THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

Basic concepts
CAPITALISM: Economic system based on private ownership of wealth
Capitalists own the land and factories and means of production
Their main aim was to make a profit while exploiting the working class

SOCIALISM: Philosophy which argue that the wealth of the country should be distributed
equally amongst the citizens of the country
The working class must overthrow the capitalists by means of
a revolution

COMMUNISM: Economic system based on state ownership of the economy

No private ownership allowed.
Once all the citizens have what they need, there was no need for state
This is a classless society where everyone works together for the good
Of the community

MARXISM: Karl Marx believed that History was a process of change brought about by a class
struggle between the capitalists and the working class (proletariat).
He was influenced by the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the working class – exploitation
The proletariat would overthrow the capitalists
The land and businesses would be controlled by the state
No private ownership would be allowed
WHY WAS THERE A REVOLUTION IN 1917?
CONDITIONS IN CAPITALIST RUSSIA

AGRICULTURE: 96% of population was peasants who owned 1% land

Peasants exploited - had no rights
1861 received land but had to repay the state over 49 years
Could not produce enough food to feed themselves and to pay taxes
Used old fashioned farming methods low productivity

INDUSTRY: Wealthy nobles owned most of the land

occupied high positions
Urban working class were exploited – led to popularity of Marxism
Poor housing / long working hours
Workers advocated revolution to get rid of the ruling class

POLITICAL: Tsars were autocratic rulers – opposed to change

used the Okrana to imprison/exile opposition
Rasputin influenced tsars – lost credibility

OPPOSITION: Social Revolutionaries --- Kerensky--- support from the peasants

Social Democrats Bolsheviks Lenin--- support from urban workers
Followed the ideas of Karl Marx
Believed that a small group should lead
Mensheviks Followed the ideas of Karl Marx
In favour of democracy
THE 1905 REVOLUTION
Tsar ignored the growing unrest in his country
1904 declared war against Japan – hoping that this would unite the people and bring to an end to the strikes
The Russians were humiliated by the Japanese this led to an increase of unrests and demands for change
The war led to a shortage of food and a rise in prices
This led to the uprisings and strikes in St. Petersburg
In 1905 father Gapon led a march to the Winter Palace to hand over a petition
They demanded: better working conditions
A parliament chosen by the people
Freedom of speech
Soldiers opened fire and killed hundreds of protesters (Bloody Sunday)
Mass action occurred throughout the country burnt homes of landlords
Workers went on strike
Workers formed soviets (workers’ council) and organized more strikes
Okrana suppressed the soviets Lenin fled into exile
The Tsar responded by giving the people freedom of speech
A duma (parliament) to advise him
THE IMPACT OF WW1
Russia not prepared for WW1 ill equipped
Suffered heavy defeats – led to low morale/deserting
Led to severe food shortages – led to strikes
Tsar took command of the army Alexandra (German princess) took charge of the country
She was controlled by Rasputin and ignored the advice of the Duma

Russia defeated at Tannenburg led to strike in St Petersburg

Soldiers joined the strike
Tsar Nicholas 11 abdicated
Provisional Government appointed to run the country
Soviet controlled St. Petersburg
Provisional government was controlled by Kerensky who supported the interest of the middle class
Absolutism gave way to democracy ---- but the capitalist economy was kept in tact

THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION

The Provisional government failed to solve the food shortages
To introduce land reforms
To stop the war
Lenin returned from exile and issued his April theses: “Peace, land and bread “
“All power to the Soviets “
Kornilov tried to restore the tsar regime – he was suppressed with the help of The Bolsheviks
This strengthened the credibility of the Bolsheviks
Lenin now secretly planned to overthrow the provisional government
24 and 25 October 1917 the Bolsheviks took control of transport and communications
On 26 October they stormed the Winter Palace and seized power.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks - established a Marxist state
Banned all forms of capitalism
Signed a peace treaty with Germany to consolidate their
Position
Gave the peasants land
Cheka was established to eliminate all opposition
 STALIN’S FIVE YEAR PLANS
The First Five- Year Plans (1928-1933)
Aims: all forms of private ownership / capitalism abolished
Economy placed under state control
Economy developed by a series of Five Year Plans
Illiteracy eradicated
Agriculture mechanized and collectivized
The rapid industrialization of Russia.

A state planning commission, the Gosplan, was empowered to direct the economic activities of the country.
The main aim of the Gosplan was to: control the means of production make recommendations to
the government on issues regarding to the import and
export of raw materials for manufacturing.

Agricultural Reform

Farms collectivized and mechanized

Two types of farms:
(1) State farms (labourers paid a state salary)
(2) Collective farms - Peasants became state workers
Kulaks resisted collectivization by - killing stock
Refusing to sow
Stalin killed them /deported to Siberia
Approx. 4 million peasants killed/sent to Siberia
He used violence to enforce communism
1928 production levels increased

Peasant and wealthy farmers who refused to sell their extra products were heavily taxed.
Mechanization and scientific farming were introduced on a large scale.
Profits were divided three ways among the state, workers and a reserve operation fund to support community
services such as schools, recreation centres and hospitals. Agriculture began to prosper.

