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SUVENDU’S ZOOLOGY
BOOK-4

EVOLUTION

SUVENDU KUMAR PATTANAIK

M.Sc .PG.DEE (DELHI)

LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY
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EVOLUTION
 Evolution is the branch of life science which deals with origin and
development of organisms from simpler to complex form.
 The term evolution was given by Herbert spencer.
 Empedocles is considered as father of evolutionary idea .
 Evolution can be best explained by Darwins concept of Descent with
modification.
 ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE:-The most accepted Big-bang theory (Proposed
by Abbe Lemaitre in 1931) states that the universe was created before 20
billion years ago by a huge noisy explosion which broke the condensed
matter and scattered its fragments in to space with enormous velocity.
ORIGIN OF LIFE (ANCIENT THEORIES)

 Theory of special creationThis theory was proposed by father suarez.

 This theory states that there is a supernatural power who is considered as
almighty god and he has created everything within six days.
 Theory of eternity of lifeThis theory was proposed by preyer.
 It states that life is eternal & it is created much before the creation of earth.
 Theory of catastrophismThis theory was proposed by George cuvier.
 It states that life was destroyed by various catastrophic event and again
reappeared in a new form in each time.
 Theory of panspermia /cosmozoic theory:- It was proposed by Richter.
 It states that life came into earth from other planet through meteorites.
 Theory of abiogenesis/ autogenesis/spontaneous generation:-
 This theory was proposed by Aristotle, Plato, Empedocles etc.
 It states that life is created from lifeless matter.
 Theory of biogenesis:- This theory was proposed by Francisco Redi, Louis
pasteure and spallanzani.
 It states that each type of life has a pre-existing life.
 This theory rejected the theory of abiogenesis through experiment.
 George cuvier is considered as father of modern Palaeontology.(2018-A)
 Leonardo da vinci is considered as father of palaeontology.
Q.1.EXPLAIN CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF LIFE.
 The chemical evolution of life is also known as Oparin`s theory of origin of
life/scientific hypothesis regarding origin of life..
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 Haldane(England born)and Oparin(Russia born) independently proposed

the biochemical origin of life.
 Oparin explained the theory in his book called “Origin of life”
 It suggest that life originated from simple inorganic substances as follows:
 1.Origin of earth
 2Formation of NH3,CH4 and H2O
 3.Formation of micromolecule.
 4.Formation of macromolecule.
 5.Formation of nucleic acid
 6.Formation of nucleoprotein
 7.Formation of coacervate
 8.Formation of pre cell
 9.Fomation of cell
 1.ORIGIN OF EARTH:
 The earth was originated about 4.5-5 billion years ago.
 In this process the ligher elements like carbon,hydrogen,nitrogen and
oxygen etc. formed the atmosphere.
 Heavier elements like Iron,copper,nickel etc. remained at the centre of earth
 2.FORMATION OF NH3,CH4 AND H2O:-
 In the primitive earth hydrogen was the most reactive element which
combined with nitrogen,carbon and oxygen to form NH3, CH4 and H2O.
 Free atom also combined to form inorganic molecule like H2, N2, CO2 etc.
 Hydrogen atoms combined with all oxygen atoms to form water and leaving
no free oxygen.
 Thus primitive atmosphere was reducing atmosphere(without free oxygen).
 Today`s atmosphere is oxidizing atmosphere(with free oxygen)
 Water was formed in vapour state and by the process of condensation
it was fallen in to earth in the form of rain water forming river, sea etc.
 3.FORMATION OF MICROMOLECULES:-
 In this step micromolecules like ribose, deoxy ribose,purine,pyrimidines,
fatty acid,glycerol,amino acid,glucose etc. were formed.
 These were formed by the reaction among above said molecules under the
influence of lightening,ultraviolet ray etc.
 The hot sea water with micromolecules appeared like soup.
 J.B.S Haldane called it as pre biotic soup/hot dilute soup/primordial soup.
 4.FORMATION OF MACROMOLECULES:-
 In this step micromolecules were combined in various ways to form the
macromolecules like carbohydrates,protein,fat and nucleic acid.
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 5.FORMATION OF NUCLEIC ACID:-

 Sugar,nitrogen base and phosphate combined to form nucleotide which
polymerized into nucleic acids in the ancient ocean.
 The first nucleic acid evolved was RNA as it can be a substrate and enzyme.
 6.FORMATION OF NUCLEOPROTEIN:-
 After the formation of RNA and then DNA, the nucleic acid was then
combined with protein molecule to form giant nucleoprotein molecule.
 7.FORMATION OF COACERVATE:-
 The above macromolecules aggregated together in various ratios to form an
organized structure called coacervate and its formation is called coacervation
 It did not mix with surrounding substances.
 It was covered by double layered membrane and had the capacity for asexual
reproduction like binary fission,fragmentation,budding etc.
 Oparin considered it as the sole living structure which gave rise to cell.
 As coacervate lack a definite membrane no one claims coacervates are alive.
 Sydney fox used the term microsphere formed from proteinoid(protein like
structure)as pre biotic structure/protobionts/protocell.
 So some investigators considered microspheres as first living cell.
 8.FORMATION OF PRE CELL:-
 In this stage anaerobic heterotrophs were formed from the proto cells.
 9.FORMATION OF CELL:-
 Lastly chlorophyll molecules were appeared so photosynthesis occurred.
 This resulted liberation of O2 to the oxygen free atmosphere.
 In this way autotrophic and aerobic organisms were produced.
 Then the life activities were started in aerobic condition.

