Brainwashing

Brainwashing, also known as mind control, menticide, coercive persuasion, thought control, thought
reform, and forced re-education, is the controversial theory that purports that the human mind can
be altered or controlled against a person's will by manipulative psychological techniques.[1]
Brainwashing is said to reduce its subject's ability to think critically or independently, to allow the
introduction of new, unwanted thoughts and ideas into their minds,[2] as well as to change their
attitudes, values, and beliefs.[3][4]

Mural depicting the "brainwashing"

effects of television in Florencio
Varela, Argentina

The term "brainwashing" was first used in English by Edward Hunter in 1950 to describe how the
Chinese government appeared to make people cooperate with them during the Korean War.
Research into the concept also looked at Nazi Germany and present-day North Korea, at some
criminal cases in the United States, and at the actions of human traffickers.

In the late 1960s and 1970s, the CIA's MKUltra experiments failed with no operational use of the
subjects. Scientific and legal debate followed, as well as media attention, about the possibility of
brainwashing being a factor when lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was used,[5] or in the conversion
of people to groups which are considered to be cults.[6]

Brainwashing has become a common theme in popular culture, especially in science fiction.[7] In
casual speech, "brainwashing" and its verb form, "brainwash", are used figuratively to describe the
use of propaganda to sway public opinion.[8]

China and the Korean War

The Chinese term xǐnǎo (洗腦, "wash brain")[9] was originally used by early 20th century Chinese
intellectuals to refer to modernizing one's way of thinking.[10] The term was later used to describe
the coercive persuasion used under the Maoist government in China, which aimed to transform
"reactionary" people into "right-thinking" members of the new Chinese social system.[11] The term
punned on the Taoist custom of "cleansing / washing the heart / mind" (xǐxīn, 洗心) before
conducting ceremonies or entering holy places.[a]

The earliest known English-language usage of the word "brainwashing" in an article by a journalist
Edward Hunter, in Miami News, published in 1950.[12] Hunter was an anticommunist and was
alleged to be a CIA agent working undercover.[13] Hunter and others used the Chinese term to
explain why, during the Korean War (1950–1953), some American prisoners of war (POWs)
cooperated with their Chinese captors, and even in a few cases defected to their side.[14] British
radio operator Robert W. Ford[15][16] and British army Colonel James Carne also claimed that the
Chinese subjected them to brainwashing techniques during their imprisonment.[17]

The U.S. military and government laid charges of brainwashing in an effort to undermine
confessions made by POWs to war crimes, including biological warfare.[18] After Chinese radio
broadcasts claimed to quote Frank Schwable, Chief of Staff of the First Marine Air Wing admitting to
participating in germ warfare, United Nations commander General Mark W. Clark asserted: "Whether
these statements ever passed the lips of these unfortunate men is doubtful. If they did, however, too
familiar are the mind-annihilating methods of these Communists in extorting whatever words they
want ... The men themselves are not to blame, and they have my deepest sympathy for having been
used in this abominable way."[19]

Beginning in 1953, Robert Jay Lifton interviewed American servicemen who had been POWs during
the Korean War as well as priests, students, and teachers who had been held in prison in China after
1951. In addition to interviews with 25 Americans and Europeans, Lifton interviewed 15 Chinese
citizens who had fled after having been subjected to indoctrination in Chinese universities. (Lifton's
1961 book Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of "Brainwashing" in China,
was based on this research.)[20] Lifton found that when the POWs returned to the United States their
thinking soon returned to normal, contrary to the popular image of "brainwashing."[21]

In 1956, after reexamining the concept of brainwashing following the Korean War, the U.S. Army
published a report entitled Communist Interrogation, Indoctrination, and Exploitation of Prisoners of
War, which called brainwashing a "popular misconception". The report concludes that "exhaustive
research of several government agencies failed to reveal even one conclusively documented case of
'brainwashing' of an American prisoner of war in Korea."[22]
Legal cases and the "brainwashing defense"

Bank robbery by Patty Hearst and

Symbionese Liberation Army
members[23]

The concept of brainwashing has been raised in defense of criminal charges. The 1969 to 1971
case of Charles Manson, who was said to have brainwashed his followers to commit murder and
other crimes, brought the issue to renewed public attention.[24][25]