Industrialization
All private ownership abolished
Factories produced according to state quotas
Emphasis on development of heavy industries - iron and steel
Propaganda was used to inspire workers and to stress the significance of working together for a better future.
Coal – to melt iron and steel
1500 new factories built
Workers worked long hours
Dnieper Dam hydro-electric power station constructed
Huge towns and industrial centers were built
Compulsory education created a skilled workforce
All children between 3 and 16 received compulsory education
This indoctrinated the youth with communist beliefs
Flats were built to solve the housing shortage
Cars were built in Moscow
Oil discovered at Baku
Elimination of private enterprise
Private traders and wealthy farmers were progressively taxed until they could no longer afford to run their
businesses.
In December 1932, the First Five-Year Plan was completed.
Rapid industrialization had been achieved, although the quality was poor compared to western countries. Many
basic industries were established and new industries such as plastics and synthetic rubber also came into being.
The foundations had been laid for the development of Russia as a major industrial and political world power.

Education and Transport

Thousands of new schools were built to provide basic education for all children
Education was made compulsory.
Adult literacy classes, which were also emphasized, reduced the rate of illiteracy rate from 50% in 1924 to 20%
in 1939.
Education was structured around mechanical and engineering lessons.
New railway lines were built and the old ones upgraded to help move raw materials, manufactured products and
agricultural produce.
The building of networks of hard-surface roads, and canal systems to link rivers for practical navigation became
essential.

The Second and Third Five-Year Plan (1933-1938)

Importance was placed on the improvement of efficiency and techniques in industry.
Light factories were built to provide more consumer goods in order to raise the standard of living of the Russian
population.
Consumption increased dramatically, but growth and development of heavy industries remained the
government's priority.
The most important successes were achieved in the machine making industry.
Russian people made huge sacrifices by working long hours
Stalin used encouragement, discipline and terror to achieve its aim
By 1940 Russia was the world’s second largest industrial power
The Third Five-Year Plan of 1939 to 1942 was interrupted by the Second World War.

CRISIS OF CAPITALISM – THE GREAT DEPRESSION

KEY QUESTION: WHY DID AMERICA EXPERIENCE A PERIOD OF
PROSPERITY

GOVERNMENT POLICY HIRE PURCHASE

Encouraged big businesses Advertising stimulated demand
In favour of free enterprise Finance companies gave credit
Little or no government intervention People paid installments + interest
Fordney-McCumber act high tariffs on imports
Cut taxes-people more money to spend
Did not allow trade unions
BOOM
MOTOR INDUSTRY WAGE RISES
1926 Ford Model T at $295 produced 1920’S 1920 average wage doubled
This stimulated other industries This boosted demand
Created demand for rubber/glass/steel
Boosted petrol/oil transport industries
This created more jobs

NEW TECHNOLOGIES SHARES

1921 radio broadcasting stated – demand for radios Ordinary people bought shares on hire
Availability of electricity – demand for electrical goods purchase
Movie industries attracted many people Hoped for rise in price- sell-make profit
Mass production – goods produced cheaply Millions became shareholders
This encouraged demand – created jobs This boosted investment and willingness
to spend

KEY QUESTION: THE CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION

The Great Depression was a worldwide business slump in the 1930’s
It began with the collapse of the Wall Street stock market in the U.S.A
It caused a sharp decrease in world trade and effected almost every nation
It had serious consequences and led to some countries changing their leaders and type of government

CAUSES

Agriculture: After war farmers saddled with surplus products, because Europe produced again.
Farmers could not pay bonds, laid of workers, many were ruined.

Isolation Policy: USA imposed high tariffs on imported goods, other countries did the same.
USA businesses could not sell their surpluses abroad

Over speculation: Ordinary people were allowed to buy shares on the “margin”.
This pushed prices up, in decline, panic sales followed and shares became worthless.
Speculators, banks and investors were financially ruined

Over production: More goods were produced than people could afford to buy.
Factories lowered prices, made smaller profits, laid off workers.

Easy credit and extravagance: Advertising and hire purchase urged people to spend.
People were buying beyond their capacity to pay.
Banks offered unwise loans to public for speculating.

Trusts: giant firms dominated the bus. world by forming trusts

They kept wages low and prices high
This depressed demand because people could not afford to buy products

THE EFFECTS

Unemployment: by 1933 unemployment stood at 16 million

There was no social security for those who lost their jobs
Breadlines and soup kitchens became a common sight

Homelessness: unemployed could not pay bonds and were evicted

They erected shelters called Hoovervillies

Closure of banks: banks unable to pay investors

Investors withdrew money, banks forced to close
 Social Darwinism
What is Social Darwinism?
Social Darwinism is a philosophy that advocates that some human races are biologically superior to others
and that the strongest should survive and that weak and unfit should be allowed to die
The strongest nation was the fittest, therefore the best, and consequently had an inherent right to rule.
Social Darwinism applied the 'survival of the fittest' to human 'races' and said that 'might makes right'.
Not only was survival of the fittest seen as something natural, but it was also morally correct.
It was therefore natural, normal, and proper for the strong to thrive at the expense of the weak.
White Protestant Europeans had evolved much further and faster than other "races."
So-called 'white civilized' industrial nations that had technologically advanced weapons had the moral right to
conquer and 'civilize' the 'savage blacks' of the world.
Social Darwinism was used to justify imperialism, colonialism, racism and poverty.

