TECHNICAL DESIGN GUIDE

The Complete Guide

October 2006

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TECHNICAL GUIDE
October 2006

No 1 – System Design

1.1 HYDRAULICS

1.1.1 Hydraulic Design

Background
There are two main categories of drainage:

1. Surface water which generally is discharged untreated into rivers or water

courses.
2. Foul water that feeds into sewage treatment plants.

Surface water includes agricultural, roof or paved areas and highway drainage. Foul
water can be from either domestic or industrial sources.

It is worth explaining three of the terms used; ‘Sewerage’ is the entire system of
pipes, manholes, gullies and channels. ‘Sewage’ is the effluent that flows within that
sewerage system. ‘Sewer’ is the pipeline, either for foul or for surface water.

Initially, from the l8th to early 20th century, the majority of drainage systems were
‘combined’, that is, the foul and surface water fed into the same main sewer. More
recent installations opted for separate systems. To further complicate the situation
there are partially separate systems where in times of surface water flooding,
provision is made for cross-linking of the two systems. Combined systems are still
sometimes used, although the government is insisting that they are phased out and
replaced by separate systems.

Design considerations
In the design of a sewer, be it surface or foul, similar criteria must be considered.
These include:-

ƒ average and peak flows and their duration gradient

ƒ the ranking of the sewer and its environs (whether flooding can be tolerated)
ƒ the depth of the sewer
ƒ any topographical or structural feature (such as a valley, building or
embankment)
ƒ surface characteristics (road, field or paved area)
ƒ access to the sewer for maintenance (frequency, size and depth of manholes)

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Surface water sewers
The volume of water can be estimated by applying one of the traditional methods
such as the Lloyd- Davies or ‘Rational’ method which was modified by TRRL and
widely used in the UK for many years. More recently the Wallingford Procedure was
introduced by the Hydraulics Research Station (now Hydraulics Research Limited) at
Wallingford.

This incorporates sophisticated computer programmes that take into account the
geography of an area, predicted rainfall, return period of storms, nature of the soil,
percentage of impermeable area (i.e. roads, flags and roofs) and the ranking of the
area. The procedure includes a simplified method that can be applied without need
to refer to the suite of computer programmes.

Foul sewers
Traditionally the volume of flow (generally expressed in litres per second) has been
calculated using the general rule of thumb equations of 4 x dry weather flow for a
new sewer with joints inherently sound or 6 x dry weather flow in the case of a sewer
where infiltration might be expected.

More recently, domestic flow according to Sewers for Adoption (Water Services
Association) has been based on 4000 litres/unit dwelling/day. Foul sewage from
industrial sources should be assessed taking account of the type of use of the
property; this should be discussed with the local authority’s planning department to
ascertain projected usage and capacity.

Infiltration including illicit connections to pipeline or manhole must always be

considered realistically.

There has been extensive research on the comparative roughness - Ks factor - of

pipes of different materials. The findings of HRS suggest that regardless of material
a Ks value of 1.5mm should be used for all foul sewers and 0.6mm for surface water
sewers. These recommendations have been incorporated within Sewers for
Adoption.

Concrete pipes to BS 5911 readily satisfy these requirements whether for surface
water or foul sewage. For self cleansing properties the foul sewer must flow at a
minimum of 0.75 m/sec at one third of the design flow, the main governing factors
being the pipe diameter, the gradient and the volume of effluent. (The larger the pipe
and the flatter the gradient, then the greater amount of effluent will be required to
achieve the self cleansing velocity).

If there is only a small flow it is unwise to select too large a pipe “to allow for possible
development” as this may lead to settling out of solids, long retention periods,
blockages and build-up of septicity. A limited period of surcharge and backing up of
a sewer is preferable to consistent low velocity with all its attendant problems.

Design methods
The various design methods used in the UK have been Crimp and Bruges, Manning,
Hazen-Williams, Colebrook-White, Kutter, Chezy, Bazin and Darcy. In recent years
the Colebook-White equation for transitional flow has been adopted by Hydraulic
Research Ltd. as the basis for their design tables and has gradually become
accepted nationally.

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The general formula is:

1 = .2 log Ks + 2.51
√λ
(
3.7D Re√λ
)
Where:
λ= friction coefficient, 2gDi/V2
ks = a linear measure of effective roughness
D = pipe internal diameter
Re = Reynolds number, VD/√

In engineering terms, the expression for transitional pipe flow may be written:

Ks 2.51v
V = .2√ (2gDi) log
( 3.7D +
D√(2gDi)
)
Where:

V = velocity
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/sec2)
i = hydraulic gradient; invert and water surface
slope in uniform flow in open channel.
v= kinematic viscosity of fluid (1.31 x 10-6m2/sec)

The depth of effluent in the sewer will affect the flow and Chart A1 gives the
proportional velocity and discharge in part-full circular sections.