In 1974, Patty Hearst, a member of the wealthy Hearst family, was kidnapped by the Symbionese
Liberation Army, a left-wing militant organization. After several weeks of captivity, she agreed to join
the group and took part in their activities. In 1975, she was arrested and charged with bank robbery
and the use of a gun in committing a felony. Her attorney, F. Lee Bailey, argued in her trial that she
should not be held responsible for her actions since her treatment by her captors was the equivalent
of the alleged brainwashing of Korean War POWs (see also Diminished responsibility).[26] Bailey
developed his case in conjunction with psychiatrist Louis Jolyon West and psychologist Margaret
Singer. They had both studied the experiences of Korean War POWs. (In 1996, Singer published her
theories in her best-selling book Cults in Our Midst.[27][28][29]) Despite this defense, Hearst was found
guilty.[26]

In 1990, Steven Fishman, who was a member of the Church of Scientology, was charged with mail
fraud for conducting a scheme to sue large corporations via conspiring with minority stockholders
in shareholder class action lawsuits. Fishman's attorneys notified the court that they intended to rely
on an insanity defense, using the theories of brainwashing and the expert witnesses of Singer and
Richard Ofshe to claim that the Church of Scientology had practiced brainwashing on him, which left
him unsuitable to make independent decisions.

The court ruled that the use of brainwashing theories is inadmissible in expert witnesses, citing the
Frye standard, which states that scientific theories utilized by expert witnesses must be generally
accepted in their respective fields.[30] Since then, United States courts have consistently rejected
testimony about mind control or brainwashing on the grounds that these theories are not part of
accepted science under the Frye standard.[31]
In 2003, the brainwashing defense was used unsuccessfully in defense of Lee Boyd Malvo, who was
charged with murder for his part in the D.C. sniper attacks.[32][33] Allegations of brainwashing have
also been raised by plaintiffs in child custody cases.[34][35]

Thomas Andrew Green, in his 2014 book Freedom and Criminal Responsibility in American Legal
Thought, argues that the brainwashing defense undermines the law's fundamental premise of free
will.[36][37] In 2003, forensic psychologist Dick Anthony said that "no reasonable person would
question that there are situations where people can be influenced against their best interests, but
those arguments are evaluated based on fact, not bogus expert testimony."[33]

Anti-cult movement

Phillip Zimbardo

In the 1970s and 1980s, the anti-cult movement applied the concept of brainwashing to explain
seemingly sudden and dramatic religious conversions to some new religious movements (NRMs)
and other groups that they considered cults.[38][39] News media reports tended to accept their
view[40] and social scientists sympathetic to the anti-cult movement, who were usually
psychologists, developed revised models of mind control.[38] While some psychologists were
receptive to the concept, sociologists were, for the most part, skeptical of its ability to explain
conversion.[41] Critics of Mormonism have accused it of brainwashing its adherents.[42]

Philip Zimbardo defined mind control as "the process by which individual or collective freedom of
choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception,
motivation, affect, cognition or behavioral outcomes,"[43] and he suggested that any human being is
susceptible to such manipulation.[44] Benjamin Zablocki, late professor of sociology at Rutgers
university said that the number of people who attest to brainwashing in interviews (performed in
accordance with guidelines of the National Institute of Mental Health and National Science
Foundation) is too large to result from anything other than a genuine phenomenon.[45] He said that
in the two most prestigious journals dedicated to the sociology of religion there have been no
articles "supporting the brainwashing perspective," while over one hundred such articles have been
published in other journals "marginal to the field."[46] He concluded that the concept of brainwashing
had been blacklisted.[47][46][48]

Eileen Barker criticized the concept of mind control because it functioned to justify costly
interventions such as deprogramming or exit counseling.[49] She has also criticized some mental
health professionals, including Singer, for accepting expert witness jobs in court cases involving
NRMs.[50] Barker's 1984 book, The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?,[51] describes the
religious conversion process to the Unification Church (whose members are sometimes informally
referred to as Moonies), which had been one of the best-known groups said to practice
brainwashing.[52][53] Barker spent close to seven years studying Unification Church members and
wrote that she rejects the "brainwashing" theory because it does not explain why many people
attended a recruitment meeting and did not become members nor why so many members
voluntarily disaffiliate or leave groups.[49][54][55][56][57]