What is eugenics?
Eugenics is a more extreme form of Social Darwinism, which is linked to the racist doctrines of Nazi Germany.
Eugenics refers to the study of human improvement by genetic means.
Galton believed in: the idea of planned human betterment through selective mating
a system of arranged marriages between men of ‘distinction’ and women
of wealth to produce a ‘gifted race’
mental qualities (such as genius and talent) are inherited.
Conscious intervention to avoid over-breeding by "less fit" members of
society and the under-breeding of the "more fit" ones.
What is Genocide?
Genocide is the act of killing or destroying, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.
It also includes the deliberate and calculated enforcement of conditions of life to bring about its physical
destruction in whole or in part, imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group and
forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Social Darwinism in Australia
The indigenous or 'first people' of Australia were labelled 'Aborigines' by the British settlers.
Aborigine is a Latin word from 'ab' meaning origin, and 'origine ‘meaning from the beginning.
They account for about 2.5% of the modern Australian population.
The Aboriginal population of Australia at the time of European settlement has been estimated at between
300,000 and as many as 1 million.
They lived in small communities with social and religious customs in common.
Like all other societies, their technology, food and hunting practices varied according to the local environment.
Most lived in the southern and eastern regions.
From the late eighteenth century, during the powerful and imperialist British conquest the indigenous
population was dispossessed of their land and died in very large numbers.
The British began its colonization of Australia in 1788.
Massacres accompanied the expansion of their frontier.
Although many indigenous communities resisted the settlers, the Aboriginal people of Australia suffered one of
the biggest attempted exterminations in history.
Between 1788 and 1900, the indigenous population of Australia had been reduced by 90%.
The disappearance of the Aborigines in southeast Australia was so rapid that it was believed that they would all
soon die out.
Apart from loss of access to land, and death by violent force of arms, infectious diseases like chickenpox,
smallpox, influenza and measles killed many.
Indigenous Australians had a deep spiritual and cultural connection to the land, so being forced off traditional
land, caused the disintegration of social cohesion.
In the first part of the twentieth century, the racial theories of Social Darwinism were popular in Australia and
were used to justify settler treatment of the indigenous Australians, as 'subhuman', 'primitive' and an 'inferior
race'.
The Aborigines Protection Act 1909 established camps to provide a place for the 'doomed race to die off' as
Aborigines would 'inevitably become extinct'.
Settler policy allowed many Aborigines to be treated like experimental animals.
In the 1920’s and 30’s thousands of indigenous people in communities all over Australia, were subjected to
'scientific' investigation into brain capacity and cranium (skull) size.

Children of mixed Aboriginal and European descent were labelled 'half-castes' and a threat to so-called 'racial
purity'.
A policy based on eugenics theory had these children taken away from their parents 'to breed the blackness out
of them'.
Between 1910 and 1970 up to 100,000 Aboriginal children were taken forcibly from their families.
Parents were not told where their children were and could not trace them, and children were told that they were
orphans.
The racist government assumed that the Aborigines were 'dying out' which would solve the 'problem'.
The ‘assimilation program’ was introduced to eliminate those of mixed descent.
This was done by the forced removal of Aboriginal children from their families.
These children are often called the 'Stolen Generations'. Settler policy believed that white, Christian families
and boarding schools was the best environment in which to raise Aboriginal children.
They believed they were doing what was 'protecting them' and was 'best for them', whether the children or their
parents liked it or not.
A National Inquiry was set up in 1995 and found that forcible removal of indigenous children was a gross
violation of human rights.
It was racially discriminatory, and an act of genocide.
HOW DID HITLER COME TO POWER IN 1933?

Hitler promised strong government.

Hitler, like many other groups believed that the Weimar Republic was weak.
Hitler promised to get rid of the Treaty of Versailles by taking back land and re-
arming.
Hitler’s propaganda made people believe that the Weimar politicians had stabbed
Germany in the back in 1918.

Hitler appealed to all classes:

JUNKERS (aristocrats) – feared Communism and wanted re-armament. Hitler
promised both.
MIDDLE CLASS – wanted law and order and feared communism.
WORKING CLASS – wanted jobs. Hitler promised to end unemployment.
CHURCH – supported Hitler because Communists were atheist.

Hitler began his rise to power in 1923 when he attempted the Munich Putsch.
Although his attempt failed he used his trial to gain publicity.
In prison he wrote Mein Kampf setting out his ideas.
More importantly, he changed his ideas about how to gain power.
He decided to take power legally, using the democratic system, which he then
planned to destroy.