For the full range of Ks values see:

ƒ Tables for the hydraulic design of pipes, sewers and channels. Hydraulics
Research Station Seventh Edition 1998.
ƒ Charts for the hydraulic design of channels and pipes. Hydraulics Research
Station Sixth Edition 1990.

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Chart A1. Relative Velocity and Discharge in a Circular Pipe for any Depth of
Flow.

For design purposes the Water Services Association recommends Ks values of

0.6mm for storm water and 1.5mm for foul sewers irrespective of pipe material. The
charts (Figs B2 & B3) have therefore been limited to those values. Research has
shown that whilst for mature foul sewers the Ks value may well exceed 1.5mm over
short periods of their service this figure is acceptable as the build up of slime will
reach a maximum and then be reduced by normal flow patterns of the sewer.

For further detailed information on system design see also

‘BS EN 752:1998 Drain and sewer systems outside buildings. Part 4: Hydraulic
design and environmental considerations.
Sewers for Adoption 6th edition.

1.1.2 Hydraulic Flow Charts

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Chart A2
Ks = 0.6 mm (Storm water sewers)
Hydraulic Flow based on Colebrook-White
Pipes flowing FULL.
Roughness Factor, Ks = 0.6 mm.
Water Temperature 15ºC

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Chart A3
Ks = 1.5mm (Foul sewers)
Hydraulic Flow based on Colebrook-White
Pipes flowing FULL.
Roughness Factor, Ks = 1.5mm
Water Temperature 15º C

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1.1.3 Worked examples
1) Design of storm water sewer
Total length of pipeline = 2300m
Total fall to outlet = 15m
Design discharge = 0.3m3/s

To determine size of pipe:-

(a) Flowing full
(b) Flowing quarter full for same discharge

Hydraulic Gradient = 15/ 2300 = 0.0065 = 1:153

Ks for storm water sewer = 0.6mm

(a) PIPE FLOWING FULL:

From Chart A2.

Pipe size required = DN 525.

(b) PIPE FLOWING QUARTER FULL:

From Chart A1. the proportional discharge for pipe running a quarter full = 0.14

Therefore the equivalent full pipe flow is:-

0.3/0.14 = 2.14 m3/s

From Chart A1. for a discharge of 2.14 m3/s the full pipe flow is equivalent to 0.30
m3/s quarter pipe flow

Pipe size required = DN 1050.

2) Design of foul sewer

Housing Scheme =180 houses
Total length of pipeline =1650 m
Total fall = 3.6m
Sewers for Adoption - 4 m3/ dwelling/ day

Assume half flow over 6 hours and 6 x average flow as design maximum.

4 x 180
= x 6 = 0.1m3/ sec.
2 x 6 x 60 x 60

Assume pipe line runs ¾ full and the self-cleansing

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velocity = 0.75 m/sec.

From Chart A1.

Discharge Factor = 0.92

Design discharge = 0.1 x 0.92 = 0.092 m3/ sec
Velocity Factor = 1.13 and design velocity = 0.75 x
1.13 = 0.85 m/sec.

Ks for foul sewer = 1.5mm

From Chart A3.

Pipe size required between DN 375 and DN 400.

1.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.2.1 Design Principles
The forces acting on a cross section of pipeline arise from three main
sources:
A) Weight of overlying fill, including any local surcharge.
B) Soil pressures transmitted to the pipe from surface loads, i.e. traffic and other
transient loads.
C) Supporting reaction below the pipe.

The weight of water within the pipe is only significant for larger diameter pipes.

A: Weight of overlying fill

There are four main conditions in which pipes are installed:

a) “Narrow” trench.
b) “Wide” trench, or on the surface of ground over which an embankment is then
built (positive projection condition).
c) Narrow trench over which an embankment is then built (negative projection
condition).
d) Tunnel, heading or by jacking.

The load Wc imposed by the backfill on a pipe in a “narrow” trench can be found
from Marston’s formula from which the Tables have been compiled in Section 1.2.7.

These Tables are only applicable to rigid pipes laid in “Narrow” trench
conditions.

