system, takes over the respiratory system's rigidity of the eyes, back, and sides of the
udana vayu function, and lodges in the neck chest, which causes coughing that may be dry
and chest. This fills up all of the channels in or with phlegm, thus the name Kasa (cough)
the brain and causes the eyes, mouth, sides of (the ailment is called as Kasa because it
the neck (sterno-mastoid muscle), and involves the movement of vayu and because
Abhanjan and Aksipan of the body to bend. it afflicts chest,etc).
This vayu then results in the constriction and

Hetu sevan causes Kapha Prakop which in

turn causes Srotorodh

Obstruction to Pranvayu gati Resulting into

pratilom gati of pranvayu

Prakopa in Uraha ,Kantha pradesh

Abhinjan, Akshepan in Deh ,hanu, Manya

Forceful expulsion of sadosh pranvayu i.e

Kasa

Aetiology of Kaphaja kaasa 14 the movement of vayu which gives rise to

The causative factor of kaphaja type of kaasa kaphaja type of kaasa.
are as follows : ❖ Signs and symptoms
1)Intake of heavy, abhishyandi, which causes Nisthivateghanam Kapha (secretion
obstruction to the channels of circulation of sticky mucous), Kanthe Kandu
sweet and unctuous ingreidients (inexcess) (itching in throat), Utklesh (Nausea),
and Peenasa (coryza), Murdhashoola
2) Excessive sleep and indolence (Headache), Kasatishushkamev (Dry
The kapha gets aggravated because of the the cough), Pandu (anaemia), Mandagni
above-mentioned symptoms and obstructs (indigestion), Guruta (heaviness in

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 17

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

body), Trishna (thirst) and Vaman ✓ Kulathadi Ghrita - Ghee cooked with
(vomiting). the kulatha qwath and the paste of
❖ Treatment of Kaphaja Kasa 14,15 Panchakol is useful in, hiccups,
✓ If the patient is suffering from kaphaja asthma and, Kaphaja Kasa.
kasa is strong then he should be given ✓ He should then be administered
Vaman, barley and such other kapha upward purgation (Emesis therapy),
alleviating ingriedient as are downward purgatives (Purgation
pungent,unctuous and hot in therapy) and for the head Nasya
potencty to eat. (Nasal medication) appropriately. A
✓ The patient should take light food strong person may be administered
with the soup of kulatha mixed with strong purgatives.
the powder of pippali and alkalies. ✓ Warm decoction of Dashamoola,
✓ Pushkarmool root of Aragwadh and warm water, vines or honey water
patol should be kept in water for the processed with roots of Pushkara,
whole night next morning the water Shamyak, Patol kept overnight and
should be stained out and added with mixed with honey should be used the
honey they should be taken before next for drinking during all the three
during and after meals. times of meals.
✓ Devdaru Shati Leha (Linctuses) prepared from drugs
Rasna,Karkatshringi,Duralabha( enumerated in the following seven half
should be made to powders ) mixed verses, used along with honey cures Kaphaj
with honey and oil. Intake of this kasa .
linctus cures Kaphaja Kasa associated • Pippali, Pippali mool, Shrungavera,
wih aggrevated Vata. and Bibhitak
Pippali ,Nagara, Musta ,Pathya ,Dhatri, • Ash of feathers of peacock and cock
And Sitopala ( should be made to and Kshar prepared from Yava.
powders ) mixed with honey and oil. • Vishala, Pippali mool and Trivrit.
Intake of this linctus cures Kaphaja Powder of marich should be licked with
Kasa associated wih aggrevated Vata. honey or jongala with honey or juice of any