Between 1924 and 1928 Hitler re-organized the Nazi Party.

Branches of the party were set up all over Germany.
Some of the socialist elements of the 25 Point Programme were dropped.
The Nazi Propaganda machine became more effective under Dr Goebbels.
However, in the election of 1928 the Nazis only won 12 seats in the Reichstag.

1929 – The Wall Street Crash caused a world-wide economic depression.

Hitler began to campaign across Germany using a plane.
Huge Nazi rallies spread the message.
The Nazi share of the vote began to rise.
Steel barons Krupp and Thyssen gave the Nazis huge amounts of money.
The SA became more violent, breaking up Communist and other party meetings.
 In 1932 Hitler challenged Hindenburg for the Presidency.
Hindenburg won, but Hitler came a close second!
From 1930 Chancellor Bruning failed to solve the problems caused by
the depression.
Article 48 was used more and more frequently.
Chancellor Von Papen and Schleicher did not have the support of the
Reichstag.
Von Papen persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor to keep
Schleicher out.
Von Papen told Hindenburg that Hitler could be controlled.
This was a serious error.

On 30th January 1933 Hitler became Chancellor of Germany

Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany

At the time the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, there were 500 000 Jews living in Germany.
They saw themselves as Germans, who differed from other Germans only in religion.
Hostility towards Jews had existed for hundreds of years in Europe.
Jews were often used as scapegoats when things went wrong and were blamed for no reason.
Anti-Semitism was therefore not unique to Nazi Germany. The Nazis extended the ideas of Anti-Semitism and
Social Darwinism that were popular in Europe at the time.
Anti-Semitism was a major part of Nazi Party ideology.
The false Social Darwinist theory of a hierarchy of human beings claimed that some groups of people were born
with superior talent, ability and worth.
In his book Mein Kampf Hitler argued that the German 'race' was superior to all others.
He wrongly described gentile (ie non-Jewish) Germans as the 'Aryan race' or 'Herrenvolk' ('master
race') and believed they had a duty to control the world.
Jews were blamed for all Germany’s troubles and were demonised by Nazi propaganda, even though
Jews made up less than 1% of the German population.
The popular stereotype and Nazi propaganda created the myth that Jews were rich, when in fact Jews were not
particularly wealthy.
In Poland, for example, 3 million out of 3.3 million Jews were killed during the Holocaust, more than 50% of
them lived in poverty.

How did Hitler take away the rights of the people of Germany?
Anti-Jewish Nazi laws and decrees
Hitler wanted to make Nazi Germany Judenrein (free of Jews). In the early years, the policy of Judenrein did
not include genocide.
Rather, anti-Jewish oppressive measures were slowly introduced to exclude Jews from all aspects of German
life.
Anti-Semitic laws went hand in hand with state violence and terror.
By 1939, discriminatory laws and decrees grew longer and longer and included the following:
 Jewish businesses were boycotted
 All Jews had to wear a yellow Star of David badge to make them easy to identify
 Jews were dismissed from the civil service
 Jews were expelled from all schools and universities
 Jews were stripped of all citizenship rights
 Marriage or sexual relations between Jews and ‘Aryans’ was forbidden
 Jews were forbidden in certain places (for example, Jews were forced to sit on separate benches, were
not permitted to use public facilities, travel on trams, or attend opera, theatre or cinema, were not
admitted to restaurants, hotels, shops or hospitals)
 In some places bakeries would not sell bread to Jews
 After June 1938, the Nazis began the systematic expropriation of Jewish property
Jews were the main targets of genocide. But the following people were also considered ‘inferior’ and
‘undesirable’, and were sterilized, sent to concentration camps or killed:
 Sinti and Roma (gypsies)
 Mentally and physically disabled patients
 Jehovah's Witnesses
 Black people and people of ‘mixed marriage’ (mixed marriage of mixed race?)
 Criminals
 Opponents of the Nazis

How did his racial policy lead to persecution and genocide?

The Final Solution
In 1941 the Nazis changed their Anti-Semitic policy to systematic annihilation, which they called the ‘final
solution to the Jewish question.’
They decided to murder every Jewish man, woman and child in Europe.
A group of policemen called Einsatzgruppen became special mobile killing squads.
Men, women and children were rounded up and shot by firing squads into mass graves.
But shooting by firing squads was inefficient and too personal for the killers.
Mass ‘extermination’ by gas was planned as it was an efficient and cost effective method of murdering large
numbers of Jews, and the construction of special killing centres began in the second half of 1941.
Six ‘Death Camps’ were established – all were situated in Poland.
Auschwitz-Birkenau, Majdanek, Chelmno, Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka, were constructed for the purpose of
killing.
Reinhard Heydrich (second in command to Himmler in the SS) coordinated the activities of all Nazi
government structures to implement the ‘Final Solution’.
Gas vans and gas chambers were constructed at the death camps.
Zyklon B gas was used.
The Nazis kept meticulous records of their plans and activities associated with the annihilation of the Jews.
The implementation of the ‘Final Solution’ required Jews from all over Nazi-occupied Europe to be
transported by rail to the death camps in Poland.
Jews were told that they would be ‘resettled’.
In reality, they were taken to one of the six death camps.
Hundreds of thousands of people were crammed into sealed cattle trucks or open wagons, sometimes
spending days without food, water or sanitation.
People arrived sick, dehydrated and starving.
Many died-en-route.
By 1945 two out of every three European Jews had been killed.