B: Traffic and other transient loads

Measurements have shown that on large civil engineering works pipes may well be
subjected to their highest loads during construction. Here, three categories of traffic

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loading are considered and rigid pipes should normally be designed to withstand the
most onerous likely to occur.

If during construction it is clear that excessive site traffic loading will occur, the
design should be checked accordingly or special crossing places must be
designated.

a) Main road loading is intended to apply to all main traffic routes and to roads
liable to be used for the temporary diversion of heavy traffic.

As a guide it may be assumed that such roads carry at least 200 commercial
vehicles per day in each direction. HA and HB loading are assumed to use such
roads (see BS 5400).

b) Light road loading applies to all other roads where heavy traffic is unlikely to
pass.

c) Field loading applies to fields, gardens and lightly trafficked access tracks.
This loading is also considered to be adequate to cater for occasional heaps
or stacks of materials on the ground surface. Massive heaps or stacks likely
to produce a more severe loading should be treated as a special design.

In assessing the loading category, regard should be paid to the possible future
upgrading of a road. Pipes under verges should normally be treated as though under
the road, with the possible exception of motorways and trunk roads and should take
account of any planned road improvement. For non-public roads such as estate
roads or roads within works, an assessment should be made of the heaviest vehicle
likely to use the road, and one of the above three loading conditions selected as
appropriate.

C: Supporting reaction below the pipe

British Standards for concrete pipes give maximum crushing loads for each diameter
and strength class of pipe. Loads are applied in a 3 edged loading test described in
BS 5911. The pipe must not collapse under the maximum load specified.

Proof test loads are also specified. Reinforced pipes must not crack by more than a
specified amount under the proof load. The only proof load test for unreinforced
pipes is the maximum load.

Pipes of a small diameter (up to DN 300) may fail as a beam. BS 5911 includes
suitable values of bending moment resistance.

Pipe bedding
This term is used to describe the complete arc of material within the trench, or in the
case of class “C” or class “D” beddings, a special preparation of the trench bottom.

Bedding factor
In the standard test on pipes the vertical loading and supporting reactions are line
loads and any trench situation in the field is unlikely to produce such an onerous
loading condition. The strength of the pipe determined in the crushing test can
therefore be multiplied by a bedding factor which represents the amount by which

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the stresses in the pipe are reduced because of the spreading properties of the
bedding for load and reaction.

The value of a bedding factor for a particular method of construction is not a precise
figure but is affected by the quality of workmanship. The values given whilst being
conservative assume a reasonable standard of workmanship and supervision. If the
designer needs a somewhat higher bedding factor than stated a high standard of
workmanship and supervision must be specified and guaranteed; alternatively a
higher strength pipe may be considered where available. If a higher strength pipe is
available adequate time must be allowed for the manufacturer to supply.

Factor of safety
For structural design to BS EN 1295 unreinforced pipes (DN225-600 inclusive)
should be designed with a factor of safety (Fse) of 1.25. The factor of safety
increases to 1.5 for reinforced pipes. However in order to maintain design continuity
, CPSA members may continue to test reinforced pipes to the old BS5911-100 proof
loads permitting the continued use of a 1.25 factor of safety for reinforced pipes also.
Confirmation should be obtained from the manufacturer or a conservative approach
would be to use a 1.5 factor of safety.

1.2.2 Design Assumptions

Surface Conditions
The Tables in Section 1.2.7 are applicable only to a single pipeline laid in its own
trench, and have been set out to give the loads on pipes under three surface
conditions, Main Roads, Light Roads and Fields.

Backfill loads
The Tables are calculated using an equivalent soil density of 19.6 kN/m3
(approximately 2 tonnes/m3).

Traffic loads
The loads referred to in the design principles have values as follows:-

a) Main roads
Static wheel load of 86.5kN and an impact factor of 1.3, giving a Total Static wheel
load of 112.5kN; contact pressure 1100kN/m2.

b) Light roads
Static wheel load of 70kN and an impact factor of 1.5, giving a Total Static wheel
load of 105kN; contact pressure 700 kN/m2.

c) Fields
Static wheel load of 30kN and an impact factor of 2.0, giving a Total Static wheel
load of 60 kN; contact pressure 400kN/m2.

Superimposed loads
These are not included in the Tables. If however such loads are encountered and
are of sufficient magnitude, an allowance should be made.

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Water Loads
These are included in the Tables. If the pipe is laid below the ground water table, an
allowance for this load is not needed. However, as these loads are small by
comparison with other loads on the pipe, it has been considered appropriate to
include them only for pipes of DN 600 and over.