James Richardson said that if the new religious movements had access to powerful brainwashing
techniques, one would expect that they would have high growth rates, yet in fact, most have not had
notable success in recruiting or retaining members.[58] For this and other reasons, sociologists of
religion including David Bromley and Anson Shupe consider the idea that "cults" are brainwashing
American youth to be "implausible."[59]

Thomas Robbins, Massimo Introvigne, Lorne Dawson, Gordon Melton, Marc Galanter, and Saul
Levine, amongst other scholars researching NRMs, have argued and established to the satisfaction
of courts, relevant professional associations and scientific communities that there exists no
generally accepted scientific theory, based upon methodologically sound research, that supports the
concept of brainwashing.[60]

In 1999, forensic psychologist Dick Anthony criticized another adherent to this view, Jean-Marie
Abgrall, for allegedly employing a pseudoscientific approach and lacking any evidence that anyone's
worldview was substantially changed by these coercive methods. He claimed that the concept and
the fear surrounding it was used as a tool for the anti-cult movement to rationalize the persecution
of minority religious groups.[61] Additionally, Anthony, in the book Misunderstanding Cults, argues
that the term "brainwashing" has such sensationalist connotations that its use is detrimental to any
further scientific inquiry.[62]

In 2016, Israeli anthropologist of religion and fellow at the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute Adam Klin-
Oron said about then proposed "anti-cult" legislation:
 In the 1980s there was a wave of 'brainwashing' claims, and then parliaments
around the world examined the issue, courts around the world examined the issue,
and reached a clear ruling: That there is no such thing as cults…that the people
making these claims are often not experts on the issue. And in the end courts,
including in Israel, rejected expert witnesses who claimed there is
"brainwashing."[63]

Scientific research

1977 United States Senate report on

Project MKUltra, the Central
Intelligence Agency's program of
research into brainwashing

Research by the U.S. government

For 20 years, starting in the early 1950s, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the U.S.
Department of Defense conducted secret research, including Project MKUltra, in an attempt to
develop practical brainwashing techniques; These experiments ranged "from electroshock to high
doses of LSD".[64] The full extent of the results are unknown.

The director Sidney Gottlieb and his team were apparently able to "blast away the existing mind" of a
human being by using torture techniques;[64] however, reprogramming, in terms of finding "a way to
insert a new mind into that resulting void",[64] was not so successful.[65][66]

Controversial psychiatrist Colin A. Ross claims that the CIA was successful in creating
programmable so-called "Manchurian Candidates" even at the time.[67] The CIA experiments using
various psychedelic drugs such as LSD and Mescaline drew from previous Nazi human
experimentation.[68]

In 1979, John D. Marks wrote in his book The Search for the Manchurian Candidate that until the
MKUltra program was effectively terminated in 1963, the agency's researchers had found no reliable
way to brainwash another person, as all experiments at some stage always ended in either amnesia
or catatonia, making any operational use impossible.[13]

A bipartisan Senate Armed Services Committee report, released in part in December 2008 and in full
in April 2009, reported that U.S. military trainers who came to Guantánamo Bay in December 2002
had based an interrogation class on a chart copied from a 1957 Air Force study of "Chinese
Communist" brainwashing techniques used to elicit false confessions from American POWs during
the Korean War.

The report showed how the Secretary of Defense's 2002 authorization of the aggressive techniques
at Guantánamo led to their use in Afghanistan and in Iraq, including at Abu Ghraib.[69]

American Psychological Association Task Force

In 1983, the American Psychological Association (APA) asked Singer to chair a task force called the
APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Techniques of Persuasion and Control (DIMPAC) to
investigate whether brainwashing or coercive persuasion did indeed play a role in recruitment by
NRMs. The Task Force concluded that:[70]

Cults and large group awareness trainings have generated considerable controversy
because of their widespread use of deceptive and indirect techniques of persuasion
and control. These techniques can compromise individual freedom, and their use
has resulted in serious harm to thousands of individuals and families. This report
reviews the literature on this subject, proposes a new way of conceptualizing
influence techniques, explores the ethical ramifications of deceptive and indirect
techniques of persuasion and control, and makes recommendations addressing the
problems described in the report.