Q2.DESCRIBE ANATOMICAL EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.

 Study of comparative anatomy and morphology among the animals provide
much evidence in favour of evolution and can be described as follows.
 1.ORGAN SYSTEMS:-The different systems of animal body are similar in
many groups of organisms eg,circulatory system,respiratory system etc.
 Circulatory system of all vertebrates contains a heart,arteries,veins and
lymph vessels etc.
 The presence of similar organ system indicates a common ancestry.
 HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS:-
 The organs of different animals having similar structure and origin but
different functions are called homologous organs.
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 eg.Fore limb of man,cheetah,whale and bat.

 The skeletal parts of forelimbs of all these vertebrates consists of humerus,
radio-ulna,carpals,metacarpals and phallanges.
 Fore limb of man are adapted for grasping,in cheetah for running,in whale
for swimming and in bat for flying.
 In this way homologous organ proves that they have a common ancestry and
for which they are built on a similar pattern but due to different mode of
living they are doing different functions.
 The homologous structures are a result of divergent evolution.
 Structural homology is also seen in the heart,brain,muscle etc.
 Mouth parts of some insect like honeybee,cockroach,mosquito and butterfly
comprise labrum,mandibles and maxillae with different functions
 Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendril of cucurbita(NEET-2008) arise from
axillary position and helps in protection and climbing accordingly.
 ANALOGOUS ORGANS:-
 The organs having similar function but different in structure and origin are
called analogous organs eg.fore limb of butterfly and birds(NEET-2015)
helps in flying but their anatomical structures are different.
 This proves that they have different origin but due to similar mode of living
they are functionally similar
 Analogous structures are the result of convergent evolution.(NEET-2015).
 Other examples include flippers of penguin and dolphin, fins of fishes and
flipper of the whale helps in swimming,stings of honey bee(modified last
ovipositor) and scorpion(modified last abdominal segment) helps in
defence, eye of cephalopods like octopus(modification of skin) and
mammal(NEET2013)(outgrowth of brain)helps in vision, sweet potato(root
modification) and potato(stem modification) are adapted for storage of food

 VESTIGIAL ORGANS:-
 These are the very less developed and non-functional organ which are very
well developed in other animals or their ancestors.eg.coccyx,vermiform
appendix,wisdom teeth,ear muscle,third eye lid(plica semilunaris),body
hair,nipple in male,segmental muscle in abdomen etc. in human.

 ATAVISM:-
 The reappearance of ancestral characters in an individual is called atavism.
 eg.multinipple condition,fleshy tail,functional ear muscle,large canine teeth,
much amount of hair in the body.
 CONNECTING LINK:-
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 The organism which exhibits the character of two groups.eg.virus between

living and non-living,Euglena between plant and animal,lung pisces between
pisces and amphibians, Egg laying mammal between reptile and mammal.
Q3.EXPLAIN EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.
 This evidence is based on the comparative study of the embryos of animals.
 SIMILARITIES IN EMBRYOS:-
 Early embryos of all the animals are so similar that it becomes difficult to
differentiate among these embryos.
 As the development proceed the embryos differ more and more from each
other and lastly they attain their respective adult structure.
 This common pattern of embryonic development is due to common ancestry.
 Again embryos of closely related groups are more similar than than the
distantly related group.
 It is another proof of close relationship among these divergent vertebrates.
 SIMILARITIES IN ZYGOTES:-
 All the animals starts their development from an unicellular zygote.
 This clearly indicates their origin from a single celled ancestor.
 SIMILARITIES IN EARLY DEVELOPMENT:-
 Early embryonic stages of all the animals show the following developmental
stages like zygote→morula→blastula→gastrula.
 This establishes a close relationship among all multicellular animals
 BIOGENETIC LAW/RECAPITULATION THEORY:-
 It was proposed by Earnst Haeckel(2019-A).
 It states that “ontogeny recapitulates/repeats phylogeny.”
 It means higher animals during their development show the similarities with
the adult stage of lower animals or their ancestors eg.tadpole larva of frog
 Tadpole larva is a developmental stage of frog which shows the similarities
with a fish having gills,fins,lateral line sense organs,two chambered heart etc
 This proves that amphibians have been originated from fishes.
 DEVELOPMENT OF VERTEBRATE ORGANS:-
 Development of many vertebrate organs like heart, brain, etc.indicates
the possible path of evolution as well as the common ancestry of vertebrates.
 During the development of heart of a mammal and bird is initially two
chambered as in fishes,then three chambered as in amphibians and reptiles
and ultimately four chambered like bird and mammal.
 It clearly shows that birds and mammals have originated from fishes through
amphibians and reptiles.
 Q4EXPLAIN PALAEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
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 Leonardo da-vinci is known as father of palaeontology and George cuvier