Frictional factor K
A value of 0.13 has been used for narrow trench conditions.

Minimum cover over pipe

a) lt is advisable that pipes laid under roads should have cover over the pipe of
not less than 1.2m. This cover should be maintained for main roads, light
roads (which may on occasion carry main road traffic) and for pipes laid under
grass verges adjacent to a road (Tables A3 and A4). Where pipes have to be
laid with less than 1.2m cover special consideration is needed to reduce the
risk of damage. Loads in columns headed 0.9 and I.0 in Tables A3 and A4
should be used only as a guide.

b) For pipes laid in fields a minimum cover of 0.6m should be provided. At

shallower depths there is a risk of damage from agricultural operations.

1.2.3 Design Method

The established method for calculation of loads on buried rigid pipes is summarised
in BS EN 1295 National Annex A, the principles of which are explained below.

In general pipelines are laid in trenches and the pipes used are designed to carry the
backfill, traffic loads and, when the diameter is 600mm or more, some part of the
water load under working conditions.

In order to improve the load carrying capacity of the pipe it is laid on one of several
classes of bedding (see Table A2). Each type of bedding is allocated a “bedding
factor” (Fm) which may be regarded as a multiplier applied to the test load of the
pipe.

The trench is excavated in the natural soil, the pipe is laid on the selected bedding
and the trench backfilled. Load on the pipe due to the backfill develops as the fill
material settles. The load on the pipe due to the backfill is therefore the weight of the
backfill taken over the full trench width but reduced by the shear force from the
trench walls acting upwards (see Fig.A1). This state is called the narrow trench
condition. The backflll load is calculated by using the Marston formula:

Wc = Cd w Bd2

Where:
Wc = Backfill load (KN/m)

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Cd = Load coefficient, dependent on soil type and the ratio of cover depth to trench
width
w = Soil density (kN/m3)
Bd = Width of trench (m)
B

Provided that the trench width does not exceed the values given in the tables, the
loads given are conservative and may be used with confidence.

The trench widths given will provide adequate working space around the pipe for
laying and jointing and also sufficient room to place and consolidate the bedding
specified.

As indicated, the friction acting against the backfill is provided by the trench walls
and is roughly constant at a particular depth. If however the trench width is
increased radically, Bd2 in the Marston formula is also increased and a reappraisal of
the load on the pipe must be considered.

Fig A1. Narrow Trench Fig A2. Wide Trench

For any depth there is a trench width where friction planes from the trench walls
become remote from the pipe and no longer contribute to the reduction of the fill
load. In fact the settlement of the side prisms of backfill tend to increase the load
(see Fig.A2). This state is called the wide trench condition. It is a positive projection
condition. The backfill loading on the pipe does not take any relief from undisturbed
ground.

In preparing the tables, due consideration has been given as to whether at any
trench width and depth, the narrow or wide trench condition and load is applicable,
and the standard practice of using the lesser of these values has been adopted. The
tables give the total loads for pipes of all diameters specified in BS 5911-1. This load
includes loading from backflll and traffic for depths of cover over the top of the pipe
as follows:

Main Roads and Light Roads - 1.2m to 8.0m

Fields - 0.6m to 8.0m

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For DN 600 and above the water load shown is also included.

Table A1. Minimum crushing loads (Fn) for strength class 120 units with a
circular bore for use in a trench – BS 5911-1: 2002.
Nominal Size Minimum crushing size, Fn
DN kN/m
225 27
300 36
375* 45
400 48
450* 54
500 60
525* 63
600 72
675* 81
700 84
750* 90
800 96
825* 99
900* 108
1000 120
1050* 126
1200 144
1350* 162
1400 168
1500* 180
1600 192
1800 216
2000 240
2100* 252
2200 264
2400* 288
NOTE 1 Classic sizes, denoted by an asterisk, will be phased out if called for by further
European harmonisation.
NOTE 2 Sizes DN 225 to DN 600 inclusive are normally only manufactured unreinforced in the
United Kingdom.
NOTE 3 Sizes DN 1000 and above are normally only manufactured reinforced in the United
Kingdom.
NOTE 4 Table NA.5 of BS EN 1295-1: 1998 recommends that the minimum value of safety
factor for the structural design of reinforced pipelines should be increased from the normal 1.25
to 1.5 if, as is the cast of BS EN 1916: 2002, the proof load is 67% of the minimum crushing
load.