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 18

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

one out of Vyaghri, Bhringa, Vartaka, Avleha and Smoking therapy has also been
Kasaghna, Horse dung and asita Surasa told.
(Krishna Tulsi) According to Sushrut Samhita16-18
Gudadi yog Kasa refers to a sound that sounds like
Gudakshara (Yavakshar), ushna, kana and kansya-dhatu cracking (Indian bell Metal ).
dadim in the proportion of two pala, half According to where it originated, this illness is
aksha(karsha), one karsha, half karsha and split into five categories. As it was brought on
one pala irrespectively licked with honey by the body's dysfunctional Vayu, Pitta, or
cures dyspnoea and cough. Kapha, or because the organism had an ulcer
Dadimadi Yog (Kshata), or it was through a wasting process
Two pala of dadima, eight pala of (Kshayaj). Physicians who practise recognise
Guda(jaggery) and three pala of Vyosha licked these five forms of kasa, which, when fully
with honey improves taste, kindles digestion, established (i.e., if neglected), tend to cause
improves voice and cures nasal catarrh, yakshma (Phthisis).
dyspnoea and cough. ❖ Etiology with Samprapti
Other treatment : The reasons of high cough and asthma
Patha, Shunthi, Shati, murva, gavakshi, attacks are the same ones that induce
pippali and Ghana are all masserated in hot coughing, and they are outlined below. The
water mixed with hingu and saindhava and entry of smoke or dust particles (into the
taken as a drink. Similarly, musta, shati, nostrils and larynx), over exhaustion, physical
shunthi, nagar, ativisha, abhaya can also be exercise, excessive use of any dry or parched
used or the drugs coming with pathya food, any food going the wrong way,
described in the treatment of fever may be voluntary suppression of sneezing or of any
used along with bhringa acts as a digestive or natural propulsion of the body are just a few
dipyaka, trivrit, vishala, Ghana, pushkar, kana of the factors that can derange the vital Vayu
are boiled in cow’s urine or water and taken of the body, also known as Pranavayu, along
as a drink by the patient of kaphaj kasa.Kaas with other doshas (pitta and kapha). This
Nashak ghrita KantaKari Ghrita, Kantakari causes it to be quickly forced upward and
released through the mouth, where it joins

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 19

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

with the disorganised Udana vayu (located in with the kalka of patha vit-salt,
the trachea) and produces an odd sound that vyosha, vidanga, saindhava,
sounds like a broken Indian bell. trikantaka (gokshur) Rasna ,Chitraka,
❖ Pre-monitoring Symptoms Vata, shringi, vacha, musta and sunthi,
Itching in the throat, a sense of obstruction process curative in asthama ,dullness
while eating (Difficulty in deglutination), a of digestion, hoarseness in voice as
sticky feeling in throat and in the palate, well as the violent attacks of the
changed voice, aversion and dullness of the different types of cough.
digestive fire are the symptoms which usher ✓ Inhalation of dhuma - The patient is
in attack of all the five kasa. made to inhale the smoke of a varti
❖ Specific Symptoms (medicinal stick) composed of
A person affected with the kasa of the kaphaja bharangi, vacha and hinga ,pounded
type complains of the sticky sense in the together and mixed with clarified
mouth, a sense of physical lassitude, butter or with the scrapings of
headache, aversion of food, a sense bamboo, ela and lavana mixed with
heaviness in the body, itching, frequent bouts clarified butter.
of cough and thick mucous expectoration are ✓ Similarly a patient suffering from an
the features with which distinguishes it. attack of cough due to vaat and kapha
should inhale the smoke of a varti
❖ Treatment of Kaphaja kasa: 19,20

prepared with musta bark of ingudi,

✓ A case of cough due to the deranged
yashtimadhu and mansi, manashila
bodily kapha is relieved by the use of
amd Hartaal pasted together with
trikatu or the clarified butter duly
goats urine and then take a draught of
cooked with expressed juice of
milk.
krimighna (vidanga )or with the
✓ Milk duly boiled and cooked with the
expressed juice of the leaves of
admixture of draksha ,Ambu
Nirgundi .
(valka,manjishtha and pura
✓ A clarified butter duly cooked in
(guggulu)should be taken with honey.
combination with twice as much as
juice of nidigdhika (kantakari) and

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 20

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

✓ Well boiled mudga should be taken the diagnosis of any disease. Kaphaprakopa
with powdered kantakari ,Nagara ,and is caused by the etiological element’s guru,
pippali mixed with honey. snigdha, utkedi, vijjalaahara, and
✓ Utkarika prepared with clarified diwaswapna. These Nidhana exacerbate
butter mula and truti (ela) leaves of Kapha in the uras, which prevents Vata from
vadara and a copious quantity of moving lower in the pranavashastrotas. As a
powdered nagara should be used. result, vata experiences pratilomagati, which
✓ A thin peya prepared with preceeding emerges as Kasa with Kapha Shteevana.
drugs may be taken cold in Avasthika samprati and veg kalensamprathi
combination with honey. are two categories of Kaphaja Kasa's
❖ Samprapti ghataka`s of Kaphaja samprati. Both vata and kapha have a
kasa tendency to become vitiated by the causes.
• Dosha - Kapha, Vata The early stages of samprati are
• Dushya - Rasa udanavatadusti and kaphadusti. Kapha will
• Agni - Jatharagnimandya interfere with udanavata's ability to execute
• Ama - Jatharagnimandyajanyaama its job, and these doshas will take up
• Strotas – Pranavaha and Rasavaha residence in Uraha, Kantha, and Shiras. The