is known as the father of modern palaeontology(2018-A).
 Palaeontology deals with study of fossils which are the remnants of
previously existing plants and animals preserved in the earth.
 Fossils are the written document of evolution which proves it as following.
 DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSILS IN THE SUCCESSIVE LAYERS:-
 Fossils are found in various layers of the earth and it has been observed that
fossils of lowermost layer contains the simplest organism.
 The successive layers in ascending order shows the increasing in complexity
of animals with more and more recent fossils eg.invertebrates→vertebrates.
 MISSING LINKS:-
 The fossil organisms which show the characters of two different groups are
called missing link eg.Archaeopteryx(fossil bird) between reptile and bird.
 Reptilian characters:-
 Presence of homodont teeth,lizard like long tail, scale, non-pneumatic bone.
 Avian characters:-
 Presence of feathers,wing and beak.
 EVOLUTION OF HORSE;-
 Complete fossil records of horse is available like elephant,camel,man etc.
 The continuous change in characters proves the evolution as the following.
 Name of the horse Finger in fore limb Finger in hind limb Height
 Eohippus 4 3 30cm
 Mesohippus 3 3 60cm
 Merychippus 3 3 100cm
 Pliohippus 1 1 120cm
 Equus 1 1 150cm
 Eohippus is the ancient horse while Equus is the today`s modern horse.
 Q5.DISCUSS BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.
 Evidence from physiology and biochemistry is the most recent and strong
evidence regarding the mechanism of evolution which prove it as following.
 Functional activities and chemical composition prove it in following ways.
 1.PROTOPLASM:-
 All types of cell in the organism contains 4 basic elements ie.carbon,
hydrogen,oxygen and nitrogen which combine to form carbohydrate,
protein, fat and nucleic acid.
 Same element with similar composition proves the same ancestry.
 2.ENZYMES:-
 Protein splitting enzyme trypsin is found from protozoa to man.
 3.HORMONES:-
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 Thyroxine,insulin etc. hormones are similar and interchangeable in all the

vertebrates.
 4.CHROMOSOMES:-
 Chromosomes are composed of nucleic acid and protein in all the cell.
 5.BLOOD GROUP:-
 Blood group A and B are found in apes but not in monkey.
 It indicates that man is more closely related to apes than monkey.
 6.SERUM TEST:-
 The serological test among the experimental animals proves that birds are
more closer to crocodile than other reptiles and apes are more closely related
to man than monkey .
 Q6.DESCRIBE DARWINISM/NATURAL SELECTION THEORY.
 Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was a naturalist of England.
 He got a chance to travel through a ship called HMS Beagle for five years.
 He sailed many islands eg. Galapagos islands(living laboratory of evolution)
 There he studied small black birds called Darwin`s finches by David Lack.
 He spent 20 years in studying his collections made during his visit.
 His theory was influenced by a book on “Essay on population”by Malthus
and “principles of geology”by Charles Lyell.
 Darwin and his contemporary Alfred Russel Wallace who worked in
Malaya archipelago had the same idea on evolutrion.
 Darwin published his classical work in 1859 in a book called “origin of
species”and his theory is called Darwinism/natural selection theory.
 Salient features of Darwins natural selection theory is discussed below.
 1.OVER PRODUCTION:-
 All animals and plants have a natural tendency for excess power of fertility.
 An oyster produces 60 million eggs in a season.
 An Ascaris lays 7 lakh eggs in a day.
 A Rabbit produces 6 young ones in every three month.
 It is seen that the number of offsprings are increasing while the food and
space remains constant.
 If all of these animals survive for a few generations then the earth will be
over crowded by these animals.
 There must be an effective checking mechanism to control their number.
 This check was recognized by Darwin as struggle for existence.
 2.STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE:-
 It is the competition for food,space and mate and the struggles are 3 types.
 A.Intraspecific struggle:-
 It is the struggle between the member of the same species.eg.two dogs are
fighting for a piece of flesh.
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 B.Interspecific struggle:-
 It is the struggle between the member of the two different species.eg.A tiger
runs after a deer for its food while deer try to escape for its survival.
 C.Environmental struggle:-
 It is the competition of the organisms with their environmental factors like
extreme heat,cold,earthquake,flood,drought,shortage of food,oxygen etc.
 3.VARIATION AND HEREDITY:-
 Variation means difference in character between individuals.
 No two individuals are exactly alike.
 Variation occurs even between the offspring of the same parent,leaves of the
same tree and even the two hands of a person.
 Darwin described two types of variation such as favourable variation eg.high
speed of a deer which are useful in the struggle for existence and
unfavourable variation eg.huge weight of dinosaurs which are useless in the
struggle for existence.
 Darwin believed in small ,continuous and favourable variation as the raw
material for evolution and discarded the large and discontinuous variation.
 He considered these variations as the sports of nature.
 Again variation has no role in the process of evolution if it is not handed to
the next generation.
 Variation causes formation of new character and heredity passes them to
next generation.
 SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST AND NATURAL SELECTION;-
 The organisms provided with favourable variations succeed in the struggle
for existence.
 These organisms are fittest for survival and other animals with unfavourable
variations are unfit to survive and they die.
 The fitness and unfitness is decided by nature.
 It select those organisms which are provided with favourable variations.
 It is called natural selection and Herbert Spencer replace the word natural
selection as survival of the fittest.
 ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES:-
 The number of animals having favourable variation increases by mating.
 During mating favourable characters are transmitted to the next generation.
 Due to natural selection the favourable characters are modified in every
generation and after many generations a new species is formed which seems
to be totally different from the original animal.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE

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 Q1.Briefly explain the experimental support to the biochemical origin of

life/Explain Miller`s experiment.
 Urey and his student Miller supported the biochemical origin of life
proposed by Oparin and Haldane.
 They experimentally proved this hypothesis in their laboratory.
 They created a condition like the primitive earth.
 At first the water was boiled to produce steam at 8000C.
 This water vapour(steam)was allowed to mix with the vapours of CH4,NH3
 and H2 gas in2:1:2 ratio in a chamber.
 The mixture was then treated with an electric current of 75000 volt.
 This much of current is comparable to the lightening of primitive earth.
 Then the mixture was cooled, liquefied and analysed by chromatography to
get the amino acids like glycine,alanine,glutamic acid,aspartic acid etc.
 Q2Briefly explain the various types of fossil.
 A.Unalterd fossil:- Whole body is preserved in ice,amber etc.
 eg.Wolly mammoth found in frozen ice of Siberia.
 B.Petrified fossil:-Organic part of the dead body is replaced by mineral
deposits eg.teeth, bones etc.
 C.Mould fossil:-Impression of external st. of body is preserved in wet soil.
 D.Cast fossil- Minerals are filled in the mould resulting in cast fossil.
 E.Print fossil:-Fossilized impressions of foot,wings,leaves,stem etc.
 F.COPROLITE:-Preserved faecal pellets of organisms which gives the idea
of feeding habit.
 Q.3.WHAT IS GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE? CLASSIFY IT.
 The life span of earth from the time of its origin is called geological time.
 Geologists have divided the geological time into different division which is
based on the fossil available in different layers of the earth.
 The orderly arrangement of geological time is called geological time scale.
 Its major divisions are called Era followed by smaller divisions called
period, then epoch and lastly age are the smallest divisions.
 Era→Azoic Archaeozoic Proterozoic Palaeozoic Mesozoic Coenozoic
 Period→ Cambrian Triassic Tertiary
Ordovician Jurassic Quarternary
Silurian Cretaceous
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian
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 Q4.MENTION THE DOMINANT LIFE OF THE FOLLOWINGS.

 Azoic era→Era of no life(oldest era)
 Archaeozoic era→Origin of life but no fossil record.
 Proterozoic era→Era of marine life like protozoa,porifera,cnidaria,
 Palaeozoic era→Age of higher invertebrates,fish and amphibians.
 Mesozoic era→Golden age of reptiles.
 Coenozoic era→Age of mammals(modern era)
 Devonian period→Age of fish/origin of amphibian
 Carboniferous period→Age of amphibian/origin of reptile.
 Triassic period→Origin of dinosaurs and prototherians.
 Jurassic period→Age of dinosaurs and other reptiles/origin of toothed birds.
 Cretaceous period→Extinction of dinosaurs,toothed birds/ origin of birds.
 Tertiary period→Age of mammal and birds
 Quartenary period→Age of man.
 Q5. WHAT IS LIVING FOSSIL?
 It is a living animal of ancient origin with many primitive characters.
 It has been living as such from the time of its origin without many changes.
 Few in number and restricted to some unchanging environment of the world.
 Most of them form connecting link between two major groups of animals.
 eg.Sphenodon→connecting link between amphibia and reptilia.
 eg.Platypus→connecting link between reptilia and mammalia
 Q6.DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN:-
 A. ABIOGENESIS BIOGENESIS
 1.Origin of life from lifeless matters 1.Origin of life from pre-exsting life.
 2.It lacks scientific base 2.It has some experimental proof.
 3.Supported byAristotle,Empedocles 3.Supported by F.Redi,Spallanzani.
 B. HOMOLOGOUS ORGAN ANALOGOUS ORGAN
 1.Similar in anatomy 1.Dissimilar in anatomy
 2.Similar in origin 2.Dissimilar in origin
 3.Similar developmental pattern 3.Dissimilar developmental pattern
 4.Develop in related organism 4. Develop in unrelated organism
 5.Dissimilar in function 5.Similar in function
 6.Dissimilar in morphology 6.Similar in morphology
 7.They show divergent evolution 7.They show convergent evolution
 8.Fore limb of man,bird,cheetah,whale8.Fore limb of fish and whale
 C. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
 1.Members have common ancestor 1.They have not common ancestor
 2.Members have homologous organ 2.They have analogous organ
 3.Dfferent mode of living 3.Similar mode of living
 4.Darwin`s finches 4.Wolf and Tasmanian wolf
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 D. FOSSIL LIVING FOSSIL