1.2.4 Pipe Bedding

The load bearing capacity of an installed pipeline relates directly to the construction
of the bedding which is intended to level out any irregularities in the formation, and
provide uniform support around and along the length of the pipe barrel.

Pipe settlement will be kept to a minimum by the proper selection and compaction of
the bedding material. The bedding should be compacted to a density not less than
that of the natural soil in the sides and bottom of the trench. The bedding directly

14
beneath or above the pipeline must not be over compacted otherwise line loading of
the pipes will result.

On steep gradients, or where dewatering has taken place, it is important to restrict

ground water movement within the completed trench. Selection of bedding or clay
dams across the full width of the trench will assist in this.

Under no circumstances should blocks or bricks be placed beneath pipes. Any pegs
used for setting out or levelling must be removed.

Bedding materials
Any stable soil will act adequately as a bedding material provided that it is placed
and compacted around the pipeline. From a practical point of view granular material
is compacted more readily and has become widely accepted.

The bedding material should be of similar particle size to that in the trench sides.
Where the ground is clay or silt, bedding material must consist of all-in gravels to
prevent the trench from becoming a drainage channel and carrying away fines from
the trench walls and bedding and causing settlement of the pipes.

Granular bedding material

The ideal is crushed rock or gravel but similar locally available material having an
angular or an irregular shape may be used. Rounded single sized material is not
recommended as it may not provide a stable bed especially for heavy larger
diameter pipes.

WRc Information and Guidance Note (IGN) 4-08-01 provides guidance on the
particle size of material relating to pipe diameter.

Sands containing an excess of fine particles are more difficult to place and compact
and will require a greater degree of supervision on site to achieve a stable
embedment for the pipeline.

Selected bedding and fill material

This should consist of uniform readily compatible material, free from tree roots,
vegetable matter, building rubbish and frozen soil. When used as fill, the material
should not contain large clay lumps or cobbles. When used as bedding, all clay
lumps should be excluded.

“As dug” material may be used provided that it is readily compatible and provides
stable embedment.

Classes of bedding and bedding factors

The strength of an installed pipeline depends on a combination of the strength of the
pipe and the class of bedding.
The selection of the bedding class is influenced by many factors, which include the
nature of the ground, the loads acting on the pipeline in the trench, availability of a
particular strength class of pipe, and the local cost and availability of the bedding
material.

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Taking into account the cost of labour, it is generally more economical to lay the
pipes on a bedding of non-cohesive materials, or alternatively scarify the trench
bottom rather than hand trim the formation.

Normally loading calculations are made considering the pipeline in complete lengths,
between manholes. The calculated strength class for a pipe to satisfy the most
severe loading condition between each pair of manholes is then used throughout the
length. However there are occasions when it may be necessary to use a higher
bedding class for a short distance where locally the load is increased, for instance at
a road crossing or in an embankment.

The normally accepted classes of pipe bedding are shown in Table A2 and in Fig.
A3.

Table A2. Types of Bedding

Bedding Class Bedding factor Description Suitability
Class D 1.1 Hand trimmed flat Fine grained soils,
bottom/ formation relatively dry
conditions
Class N 1.1 Flat bed of granular all- Rock, mixed soils
in or selected material
Class C 1.5 Shaped formation (or Uniform soils
scarify) relatively dry
Class F 1.5 Shaped bedding of General
granular material
Class B 1.9 180º non cohesive General
bedding material
Class S 2.2 Complete surround of General
non cohesive bedding
material
Class A Plain 2.6 Plain concrete cradle Seldom necessary
Class A reinforced 3.4 Reinforced concrete Higher strength
cradle pipe with granular
bedding is more
practicable and
economic option
Concrete Arches Sometimes used where an existing pipeline is to be surcharged with
additional fill or a road construction. Use the same bedding factor as
Class A cradles but calculate loadings using the arch dimensions
instead of outside diameter of the pipe.
Geotexiles
Where appropriate, goetextiles may be used to contain bedding materials e.g. in running sand.

16
Fig. A3
Types of bedding

17
NOTES:
1. Generally thickness of bedding (Y), minimum of 100mm under barrels and
50mm under sockets. In rock 200mm under barrels and 150mm under
sockets. Minimal compaction directly beneath pipe.
2. Sidefills, whether of bedding material or of selected material, must be well
compacted.
3. Backfill or bedding material to be highly compacted above sidefills to 300mm
above the crown but lightly compacted directly over the pipe.
4. Normal backfill to be compacted as appropriate.
5. With reasonable workmanship and supervision these bedding factors are
conservative.