• Srotodusti - Sanga Samprapti leading to Aadraj Kaphaja Kasa

• Udbhavasthana - Amashya Vega, where Kasa is related with Nishtivana,

• Sancharasthana - Rasayani (Srotas) would be precipitated at Vegakala

• Adhishtana Urahpradesha Vyajakahetu by characters like Raja, Dhuma,

DISCUSSION: and Shithambu.

Kasa (cough) can manifest as either At various phases of the therapy for

Pradhan Vyadhi or Updravya of any ailment, kaphajakasa, several modes of approaches

making its diagnosis difficult. The are required. The majority of the time, a

comprehensive understanding of the Nidana multi-treatment strategy must be used, says

(aetiology), Purvaroopa (prodromal Nidana Parivarjana. It is the most crucial

symptoms), Roopa (symptoms), Samprapti component of therapy. A person with Kaphaja

(pathogenesis), and Samprapti is crucial for Kasa must avoid things that might provoke it,

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 21

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

such as smoking and breathing in dust. To kaphajakasa may be connected. First and
prevent these Nidana, a person occasionally foremost, according to our acharyas, raja and
has to change his line of work. Examples dhuma are to blame for the manifestation of
include using a mask and avoiding air Kasa since they start the pathological process
conditioning. When travelling to cold in pranavahasamprati, and chronic
climates and throughout the winter, patients bronchitis can also appear in those who
should exercise greater caution. smoke regularly or are constantly exposed to
Kastoushadhi and Rashushadhi are two dust at work. In order to cure the
single medications that are recommended for Kaphajakasa, Nidana Parivarjana, various
Kaphaja Kasa. These have Kasagnaguna, Shamnoushdhis, and other Shodhana
Katu, Ushna, Tikshna, Sukshma, Chedana, techniques would be helpful. These Shamana
and Kaphanissaraka. In Kaphaja Kasa, medications most likely include expectorant,
Trikatu, Pippali, Kantakari Avaleha, and mucolytic, and cough suppressant
Agastya Haritaki Avaleha are all useful. properties.
Rasayana in kaphajakasa can be utilised with REFERENCES:
Pippali and AgasthyaHaritaki Yoga. Vamana is
1. Bramhananda Tripathi, Ashtang
the first line of Shodhana in the KaphajaKasa.
Hridayam with Nirmala Hindi
Vamana will drive out Dushita Kapha and
commentary edition
relieve Aavarana to Vata, producing a more
2014Chaukhamba Sanskrit
significant and productive outcome in
Pratishthan ,Delhi Nidansthan 3/37
Kaphaja Kasa.
Page no 453.
CONCLUSION:
2. Bramhananda Tripathi, Ashtang
Cough is seen as a disease in ayurveda,
Hridayam with Nirmala Hindi
despite the fact that modern science only
commentary edition
views it as a symptom. The nature of the
2014Chaukhamba Sanskrit
cough and the production of sputum can be
Pratishthan ,Delhi Nidansthan 3/38
used to understand the different types of
Page no 453
Kasa. Based on the Nidana, Samprati, and
Lakshana, chronic bronchitis and