 1.Remains of previously exsting animal1.Living animal of ancient origin
 2.Shows the ancient form of the animal 2. Shows the form of fossil animal
 3.Found inside the earth 3.Live on earth surface
 4.More in number 4.Few in number
 5.Fossil of horse,elephant,man etc. 5.Sphenodon,platyplus etc.
 E. INTRASPECIFIC STRUGGLE INTERSPECIFIC STRUGGLE
 1.Struggle between the same species 1.Struggle between different species
 2.Requirements are same in all 2.Requirements are different in all
 3.Competition is more 3.Competition is less
 4.Two dogs fighting for the flesh 4.Tiger runs after a deer for its food
 Q.7. DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION
 Natural selection refers to the process of selection of better adapted
organism by the environment.
 They are provided with favourable variations.
 The nature of environment allows them to reproduce.
 Hence more and more better adapted organisms are produced.
 This process is repeated generation after generation.
 In each generation there is slight improvement in the betterment of
favourable characters.
 The additive effect in every generation causes the formation of new
structure and new species.
 TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION: There are three basic types of
natural selection.
 A.STABILIZING SELECTION/ NORMALIZING SELECTION
/BALANCING SELECTION:-
 This type of natural selection operates in unchanging environment ( or in
the absence of large scale environmental change)which arrest the
evolutionary change of a population.
 It favours the intermediate form of a character, so average sized
individual/normal individuals are selected by nature.
 The individuals with extreme form of a character are rejected.
 eg1.In human population more individuals are average height than very tall
or very short.
 eg.2.Highest percent of mortality is seen among those babies whose weight
is much greater or lesser than the normal birth weight.
 eg.3.In a hawk population it is observed that hawk having normal wing
length in a given environment are larger in number than the hawks having
longer or shorter wing size.
 B.DIRECTIONAL SELECTION/PROGRESSIVE SELECTION:-
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 This type of natural selection operates when the environment is changing in

one direction.
 So nature select the individuals which go parallel with environmental
change having one extreme form of a character (either small or large).
 It rejects the normal individuals and brings about progressive evolutionary
change.
 eg.1.Industrial melanism:-
 Industrial melanism exhibited by peppered moth Biston betularia of Great
Britain is a very good example of directional selection.
 Prior to industrialization(1850)in Great Britain it was observed that there
were more white winged moths on trees than dark winged moths in light
coloured surroundings.
 After industrialization (1920)there were more dark winged moths in the
same area with dark coloured surrounding.
 Before industrilisation dark winged moths were easily detected and eaten by
their predator in lighter surrounding.while white winged moths were hidden
in light background.
 After industrialization the surrounding became dark due to smoke and soot
 So white winged moths were easily detected and eaten by their predator.
 Dark winged moths were hidden in dark background.
 eg.2.Resistance of insect to DDT : It is seen that some insects are survived
from the action of DDT.
 These are called DDT resistant variety which reproduce more and more
DDT resistant flies and established in the population replacing original
DDT sensitive mosquitoes.
 Thus the resistant populations are evolved as a selective advantage against
insecticide which shows directional natural selection.
 This type of natural selection favours the extreme forms of a character.
 The individual with specialized characters(either small or large sized
individuals)are selected by nature and rejects most members with average
expressions which is opposite to the stabilizing selection.

C.DISRUPTIVE SELECTION /DIVERSIFYING SELECTION:-

 This type of natural selection favours both the extreme form of a character.
 It is just opposite to stabilizing selection, which favours both small and large
sized individuals and eliminates most members with average expression.
 The original population breaks up in to two or more groups which later
evolve in to new species.
 eg.Stebbins and his coworkers studied it in a population of sunflower at
California over a period of 12 years.
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 After 5 years population was splitted in to two sub populations.

 One of these populations occupied by a relative dry site and other occupied
comparatively wet site.
 During next seven years the size of the population fluctuated greatly in
response to different rainfall,but the differences between the two sub
populations were maintained.

Q8.WHAT IS GENE FLOW? (2018-A)

 Gene flow or gene migration is the movement of alleles from one population
to another due to interbreeding between members of the two population.
 If the migrating individuals breed with new population then,the migrating
population(immigrants) will add new alleles to the local gene pool of the
host population.
 This is called gene migration /gene flow.
 Some times two separated populations again come closure due to migration.
 So the genes again mix up due to breeding and causes variation in the
offspring.
 Gene flow decreases the differences between population and thus prevents
natural selection.
Q9.DESCRIBE MORDEN SYNTHETIC THEORY OF EVOLUTION:-
 Modern synthetic theory of evolution is a modified form of Darwin’s theory
of natural selection and often called Neo-Darwinism.
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 It is a combination of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian genetics.