1.2.5 Design Calculations

The calculated load “We”, which is the total load a concrete pipe in a trench is
required to sustain, is used in the design formula as follows:

We x Fse
Fn =
Fm
where Fn is the required BS test strength.
We is the load from Tables B3 or B4.
Fse is the factor of safety.
Fm is the bedding factor chosen.

Test strength of pipe (Fn)

The test strength of a concrete pipe may be referred to as Fc or Fn Values are
specified in BS 5911. (See Table A1).

For a reinforced concrete pipe Fc is the load which the pipe will sustain without
developing a crack exceeding 0.30mm in width over a length of 300mm and Wt is
the load which the pipe will sustain without collapse, irrespective of crack width.
However, to further simplify the procedure it is more straightforward to use the
maximum test load Fn and applying the factor of safety of Fse.

1.2.6 Worked Examples

The symbols used in the examples are those referred to in Design Calculations
(Section 1.2.4).

Example 1
What strength class is required of a 900mm concrete pipe to be laid under a main
road with a cover over the top of the pipe 3.6m and on a 180º granular bed?

(Fm = 1.9).

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From Table A3 Main Roads.
Total load = 135 kN/m
Fse = 1.5 (reinforced Pipe)
Fm = 1.9

136 x 1.5
Fn = = 106.6 kN/ m
1.9
From Table A1.

900mm Pipe – Fn = 108 kN/m

Example 2
The same pipe as in Example 1 passes under a light road with a depth cover of
5.4m. What class of bedding is required?

Fn = 108 kN/m (see Example 1). From Table A4. Light Roads

We = 181 kN/ m

We x 1.5
Fn =
Fm

Fm = 181 x 1.5
= 2.08
108

From Table A2. it will be seen that either Class A Plain bedding with Fm = 2.6, or
Class S bedding with Fm = 2.2 may be used.

However it would be advisable (at this diameter) to compare the costs of the two
beddings and the standard of workmanship before making a decision as to the
bedding to be used.

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Example 3
A 900mm pipeline on a Class B bedding is to be laid across fields. What is the
greatest depth of cover at which these pipes can be laid?

Fn= 108 kN/m

Fm = 1.9

108 x 1.9
Total load to be carried = = 136.8 kN/ m
1.5
From Table A5. Fields.
Total load at 4.6m = 134 kN/m.
Total load at 4.8m = 138 kN/m.

Maximum cover under these conditions is 4.7m (approx.)

20
Load Tables
Table A3 - Total Design Loads - Main Roads.“H” = 0.9 metres to 8.0 metres

Note 1. Pipes at shallower depths will need special consideration.

21
Table A4 - Total Design Loads - Light Roads. “H” = 0.9 metres to 8.0 metres

Note 1. Pipes at shallower depths will need special consideration.

22
Table A5 - Total Design Loads - Fields, etc.. “H” = 0.6 metres to 8.0 metres

Note 1. Pipes at shallower depths will need special consideration.

23
1.3 MANHOLE DESIGN

1.3.1 Manhole Positions

Manholes are recommended:

• At intervals of up to 90m, or 200m for man entry pipe runs.
• Whenever there is a significant change of direction in a sewer.
• Where another sewer is connecting with the main run of a sewer.
• Where there is a change of size or gradient of pipeline.

1.3.2 Precast Components

The following standard precast concrete components are manufactured in

accordance with BS EN 1917 & BS 5911-3 for assembly into complete manholes;

• Adjusting units and corbel slabs

• Cover slabs
• Shaft sections
• Reducing slabs
• Chamber sections
• Landing slabs
• Base units

Base units can be supplied with circular or semicircular holes (cut-outs or dog
kennels) cut in the chamber walls or with factory made flexible joints to incorporate a
sealing ring to connect pipes to the chamber.

1.3.3 Advantages
The main advantages of manholes using precast concrete components over insitu
construction are:

1) Units are factory produced to BS EN 1917 & BS 5911-3.

2) All CPSA member factories are licensed to manufacture Kitemark standard
units under BS EN ISO 9001.
3) They are manufactured in a wide range of standard sizes and depths.
4) They are simple to assemble requiring relatively unskilled labour on site.
5) Units are capable of being constructed as watertight structures.
6) They are normally supplied already fitted with double steps.
7) The structure is durable with its own inherent strength.