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 22

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

3. Rajaradhakantadev 9. Yadav Ji Trikamji Acharya, Charaka

,Shabdakalpadrum,Nag Publishers Samhita of Agnivesha elaborated by
,Reprint 1987 Page No 121 Charaka and Dridhabala,
4. Shri Vaidya Ravishastri Chakradutta chikitsasthana, 18th Adhyaya, verse 6,
,chakrapanidutta virchit 2000 edition Chaukhamba Publications, reprinted
Choukhamba Surbharti Prakashan 2010, p-540
,Varanasi,Chikitsa sthan 11/1-68 10. Yadav Ji Trikamji Acharya, Charaka
5. Prof.Vidyadhar Shukla, Prof. ravidutta Samhita of Agnivesha elaborated by
tripathi Charaka samhita uttarardha Charaka and Dridhabala Sutrasthana,
with Vaidya manorama commentary 1st Adhyaya, verse123, Chaukhamba
2013 Chaukhamba Sanskrit Publications, reprinted 2010, p- 22
pratishthan Chikitsasthan 18/1-190 11. Chakole D, Bhagyashri Chakole B.
page no.439-459. Management of Kaphaj Kasa (Chronic
6. Dr. Anantram sharma, Sushruta bronchitis) with modified use of
samhita withSushruta vimarshini Naimitika Rasayana and various
Commentary Thir partedition 2008 Ayurvedic medicinal preparation - A
Chowkhamba Surbharti prakashan Case Study. Int. J. AYUSH CaRe. 2022;
Varanasi Uttartantra 52. Page No 432- 6(2):214-218.
440 12. Prof .Bhagwan Das and R.K .Sharma
7. Bramhananda Tripathi, Ashtang ,Charaka Samhita,Second Edition
Hridayam with Nirmala Hindi 2000,Fourth Part,Chowkhamba
commentary edition Sanskrit Series Office , Varanasi
2014Chaukhamba Sanskrit chikitsasthan 18/17 page No-160
Pratishthan ,Delhi Nidansthan 3 ,Page 13. Prof .Bhagwan Das and R.K .Sharma
no.451-453 ,Charaka Samhita,Second Edition
8. Prof. Bramhanada Tripathi, 2000,Fourth Part,Chowkhamba
Sharangdhar Samhita With Deepika Sanskrit Series Office , Varanasi
Commentary Purva Edition 2010 chikitsasthan 18/18-19 page No-161
Khanda 7/21 Page No 96.

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 23

 Review Artcile
International Journal of Indian Medicine, 2022; 3(7):14-24 ISSN: 2582-7634

14. Prof .Bhagwan Das and R.K .Sharma 19. Dr. Anantram sharma ,Sushruta
,Charaka Samhita,Second Edition samhita withSushruta vimarshini
2000,Fourth Part,Chowkhamba Commentary Thir partedition 2008
Sanskrit Series Office , Varanasi Chowkhamba Surbharti prakashan
chikitsasthan 18/108-111 page No-183 Varanasi Uttartantra 52/7. Page No
15. Prof .Bhagwan Das and R.K .Sharma 433
,Charaka Samhita,Second Edition 20. Shastri A D; editor, Sushruta Samhita
2000,Fourth Part,Chowkhamba of Sushrutha, Uttara tanta, Chapter
Sanskrit Series Office , Varanasi 52/4, Reprint ed 14th, Varanasi:
chikitsasthan 18/125-128 page No-186 Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan: 2007
16. Ambikadatta, SushrutraSamhita of 21. Upadhya Yadunandanoupadhya:
Acharya Sushrut ,Dalhancharaya Vidhjyotini Hindi commentary on
commentary,19th Edition, Varanasi, Madhav Nidan Madhukosha vyakhya,
Chaukhamba Sanskrit Santhan-2009, Kasanidan 11/5-7, p-306-309, Ed.
Page no-465. 22. Chaukhamba Prakashan 15. Pandit
17. Dr.Anantram sharma ,Sushruta Kashinath Shastri & Dr. Gorakhnath
samhita withSushruta vimarshini Chaturvedi, Hindi commentary on
Commentary Thir part edition 2008 Charaka Samhita of Agnivesha revised
Chowkhamba Surbharti prakashan by Charaka and Dridbala,
Varanasi Uttartantra 52/4-5. Page No chikitsasthan 18/11- 13,15-16,18-19,
432 Edition 2009, Chaukhambha Bharti
18. Dr. Anantram sharma, Sushruta Academy, Varanasi.
samhita withSushruta vimarshini 23. Pranita K Shinde et al: Concept Of
Commentary Thir partedition 2008 Doshaja Kasa – A Review Article.
Chowkhamba Surbharti prakashan International Ayurvedic Medical
Varanasi Uttartantra 52/6. Page No Journal {online} 2020.
433
Source of Support : None declared
Conflict of interest : Nil © 2022 IJIM (International Journal of Indian Medicine) | An Official Publication
of Ayurveda Research & Career Academy.(ARCA) www.ijim.co.in Email: ijimjournal1@gmail.com

IJIM Volume 3 Issue 7 (July 2022) Published online on https://ijim.co.in 24