 The main architects of the synthetic theory are Haldane,Stebbins
Dobzhansky,Mayr,Huxley,Simpson,fisher Sewal wright etc.
 Darwinism does not satisfactorily explain the origin and inheritance of
variation.
 Devries mutation theory has been shown to be weak regarding formation of
new species in one generation,hence this new concept was derived by the
combination of older concept.
 It explains evolution in terms of genetical change in population leading to
the origin of new species.
 Following factors are the chief ingredients of this theory.
 1.Gene mutation:Sudden change in the gene(DNA)due to radiation, light,
temperature etc. bring about permanent phenotypic change in the individual.
 2.Chromosomal mutation:Change in chromosome number (ploidy) and
structure(chromosomal aberration) also contribute in phenotypic change.
 3.Recombination:Reshuffling of genes due to crossing over causes
variation.
 4.Natural selection:Favourable variations due to mutations are selected by
nature and lead to the formation of new species.
 5.Isolation:Populations of a species separated by physiological,
reproductive or geographical barrier may lead to the emergence of new
species.
 6.Genetic drift:Change in frequency of gene in a population which occurs
by chance is called genetic drift and it causes variation.
 7.Hybridization:Interbreeding among the individuals of different
populations of a species or closely related species may form new species.
 Q10.BRIEFLY EXPLAIN VARIATION THROUGH MUTATION
AND RECOMBINATION:-
 Dissimilarities between the member of the same species are called variations
and they are inheritable.
 only useful and heritable variations are helpful in organic evolution.
 They have better chance of survival and successful in struggle for existence
while opposite is seen in useless variation.
 Mutation and recombination has major role in variation and organic
evolution.
 1.MUTATION:- It is the sudden change in the gene sequence.
 When it occurs in the structure and sequence of gene it is called gene
mutation / point mutation eg.Sickle cell anaemia, Albinism, PKU,
Chlorophyll deficiencies.
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 when mutation occurs in the structure of chromosome or by change in the

number of chromosome it is called chromosomal mutation eg. Cri-du-chat
syndrome/Cat cry syndrome,Downs syndrome, Turners syndrome.
 Naturally occurring mutations are called spontaneous mutation eg. white eye
in drosophila,white tiger in Nandan kanan.
 Mutation caused by mutagenic agents like X-rays, UV-rays,mustard
gas,caffeine etc. are called induced mutation.
 Harmless mutations are now considered as ultimate source of evolution.
 Induced mutations are widely used for the improvement of crop and
medicinal plant .
 It also causes healthy and disease resistant animal varieties.
 Hugo devries suggested mutation theory by experimenting on a plant which
 is popularly known as Evening prim rose (Oenothera lamarckiana).
2.RECOMBINATION:Recombination is the union of paternal and
maternal chromosome which occurs in every generation by independent
assortment.
 During fertilization the haploid chromosome of paternal and maternal unite
to form the diploid zygote.
 Therefore segregation, crossing over,and independent assortment cause
recombination of genes in every generation in a sexually reproducing
organism
 Recombinations are very frequent in nature where mutation is very rare .
 So recombination provides raw material for evolution of new species.
 Q.11. WHAT IS GENETIC DRIFT/SEWAL WRIGHT EFFECT ?
 Fluctuation in the frequency of genes purely by chance is called genetic drift
 It was first described by American geneticist Sewall wright in 1931.
 Hence it is also called sewall wright effect.
 Although it occurs in all populations,its effects are most marked in very
small isolated population(NEET-2016).
 In small population some alleles may be over represented (fixed),some under
represented and some may be totally eliminated due to migration, disease,
natural calamity etc.
 Thus the gene pool (Total genes and their alleles of a population) of the
population is changed without involving the question of usefulness of the
character eg.founder effect and bottle neck effect.(examples of genetic drift)
 FOUNDER EFFECT: When a small group of people from a large
population migrate to a new geographical region for a new settlement ,they
are called founder.
 They carry only a limited parental gene .
 They may have different genotype frequencies from the parent population.
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 Formation of different genotype in new settlement is called founder effect.

 Some time they form a new species.
 Founder effect was proposed by Mayr.
 BOTTLE NECK EFFECT: The term was introduced by Stebbins.
 Due to natural calamity like earthquake, fire, flood ,drought, disease etc. the
number of individuals reduce so much that the small group of population
becomes isolated and restricted in distribution.
 These are then exposed to random genetic drift
resulting in the fixation (richness) of some genes.
 Thus the population re-establishes its former richness .
 such reduction in allele frequencies is called a genetic bottle neck effect
which often prevent the species from extinction.
 eg . In mosquitoes, houseflies etc .there is cyclic fluctuation of population
density
 Due to the above said unexpected factors which causes squeezing effect of
some genes in a gene pool(appear like neck of a bottle) leads to large
fluctuation in gene frequency .
 The surviving individual again re-establish its former richness.
 significance of genetic drift: Genetic drift is an evolutionary force.
 Most interbreeding populations are small where some genes may be lost or
reduced and others may increase by chance .
 It may fix some non-adaptive traits in small population and preserves or
eliminates genes without distinction.
 Q.12. STATE THE HARDY-WEINBERG`S LAW.(2018-A)
 Hardy-weinberg`s equilibrium principle was proposed by an English
mathematician G.H.Hardy and German Physician W.Weinberg in 1908.
 The law states that the relative frequencies of alleles in a population are
stable and is constant from generation to generation .
 The gene pool remains constant and this is called genetic equilibrium.
 It is applicable under the following conditions.
 1.No Mutation(Gene or chromosomal)
 2.No Genetic drift.
 3.No Gene flow/Gene migration.
 4.No Genetic recombination.
 5.No Natural Selection.
 It occurs in large population with random mating(No choice of mating)
 The gene frequencies will remain constant if all the five conditions are met.
 As the sum total of frequencies of all alleles in a population is 1, so p+q=1
 The binomial expression to calculate genotype frequency is
(p+q)2=1 = p2+2pq+q2 =1
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 p= frequency of dominant allele(suppose A)