24
Fig. A4 Typical Manhole Layout

1.3.4 Types of Manholes

Manholes may be constructed with or without a shaft. It is recommended that
reducing slabs and shafts are only used for DN 1800 size manholes and larger.
Smaller diameter chambers should be constructed up to full height and use a cover
slab. There are also inspection chambers which are constructed over a subsidiary
drain or sewer of not more than DN 225, to permit inspection and access for rodding.
Most manholes are sited symmetrically over the main sewer pipeline but side-entry
manholes are also manufactured.

1) Conventional manholes
Built on a run of sewer with or without side connections. Where conditions permit,
the soffit level of sewers connecting to a manhole should be the same.

2) Side-entry manholes
Side-entry can be provided for sewers larger than DN 1200. The side entry shaft
is fitted to the main sewer pipe by the manufacturer before dispatch to site.

3) Backdrop manholes

25
 Where one sewer connects with another at a substantially different level, the
manhole is built on the lower sewer and incorporates a vertical or nearly vertical
drop pipe from the higher sewer. The drop pipe, which may be inside or outside
the manhole chamber, has its lower end discharging into the main sewer, and at
its upper end has a rodding eye for cleaning through the higher sewer.

4) Dual and crossing manholes

Where surface water and foul sewers are laid in the same trench, the surface
water being normally above the foul, a normal manhole chamber is built for the
foul sewer and the surface water is carried across the chamber in a separate
pipe which may have a sealed inspection cover.

1.3.5 Sizes of Manholes

The diameter of the chamber is determined by the number and the diameter of the
sewer pipes coming into the manhole and the working space required.

The chamber should be a minimum of DN 1050 and is the smallest size that may be
fitted with steps, but are only permitted to be used to a depth of 1.5m. DN 1200 is
the smallest size that can be used deeper than 1.5m and to which ladders may be
fitted. It should have ample benching at least 225mm wide on one side of the
channels. On the other side, the benching should be wide enough to stand on, at
least 500mm.

For deep manholes, the chamber should be large enough to provide benching or a
landing adequate for two persons to stand upon.

A guide for the minimum chamber diameters required for various sizes of sewer
pipes entering the manhole is given in Table A6. When a manhole is sited on a
curve, or where additional pipes enter at the sides a larger size may be required.

Table A6 Sizes of pipe and manhole chamber diameters

Maximum size of pipe (DN) through Minimum Chamber diameter (DN)
chamber
≤ 300 1050
450 1200
≤ 750 1500
≤ 1050 1800
1200 2100
1500 2400
1800 2700
2100 3000

1.3.6 Pipes Adjacent to Manholes

There may be differential settlement between a structure and the pipeline resulting in
angular deflection of the joint. This creates no problem for the joint itself but when
this movement is “excessive” there is a shear force that can cause structural failure
of the pipe, either shear behind the collar or from beam fracture of the pipe barrel.

26
To prevent this, the first pipe in the line can be restricted in length. This is known as
a “rocker pipe”. The client should assess the likelihood of differential settlement and
make use of rocker pipes as appropriate.

Guidance on rocker pipe lengths may be found in “Civil Engineering Specification for
the Water Industry” and “Sewers for Adoption”.

Fig. A5 Typical Rocker Pipe

27
TECHNICAL GUIDE
October 2006

No 2 – Installation - Pipes
2 - INSTALLATION – PIPES
This section describes the recommended procedure for the installation of concrete
pipelines in trenches for non-pressure applications or when occasional periods of
hydraulic surcharge may occur. It covers the types of laying conditions most
commonly encountered in practice. In situations beyond these general conditions,
the pipeline designer and the site engineer should give suitable instructions to
supplement this guidance.

Pipelines laid under embankments require special consideration whilst those

installed by pipe jacking require the use of specialised techniques.

2.1 PLANNING

General
Prior to constructing the pipeline the contractor will need to organise the work from
the contract documents - specification, drawings and bill of quantities.

The line and level of the sewer, any side connections and the positions of the
manholes will have been determined at the design stage but some flexibility in
construction should be permitted to cater for circumstances such as foundations or
buried services not shown on the drawings. An agreed re-siting of a manhole may
save time and additional expense.

Sequence of operations
a) Plan and set out the work including location of manholes.
b) Receive, check against specification and store deliveries of materials on site.
c) Excavate trench and install trench support system.
d) Lay bedding material forming socket holes as appropriate.
e) Check for damage, lay and joint pipes, air testing every third or fourth pipe as
laying proceeds. Check line and level.
f) Place and compact sidefills with bedding or selected materials.
g) Continue placing and compacting sidefills withdrawing trench sheeting in
stages.
h) Place initial backfill above pipe continuing withdrawal of sheeting.
i) Air and/or water test or inspect visually prior to final backfill.
j) Complete backfill, compacting as appropriate.
k) Final acceptance, air and/or water test or inspection.
l) Reinstatement of surface as appropriate.