NATIONALISMS - SOUTH AFRICA

THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM

CONCEPTS EXPLANATION
segregation A policy that want to keep different groups of people separate.
negotiation Conversations and discussion to reach a point of agreement.
delegation A group of people representing an organization.
self-determination The right of people to choose their own government.
moderate One who chooses a peaceful and manageable solution to political
problems.
conservative Opposed to change.: moderate
Civil disobedience Non-violent forms of resistance involving ordinary citizens.
concession To give up in return for certain benefits.
commemorated To celebrate the memory, honor, remember.
extremists People with radical political or religious views
sabotage Something deliberately damaged for a political reason.
Pariah An outcast or someone who is rejected.
militant extreme
pragmatic Dealing with things in a practical way, rather than by following a strict
ideology

The Rise of African nationalism:

The formation of the African Peoples’ Organisation
The African Peoples Organisation (APO) was formed in 1902 by Dr Abdurahman in Cape Town and
consisted of educated Coloureds.
They protested against the exclusion of Blacks from the right to vote
They sent a delegation to London in 1905 to achieve a non-racial franchise and end discrimination
and the right to vote to Blacks – Britain ignored this request

The formation of the South African National Natives Congress (SANNC)

The SANNC was formed in 1912 to oppose discrimination and to win political rights for blacks in
South Africa
SANNC wanted to unite everyone who were oppressed by Whites
SANNC sent delegation to London in 1914 to appeal against the Native Land Act but was not
successful.
In 1923 the SANNC changed its name to the ANC

Formation of ICU
In 1919 Black dock workers formed the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union to address their
grievances.
They fought against government policies and enjoyed mass support whilst the ANC had the support
of the elite blacks

The influence of World War Two on African nationalism

World War Two broke out in Europe in 1939. South African troops joined the war on the side of the
British against Nazi Germany.
Blacks were taught that they were fighting for freedom and democracy.
When they returned they questioned the fact that they did not enjoy the freedom and democracy that
they fought for
Africans helped to see the end of discrimination after the war but still suffered discrimination in their
own country of birth.

Dr Alfred Xuma and the African Claims

The ANC met in Bloemfontein in 1943 and formed an Atlantic Charter Committee.
Together they produced a politically significant document called ‘African Claims in South Africa’,
which mapped out the way to an equal and racially integrated society in South Africa.
In 1944, Xuma was responsible for bringing the ANC Youth League (ANCYL) members into the
executive.
People like Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo, Govan Mbeki and Anton Lembede
introduced a more militant approach to resistance.
Inspired by African nationalism, these young leaders believed that Africans would only be set free
through their own efforts and that the masses needed to be engaged in the struggle.
Their ideas gained popular support among the young black urban population.

The Atlantic Charter and its influence on African nationalism

The fight for human rights in South Africa received a boost during the war with the Atlantic Charter
(1941).
In the Charter, the British and American leaders, Churchill and Roosevelt, promised to respect the
rights of all people and to support those pursuing self-government.

Formation of the ANC Youth League

Young members broke away from the ANC to form the Congress Youth League (Lembede and
Mandela)
They accused the ANC of representing the elite and not the masses
The ANCYL responded with a Programme of Action in 1949 calling for boycotts, strikes, and general
defiance.
The youth leaders realized that in order to challenge Apartheid, they would need to be more inclusive
and work with other anti-Apartheid groups.
The Defiance Campaign of 1952 targeted Apartheid laws like the Population Registration Act, Group
Areas Act and the Bantu Education Act.
Although the campaign was eventually crushed by the government, the ANC had made huge gains
by mobilizing the masses and this resulted in a significant increase in membership.

The Congress of the People and the Freedom Charter.

In the early 1950s, a multi-racial Congress Alliance was established.
Out of the Congress Alliance came the Freedom Charter, which was approved by a Congress of the
People in June 1955.
The Charter stated that South Africa belonged to all who lived in it, black and white, and set out a
vision of a future democratic, non-racial state.
The Freedom Charter would become the cornerstone of the new democratic republic of South Africa.

The formation of the PAC.

Some members of the ANC did not accept the non-racial vision of the Freedom Charter.
These Africanists broke away from the ANC in 1958 and formed the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC)
in 1959.
Robert Sobukwe was the first president of the PAC.
In its early years, the PAC worked both to win power for Africans alone in South Africa and, as the
very name of their organisation suggested, to unite all the African people of the continent.

The rise of Afrikaner nationalism and the definition of the Volk.