 q= frequency of recessive allele (suppose a)
 p2=frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype (AA)
 q2=frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype (aa)
 2pq=frequency of the heterozygous genotype (Aa)(NEET-2016)
 Constant gene frequencies over several generations indicate that evolution is
not taking place.
 Changing gene frequencies indicate that evolution is in progress.
 In other words evolution occurs when the genetic equilibrium is upset.
 PROBLEM-1.In a population if the frequency of recessive allele is 0.4 then
what will be the percentage of homozygous
dominants,heterozygotes ,dominant phenotypes and recessive phenotypes in
that population?
 SOLUTION: The frequency of recessive allele ie . q = 0.4
Since p+q=1,p(frequency of dominant allele) = 1- 0.4 = 0.6
The percentage of homozygous dominants = p2= (0.6) 2= 0.36 =36%
The percentage of heterozygotes = 2pq =2×0.6×0.4= 0.48 = 48%
percentage of dominant phenotypes=p2+2pq=0.36+0.48=0.84=84%
percentage of recessive phenotype q 2 = (0.4)2 = o.16 = 16
 PROBLEM-2.In a Hamster population 90% M genes and 10% m genes are
present so what will be the the percentage of homozygous dominant,
heterozygotes and homozygous recessive in the absence of mutation and
natural selection?
 The frequency of M gene p is 90% = 0.9.The frequency of m gene q is 10%
=0.1 (p+q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q 2 = ( 0.9)2 + 2 × 0.9 × 0.1 + (0.1)2 = 0.81 + 0.18 +
0.01 = 81% MM + 18% Mm + 1% mm.
 Q.13.STATE ADAPTIVE RADIATION/DIVERGENT EVOLUTION:-
 Development of different functional structures from a common ancestral
form is called adaptive radiation.
 This concept in evolution was developed by H.F.Osborn in 1902.
 Homologous organs show adaptive radiation/divergent evolution.
 Followings are some examples regarding divergence in morphology.
 1.Adaptive radiation in Finches:
 Darwin`s finches (small black bird of Galapagos islands)had common seed
eating ancestor,now have different type of modified beak as per food habit.
 2.Australian marsupials:
 Darwin explained that adaptive radiation in the Australian marsupials gave
rise to variety of marsupials within Australian continent.
 They not only survived but evolved along different lines in to
fossorial,arboreal,semi-aquatic,aquatic,terrestrial and cursorial forms.
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 Locomotion in mammals:
 The limb structure of placental mammals show adaptive radiation based on
locomotion.
 Q.14.WRITE AN ESSAY ON HUMAN EVOLUTION.
 Place of origin: Africa and Asia.
 Time of origin.Probable transformation of Ape man to human is between
Miocene and Pliocene epoch.
 Probable causes: Continental elevation,aridity in climate in pliocene epoch
results destruction of forest and force ape man to the ground.
 Morphological /Evolutionary changes of man:
 1.Narrowing and elevation of nose
 2.Formation of chin .
 3.Reduction of eyebrow ridges
 4.Flattening of face
 5. Reduction in body hair
 6.Erect posture.
 7.Increase in height.
 8.Bipedal locomotion
 .9.Fore limbs become shorter.
 10.opposable thumbs and free grasping hands
 11.Enlargement and rounding of cranium.
 12.Increased cranial capacity and complexity of brain.
 13.Articulation of speech
 14.Development of communal life.
 Stages of human evolution:
 Human evolution can be studied in three major steps.
 A.Prior to ape man
 B.Ape man including prehistoric man.
 C.True man including modern man.
 A.PRIOR TO APE MAN:
 1.Dryopithecus/Proconsul:The fossil of Dryopithecus africanus was
discovered from Africa and Europe.
 It was lived about 20-25 million years ago in Miocene epoch.
 It was more ape like.and had large brain, muzzle and large canines.
 Arms and legs are of same length.
 It was mostly arboreal,tetrapod,ate soft leaves and fruits.
 It is regarded as a common ancestor of man and apes.
 2.Ramapithecus: The fossil of Ramapithecus was discovered by Edward
Lewis(1932) from Shivalik hills of India.
 It was lived in Pliocene epoch.and appeared 14-15 million years ago
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 It has been established that in late Miocene epoch, Dryopithecus gave rise
to Ramapithecus which was on the direct line of human evolution.
 Ramapithecus survived from the late Miocene to Pliocene.
 It was more man like and lived on tree tops but also walked on ground with
its hind feet.
 It had small canines and large molars which ate nuts and seeds like modern
man and it was extincted 7-8 million years back.
 B.APE MAN INCLUDING PREHISTORIC MAN:
 1.Australopithecus(first ape man):Raymond Dart(1924) discovered fossil of
skull of a baby (5-6years) near Tuang in Africa so it is called Tuang baby. It
(Australopithecus africanus) was appeared 5 million years ago in Pliocene
epoch and It had following characters.
 1.Upright posture.2.large jaw and teeth3.Grasping hand 4.Binocular and
stereoscopic vision 5.Height was about 1.5 metres 6.Cranial capacity was
about 500cc. and it was existed until about 1.5 million years ago.
 2.Homo habilis(Handy man/Able man/Skill full man/The tool maker)
 It was discovered by L.B.S.Leakey and his wife Mary Leakey from Olduvai
Gorge in Africa.
 It was appeared in Pleistocene epoch about 2 million years ago.
 It was the first human like being the hominid capable of making tool(first
tool maker) using stone.
 It had bipedal locomotion,moved erect and omnivorous.
 It was about 1.2 to 1.5 metres in height having about 700cc cranial
capacity.
 3.Homo erectus(erect man):It was appeared about 1.7 million years ago in
middle Pleistocene.
 It was evolved from Homo habilis with following characters:-
 1.Erect posture.
 2.Flatter skull than modern man.
 3.protruding jaws.4.projecting eyebrow ridges.
 5.Small canines with large molar teeth.
 6.It was about 1.5 -1.8 metres tall.
 7.It was omnivorous and perhaps knew the use of fire.
 8.The cranial capacity was 800 to 1300 cc.
 It includes three fossils ie.Java ape man,Peking man and Heidelberg man.
 a.Java ape man(Homo erectus erectus):It was discovered by Eugene
Dubois in Java and it had following characters:
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 1.erect posture and bipedal locomotion