However, On 11 May 1987, the APA's Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology
(BSERP) rejected the DIMPAC report because the report "lacks the scientific rigor and evenhanded
critical approach necessary for APA imprimatur" and concluded that "after much consideration,
BSERP does not believe that we have sufficient information available to guide us in taking a position
on this issue."[71]

Other areas and studies

Joost Meerloo

Joost Meerloo, a Dutch psychiatrist, was an early proponent of the concept of brainwashing.
"Menticide" is a neologism he coined meaning "killing of the mind". Meerloo's view was influenced
by his experiences during the German occupation of his country during the Second World War and
his work with the Dutch government and the American military in the interrogation of accused Nazi
war criminals. He later emigrated to the United States and taught at Columbia University.[72] His
best-selling 1956 book, The Rape of the Mind, concludes by saying:

The modern techniques of brainwashing and menticide—those perversions of

psychology—can bring almost any man into submission and surrender. Many of the
victims of thought control, brainwashing, and menticide that we have talked about
were strong men whose minds and wills were broken and degraded. But although
the totalitarians use their knowledge of the mind for vicious and unscrupulous
purposes, our democratic society can and must use its knowledge to help man to
grow, to guard his freedom, and to understand himself.[73]

Russian historian Daniel Romanovsky, who interviewed survivors and eyewitnesses in the 1970s,
reported on what he called "Nazi brainwashing" of the people of Belarus by the occupying Germans
during the Second World War, which took place through both mass propaganda and intense re-
education, especially in schools. Romanovsky noted that very soon, most people had adopted the
Nazi view that the Jews were an inferior race and were closely tied to the Soviet government, views
that had not been at all common before the German occupation.[74][75][76][77][78][79]

Italy has had controversy over the concept of plagio, a crime consisting in an absolute psychological
—and eventually physical—domination of a person. The effect is said to be the annihilation of the
subject's freedom and self-determination and the consequent negation of his or her personality. The
crime of plagio has rarely been prosecuted in Italy, and only one person was ever convicted. In 1981,
an Italian court found that the concept is imprecise, lacks coherence and is liable to arbitrary
application.[80]

Recent scientific book publications in the field of the mental disorder "dissociative identity disorder"
(DID) mention torture-based brainwashing by criminal networks and malevolent actors as a
deliberate means to create multiple "programmable" personalities in a person to exploit this
individual for sexual and financial reasons.[81][82][83][84][85] Earlier scientific debates in the 1980s and
1990s about torture-based ritual abuse in cults was known as "satanic ritual abuse," which was
mainly viewed as a "moral panic."[86]

Brain-Washing: A Synthesis of the Russian Textbook on Psychopolitics published by the Church of

Scientology in 1955 about brainwashing. L. Ron Hubbard authored the text and alleged it was the
secret manual written by Lavrentiy Beria, the Soviet secret police chief, in 1936.[87] When the FBI
ignored him, Hubbard wrote again stating that Soviet agents had, on three occasions, attempted to
hire him to work against the United States, and were upset about his refusal,[88] and that one agent
specifically attacked him using electroshock as a weapon.[89] According to Massimo Introvigne,
critics of Scientology attribute the brainwashing manual to Hubbard because of the claim that it was
later used to practice actual brainwashing in the church. Hubbard, who was strongly opposed to
psychiatry, denounced brainwashing in some of his writing.[90]

Kathleen Barry, co-founder of the United Nations NGO, the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women
(CATW),[91][92] prompted international awareness of human sex trafficking in her 1979 book Female
Sexual Slavery.[93] In his 1986 book Woman Abuse: Facts Replacing Myths, Lewis Okun reported
that: "Kathleen Barry shows in Female Sexual Slavery that forced female prostitution involves
coercive control practices very similar to thought reform."[94] In their 1996 book, Casting Stones:
Prostitution and Liberation in Asia and the United States, Rita Nakashima Brock and Susan Brooks
Thistlethwaite report that the methods commonly used by pimps to control their victims "closely
resemble the brainwashing techniques of terrorists and paranoid cults."[95]

In his 2000 book, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New
Global Terrorism, Robert Lifton applied his original ideas about thought reform to Aum Shinrikyo and
the War on Terrorism, concluding that, in this context, thought reform was possible without violence
or physical coercion. He also pointed out that in their efforts against terrorism, Western
governments were also using some alleged mind control techniques.[96]

In her 2004 popular science book, Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control, neuroscientist
and physiologist Kathleen Taylor reviewed the history of mind control theories, as well as notable
incidents. In it, she theorized that persons under the influence of brainwashing may have more rigid
neurological pathways, and that can make it more difficult to rethink situations or to be able to later
reorganize these pathways.[97][98][99][100][101]