The rise of the Afrikaans language movement
In 1910 South Africa gained political independence from Britain under Louis Botha and Jan Smuts,
two ex-Boer generals.
Both were committed to reconciling white English and Afrikaans-speaking South Africans.
In 1914 the Afrikaners formed their own party called the National Party under General J.B.M. Hertzog.
Hertzog formalized the Afrikaans culture and language.
In 1925 Afrikaans replaced Dutch as an official language and the Bible was translated into Afrikaans.

The Afrikaner Broederbond

The Afrikaner Broederbond (AB) was a ‘secret’ organisation that was formed in 1918 and played a
key role in protecting and promoting Afrikaner identity and nationalism.
Its members were young professionals, teachers and ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church.
Its main aim was to further Afrikaner nationalism in South Africa through culture, to promote Afrikaner
businesses and to take control of government.
The Afrikaner Broederbond supported Hertzog and the National Party initially and then threw its
support behind D.F. Malan and the Purified National Party (PNP) which was formed in 1934.
Afrikaner Broederbond members dominated the membership of Malan’s new party.
Every prime minister and state president of South Africa between 1948 and 1994 was a member of
the Afrikaner Broederbond.

The Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniging (FAK – Federation of Afrikaans Cultural

Societies)
In the 1930s the Broederbond worked closely with an umbrella organisation known as the Federasie
van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniging (FAK – Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Societies) to promote
Afrikaans culture.
The Media
Die Burger newspaper was started in Cape Town on 26 July 1915 to promote Afrikaner nationalism,
with D.F. Malan as its editor.
In 1937, Die Transvaler newspaper was established in the Transvaal, also with the aim of promoting
Afrikaner nationalism with H.F. Verwoerd as the editor.
The Great Trek centenary celebrations
A significant event in 1938 was the celebration of the centenary of the Great Trek, which helped to
promote Afrikaner unity and pride in their culture.
Strong feelings of patriotism were inspired in many Afrikaners as they witnessed re-enactments of the
Great Trek on the streets of Pretoria.
People dressed in Voortrekker clothes and drove ox-wagons from Pretoria to the Voortrekker
Monument, which had been built to mark the occasion.

Economic affirmative action in the 1920's and 1930's

The Great Depression had a big impact on South Africa and many Afrikaners were forced off their
land and into the cities.
As many of them were unskilled, they found that only low-paying manual labour jobs were open to
them.
The 1932 Carnegie Commission of enquiry into white poverty found that between 200 000 and 300
000 whites were 'poor whites'.
Most of them were Afrikaners and it became hugely important for the future of the Volk that these
poverty- stricken Afrikaners be rescued.
The Afrikaner Broederbond and the FAK stepped in, along with Afrikaner businesses, to resolve the
poor white problem and to promote social upliftment through Afrikaner unity.
Economic upliftment was assisted by two new organisations: the Federale Volksbeleggings (FVB)
and the Reddingsdaadbond (RDB, or Rescue League).
These institutions aimed to mobilize capital and encourage businessmen, workers, and Afrikaner
commercial farmers to pool their financial resources and regain control of their savings.
Financial institutions like Volkskas and Sanlam were established for this purpose.
The Broederbond also promoted volkskapitalisme (people's capitalism) which aimed to take control of
the economy and bring it into line with the needs of the Afrikaners.
Its great achievement was that it accomplished this social and economic upliftment without using
state resources.
All "proper Afrikaners" had 10 duties. Among these were: every Afrikaner must become a shareholder
in an Afrikaans credit organization; every Afrikaner must be a policyholder of an Afrikaans insurance
company; and every Afrikaner must save and invest in an Afrikaans institution.

Definition of the Volk (background)

The "Volk" is the Afrikaans word for "people".
The Volk of the National Party meant white Afrikaans-speaking South Africans. In Afrikaner
nationalist ideology, the "Volk" as a whole was more important than the individual.
The Afrikaner "Volk" ideology aimed to unite Afrikaners on the basis of race and language.
They regarded the Volk as a 'nation' as more important than the Afrikaner's economic or social
position in society.

Volk in relation to class and race issues in education.

The National Party government wanted to improve the education of the Volk.
There were many working class Afrikaners and the National Party made laws that stated that they
were to be educated in whites-only schools.
They were taught in Afrikaans, by Afrikaans-speaking teachers, from Afrikaans textbooks.
Education was aimed at creating unity of the Volk as a 'race'.
Heroic stories of the Great Trek and suffering during the South African War were taught in History
lessons.
The Bantu Education Act (1953) created a separate and unequal education system in government
schools.
Bantu education served the interests of white supremacy.
It denied black people access to the same educational opportunities and resources enjoyed
educational opportunities and resources enjoyed by white South Africans.
A racist educational system meant that black children were schooled to become labourers for whites.
The children of the Afrikaner Volk were equipped to take up skilled and professional jobs.