 2.omnivorous and cannibals.
 3.It had no chin but large teeth and jaws.
 4.Its height was 1.6 -1.8 metres.
 5.Its cranial capacity was about 800 -1000cc.
 6.Perhaps he was the first prehistoric man to make use of fire for
hunting,defence and cooking
 b.Peking man(.Homo erectus pekinensis):-It was discovered by W.C.Pei
near Peking in China and was about 6 lakh years old having following
characters:
 1.The cranial capacity was about 850-1100cc(Rest are same with Java man)
 2.Clear evidence of use of fire and more developed tools than Java ape man
 c.Heidelberg man:-(Homo erectus heidelbergensis):-The lower jaw of this
fossil was discovered in 1907 from Heidelberg of Germany and it belong to
middle Pleistocene having following characters:-
 1.It had lower jaw with all human like teeth.
 2The massive jaw was ape like and without chin.
 3.He used the tools and fire
 4.The cranial capacity is believed to be about 1300cc.
 C.TRUE MAN INCLUDING THE LIVING MODERN MAN:-
 a.Neanderthal man(Homo sapiens neanderthalensis):-
 The fossil was discovered from Neanderthal valley of Germany by
Fuhlrott(1856)from the late Pleistocene epoch with following characters:-
 1.Strong and well built body and walked upright.
 2.Head was bulging forward.
 3.slightly prognathous face, small and flat nose and without chin.
 4.The cranial capacity was about 1400cc.
 5.The height was about 150-156cm.
 6.They were able to communicate some sort of language.
 7.They were skilled hunters,true predators,(used hides )and cannibals.
 8.They had the primitive type of social life and buried the dead after
performing ceremonies.
 9.They were lived in near east and central Asia between 100000-40000
years back.
 b.Cro-magnon man(Homo sapiens fossilis):-
 Its fossils was discovered by Mac Gregor from Cro Magnon rock of France.
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 It was emerged about 34000 years ago in Holocene epoch and extincted
10000-11000 years ago.
 This recent and direct ancestor of today`s man has following characters:
 1.Well built body with 1.8 metres tall.
 2.Perfectly orthgnathous face.
 3.Elevated nose and well developed chin
 4.strong jaw with man like dentition.
 5.The cranial capacity was 1650cc.
 6.They were more intelligent and cultured lived in families in cave and
made excellent tools in bone and stone (eg. spear,bone, arrow)for hunting
 They were good artists and did excellent coloured cave painting.
 The living modern man(Homo sapiens sapiens):-
 They appeared about 25000 years ago in Holocene epoch and started
migrating different parts of the world about 10000 years ago.
 It was evolved into the present day white or Caucasoid races,mongoloid
races and black or negroid races.having following characters:
 1.Orthgnathous face and reduction in jaw size
 2.large brain size and cranial capacity(1450cc).
 3.Complete erect posture
 4.purely bipedal locomotion
 5.opposable thumbs and free grasping hands.
 6.They developed sound into words ( greatest achievement in evolution).
 Cultural evolution:-It has been divided into palaeolithic(age of tools of
stones and bones)Mesolithic(age of animal husbandry,language, reading
and writing)Neolithic(age of agriculture,knowledge and use of clothes and
utensils)bronze(extensive use of bronze)and iron age(modern age with
profound use of iron).
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