In popular culture

Laurence Harvey and Frank

Sinatra in The Manchurian
Candidate

In George Orwell's 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, the main character is subjected to
imprisonment, isolation, and torture to conform his thoughts and emotions to the wishes of the
rulers of the book's fictional future totalitarian society. The torturer, representing the authorities,
says to that character, "we make the brain perfect before we blow it out...Everyone is washed
clean."[102] Orwell's vision influenced Hunter and is still reflected in the popular concept of
brainwashing.[103][104]

In the 1950s, some American films were made that featured brainwashing of POWs, including The
Rack, The Bamboo Prison, Toward the Unknown, and The Fearmakers. Forbidden Area told the story
of Soviet secret agents who had been brainwashed through classical conditioning by their own
government so they wouldn't reveal their identities. In 1962, The Manchurian Candidate (based on
the 1959 novel by Richard Condon) "put brainwashing front and center" by featuring a plot by the
Soviet government to take over the United States by using a brainwashed sleeper agent for political
assassination.[105][106][107]

The concept of brainwashing became popularly associated with the research of Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov, which mostly involved dogs as subjects.[108] In The Manchurian Candidate,
the head brainwasher is "Dr. Yen Lo, of the Pavlov Institute."[109]

The science fiction stories of Cordwainer Smith (pen name of Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger
(1913–1966), a U.S. Army officer who specialized in military intelligence and psychological warfare
during the Second World War and the Korean War) depict brainwashing to remove memories of
traumatic events as a normal and benign part of future medical practice.[110]

Brainwashing remains an important theme in science fiction. A subgenre is corporate mind control,
in which a future society is run by one or more business corporations that dominate society, using
advertising and mass media to control the population's thoughts and feelings.[111] Terry O'Brien
commented: "Mind control is such a powerful image that if hypnotism did not exist, then something
similar would have to have been invented: The plot device is too useful for any writer to ignore. The
fear of mind control is equally as powerful an image."[112]

See also

Behavior modification

Indoctrination

Orwellian

Manipulation (psychology)

Abusive power and control

Psychological warfare

Hypnosis

Political abuse of psychiatry

Reality distortion field

Science fiction

Coercion

Communism

Unethical human experimentation in the United States

Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism

Mind control in popular culture

Further reading

Lifton, Robert J. (1961). Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of
"Brainwashing" in China. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-8078-4253-9.; Reprinted, with a new
 preface: University of North Carolina Press, 1989 (Online (https://archive.org/details/ThoughtRefo
rmAndThePsychologyOfTotalism) at Internet Archive).

Lifton, Robert J. (2000). Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and
the New Global Terrorism. Owl Books.

Meerloo, Joost (1956). "The Rape of the Mind: The Psychology of Thought Control, Menticide, and
Brainwashing" (http://www.lermanet.com/scientology/mc-ch1.html) . World Publishing
Company. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150429163525/http://www.lermanet.com/sc
ientology/mc-ch1.html) from the original on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 24 February 2015.

Taylor, Kathleen (2004). Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control. Oxford University Press.

Zablocki, B. (1997). "The Blacklisting of a Concept. The Strange History of the Brainwashing
Conjecture in the Sociology of Religion". Nova Religio. 1 (1): 96–121. doi:10.1525/nr.1997.1.1.96
(https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fnr.1997.1.1.96) .

Zablocki, B (1998). "Exit Cost Analysis: A New Approach to the Scientific Study of Brainwashing".
Nova Religio. 2 (1): 216–249. doi:10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.216 (https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fnr.1998.1.
2.216) .

Zimbardo, P. (1 November 2002). "Mind Control: Psychological Reality or Mindless Rhetoric?" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20160704120313/http://www.icsahome.com/articles/mind-control-zim
bardo) . Monitor on Psychology. Archived from the original (http://www.icsahome.com/articles/
mind-control-zimbardo) on 4 July 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.

Notes

a. Note: xīn can mean "heart", "mind", or "centre" depending on context. For example, xīn zàng bìng means
Cardiovascular disease, but xīn lǐ yī shēng means psychologist, and shì zhōng xīn means Central business
district.

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External links

Communist Interrogation, Indoctrination, and Exploitation of Prisoners of War 1956

Science fiction