Volk in relation to labour

Many Afrikaner farmers were forced off the land during the economic depression after the First World
War and the Great Depression in 1929.1929.
They moved with their families into the towns, but did not have the skills to find well-paying work.
Many South Africans were living in poverty, but special attention was paid to white poverty.
White poverty contradicted the ideology of racial superiority.
The Carnegie Commission (1932) recommended that special protection should be given to white
labour.
After 1948, the National Party continued to rescue poor Afrikaners as they were part of the 'volk'.

New Afrikaner trade unions were formed.

The Afrikaner Bond van Mynwerkers (Mineworkers) and the Spoorbond were created to look after
Afrikaner workers on the railways.
Volk in relation to religion
Afrikaner religion comes from Protestant practices of the Dutch Reformed Church of Holland.
They believed that the Dutch Reformed Church should influence government policy and that the Volk
should remain 'pure and separate'.
Afrikaner nationalists believed that the Volk were chosen by God to bring civilization and Christianity
to 'uncivilized' and 'heathen' black people.
.
Constitutional independence from Britain−but still part of the British Empire
 Recognition of Afrikaans and flag question − in 1924 when Hertzog, leader of the NP became
Prime Minister who were a fierce fighter for Afrikaner nationalism
 South Africa’s sovereign independence − with the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference
in 1926
 Role of the “Volk” − promoted the exclusive interest of “true” Afrikaners “highlighted” events of
volks-history.
 Centenary celebration − bind and strengthen Afrikaner nationalism − led to formation of Ox-
wagon sentinel.
 Second World War − South Africa fought on the side of Britain – many Afrikaner nationalists did
not support this and use violent methods to block South Africa’s participation
 1948 elections − Afrikaner nationalists appealed to Afrikaner voters to vote for the NP – Apartheid.
 Apartheid
CONCEPTS DEFINITION
CIVIL An organised campaign in which people disobey unjust laws.
DISOBEDIENCE
SUPERIORITY Advantage, dominance
BANTUSTANS Another word for ‘homeland’.
VOTERS’ ROLL Official list of people who are registered to vote in elections.
MASS Organising ordinary people to join in political protests, such as
MOBILISATION large public gatherings, mass meetings, marchers, and
demonstrations.
MASSACRE When many people are killed in a violent incident.
STATE OF A set of emergency laws and regulations which give a government
EMERGENCY special powers to control political unrest.
UNDERGROUND In secret.
SOLITARY When a prisoner in jail is not allowed contact with other prisoners.
CONFINEMENT
GUERILLA Military activities by activists against government forces.
CLANDESTINE Illegal and secret.
COMMONWEALTH An association of nations consisting of the United Kingdom and
several former British colonies.
SANCTIONS Impose a penalty on; inflict punishment on.
QUARANTINE To isolate (keep apart)

What was Apartheid?

A policy of separate development’ between Whites, Coloureds, Indians and Blacks based on the
philosophy that the white race is superior to other races

Why did the NP adopt the policy of Apartheid?

There were two main reasons why the National Party adopted the policy of Apartheid.

Racism
Afrikaner nationalists believed in the superiority of the Afrikaner nation. They believed they were
chosen to rule South Africa. The Dutch Reformed Church provided a theological justification of
Apartheid, claiming that it was God’s will and that the Bible supported it.
Afrikaners feared that their existence would be threatened if large numbers of black people were
allowed to live among them. Apartheid was a way of preventing this threat from being realised. The
National Party adopted this policy, which they considered necessary for the survival of the Afrikaners.

Cheap black labour

Another explanation is an economic one, which links Apartheid to the need for cheap and easily
controlled labour. This suggests that Apartheid laws introduced by the National Party government
were designed to secure cheap labour for white farmers and industries.

White people’s lives generally became increasingly privileged and comfortable, while black people
experienced more and more hardship.
Apartheid laws
The Apartheid government passed hundreds of laws. Here is a summary of just some of them.

1. The Separate Amenities Ac

beaches, parks, toilets and nearly all public amenities were segregated. Whites used the best
amenities.

2. The Suppression of Communism Act and the Terrorism Act:

This law banned any political organisation that the National Party believed was supporting
communism or terrorism.

3. Bantu Education Act:

Black children received an inferior education. Less money was spent on their
schools and they were only taught enough to make them efficient unskilled
workers.

4. Bantu Self Government Act:

This set up a system of ‘homelands’ or ‘bantustans’ for Africans – one for each ‘ethnic’ group.

5. Population Registration Act:

This law classified all South Africans into four categories: Europeans
(whites), Coloureds, Indians and Africans.

6. ‘Passes’ laws:
Various laws were passed to make all African men carry ‘reference’ books or ‘pass’
books. These passes were used to control he movement of African male workers
between the rural and urban areas. If a man was found without his pass, he was
arrested. Passes for women were introduced later.

7. Group Areas Act:

Special areas were set aside as residential and business areas for particular races. Many people
were forced to move under this act.

8. The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act:

This Act forbade marriages between blacks and whites.

9. The Immorality Amendment Act

Made it illegal for black and white people to have sexual relations with each other.

10. The Separate Representation of Voters Act:

This Act was passed in 1956. Coloured men who had the vote in the Cape were taken off the
voters’ roll.
ANC initial resistance to apartheid 1948-1950s
ANC Programme of Action
In 1948 the Nationalist Party (NP) won the election, and began to introduce the policy of apartheid.
The ANC reacted immediately to the government’s increased introduction of racist and repressive laws, and in
1949 adopted the Programme of Action.
This prompted open defiance against the government, and action against pass and other restrictive laws.
On 26 March 1950 the ANC held a ‘Defend Free Speech’ convention in reaction to the Suppression of
Communism Act passed by the government.
Dr James Moroka gave his first public address. The ANC called for a May Day stay-at-home in demand of the
vote.
The strike was successful with more than half the black Johannesburg workforce adhering to the call.
The day however, ended tragically when police started shooting killing 19 and injuring 30.
The ANC declared 26 June as a national day of mourning, to be observed annually as Freedom Day.

Defiance Campaign
In 1952 the ANC launched the Defiance Campaign, which gained support across South Africa from blacks,
Indians, Coloureds and few whites.
People were called on to break unjust apartheid laws and offer themselves up for arrest.
The idea behind the campaign was that jails would become too full and the police service would be thrown into
chaos.
Many were arrested for using ‘white’ amenities, not carrying passes and other related transgressions.

The Freedom Charter 1955

With the Defiance Campaign dying out, the ANC, Indian National Congress, Coloured People’s Organization
and Congress of Democrats (COD), collectively referred to as the Congress Alliance, decided to plan a
convention and draft a new constitution for South Africa.
On 26 June 1955 they met in Kliptown and adopted the Freedom Charter
The Freedom Charter was a list of demands for the rights that most South Africans were denied.
Police raids increased after the meeting, and by the end of the year 42 ANC leaders had been banned.

Treason Trials
The Apartheid government did not accept the ideas of the Freedom Charter.
They arrested the leaders of the Congress of the People and accused them of high treason, or trying to
overthrow the government.
The prosecution spoke of a conspiracy to overthrow the government and replace it with a communist republic.
The Freedom Charter was seen as part of the conspiracy, and was therefore a document promoting treason.
The defense argued the case, saying that there was no evidence that the ANC was violent.
The trial last for four years, but not a single person was found guilty.

Women’s March 1956

On 9 August 1956 about 20 000 women marched on the Union Buildings in Pretoria against the extension of the
pass laws to women
In 1957 there was a bus boycott in Alexandra resisting fare increases, and thousands of residents walked the
20km to work until the fares were reduced again.
During the year there were also protests against beer halls, wages and passes, and in 1958 protests were held to
coincide with the elections
The Intensified resistance against Apartheid
The formation of the PAC
Some members of the ANC began to move away from peaceful protest.
The radicals broke away in 1959 to form the PAC.

The Sharpeville Massacre 1960

In 1960 the PAC held a demonstration against the pass laws.
Police opened fire on demonstrators in Sharpeville, killing 69 and wounded nearly 200.
Most of those that were killed were shot in the back.
This caused international alarm and criticism of the apartheid government, and further increased suppression.
A State of Emergency was declared, and in April 1960 the ANC and PAC were banned.

The formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe

After the ANC was banned, the party deliberated on what steps to take next.
It was believed at this point that non-violence would achieve nothing.
Therefore, in June 1961, the ANC executive agreed to the formation of an armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe
(MK), which Mandela would lead in a programme of controlled sabotage.
On 16 December 1961 MK performed their first acts of sabotage, with attacks on post offices and other
buildings in Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Durban. Many other acts of sabotage took place over the next
few years.
Some members of the ANC, including Oliver Tambo resisted arrest and fled the country in the hope of
rebuilding the organisation in exile.
Black supporters also left the country for military training.

The formation of Poqo

The PAC formed an armed wing called Poqo, which: means ‘pure’ or ‘alone’ in isiXhosa
Had a support base in the Western Cape and Transkei
They embarked on a violent sabotage campaign which included the intentional killing of whites, and blacks
who were policemen or chiefs.
Lack of support and the government repression meant that Poqo did not survive.
By 1968 the military functions of the PAC were taken over by the Azanian People’s Liberation Army (APLA).

Rivonia Trial
The government introduced the General Law Amendment Act of 1963, which allowed the police to detain
people for ninety days without charging them and without allowing them access to a lawyer
In August 1962, Mandela was arrested, and in 1963 the police raided the headquarters of the ANC on Lilliesleaf
farm outside Rivonia and arrested its leaders.
These leaders, together with Mandela and members of other organizations, were accused of sabotage and trying
to overthrow the government
The Rivonia Trial, continued until 1964. Mandela, Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, Raymond Mhlaba from the ANC,
Ahmed Kathrada from the Transvaal Indian Congress and Dennis Goldberg from the COD were found guilty
and sentenced to life imprisonment in Robben Island.
After the Rivonia Trial the ANC in exile faced problems, as all internal structures were in disarray
The government continued with their repressive campaigns after the trial, and by 1964 the revolutionary
movements had been broken.