28
2.2 HANDLING AND STORAGE

Lifting equipment
Time and place of off-loading should be agreed before units arrive at site. The
contractor should provide suitable equipment for off-loading, stacking and stringing
out of pipes and other units on site.

All lifting tackle must be of good sound construction and should be regularly tested
and certificated. Lifting appliances should be capable of smooth hoisting, handling
and lowering of the heaviest pipe or other unit to be handled.

Off-loading
Whenever possible, pipes and other units should be off-loaded in the reverse order
to which they are loaded. The vehicle must not be moved if any part of the load is
unsecured.

Off-loading should take place at the nearest hard standing to the point of installation;
all units must be left in a stable position well clear of the edge of the trench.

Use of tackle
Slings must never be passed through the bore of the pipe or other unit for lifting.
This is important in order to avoid damage to jointing surfaces and consequent
leakage of the laid pipeline.

Pipes
Small diameter pipes may be palletted, large diameters will need individual handling.
Pipes should be handled using a properly designed “C” hook, beam sling or other
purpose-designed system. Slings may be made of cordage, canvas, or man-made
fibres, but not unprotected chains.

Many manufacturers now offer a combined lifting and jointing system using a three-
legged chain and cast-in lifting facilities (larger pipe sizes only). For further details
refer to individual manufacturers.

Other units
Where lifting eyes or lifting holes are provided they should be used. Extra care
should be taken when lifting bends and junctions (pipes with inlet).

Chocks
When pipes are loaded, transported or stacked, sufficient timber chocks should be
provided. Chocks or packing between individual units should not be removed until
lifting tackle is secured.

Care in handling
Pipes and other units must never be dropped. Pipes which have to be moved should
be lifted and never dragged. When pipes have to be rolled, beware of rocks or
boulders. Care should be taken to avoid damage especially to jointing profiles.

29
Stacking on site
Ideally, pipes should be strung out and secured beside the trench where they are to
be used. Where stacking is necessary this should be on level ground and the bottom
layer of pipes securely chocked to prevent the stack from collapsing. Pipes should
be supported under the barrel so that the socket is free of load and so that the
jointing faces are not damaged. They should be stacked barrel to barrel with sockets
overhanging, or with spigots protruding as preferred.

Fig. B1 Typical stacking arrangement

Chocks

Timbers under barrels

For safety reasons and to prevent damage to the lower layers of pipes in the stack,
pipes should not be loaded or stacked in a greater number of layers than shown in
Table C1.

Table B1 Pipe stacking layers

Nominal size (DN) Number of layers
150-225 6
300-375 4
450-600 3
675-975 2
above 975 1

Storage of jointing materials

The quantity, type and diameter of jointing rings or other jointing materials should be
checked with the delivery note at the time of off-loading. Elastomeric rings should be
carefully stored and protected from sunlight, oils, greases and heat. If the rings have
been tied they should be separated a few days before use in order to eliminate
minor impressions which the ties may have caused. Rings should not be stored
hanging from a hook.

30
2.3 EXCAVATION AND LAYING

Trench excavation
The trench should be dug to the line, gradient and width indicated on the drawings or
in the specification or as agreed with the Engineer. The safety of the public and site
personnel is of paramount importance.

Trench width
Any increase in trench width above that specified could increase the load on the pipe
and increase the quantity of the excavation, and of bedding material.

A trench narrower than that specified may impede the proper placing and
consolidation of the bedding material and restrict working conditions in the trench
during pipe laying.

A trench adjacent to a manhole may need to be wider but this should be taken into
account at the design stage.

The trench width should allow for safe working alongside the pipeline. For
recommended trench widths see load tables in section 1.2.7.

Formation
Uniform support along the pipeline is essential.

Rock outcrops and soft zones such as peat or boggy material which can cause
differential settlement should be dug out and replaced with well tamped selected
material.

Ground water should be kept below the bottom of the trench during pipe laying
operations by the use of temporary drains, sumps, or a designed well-point system.
The water level should not be allowed to rise before backfilling is completed.

If the trench bottom is likely to be disturbed by trampling during pipe laying, selected
material should be placed to protect it.

Where the trench bottom is unstable, for example in marshy ground or running
sands, special measures are necessary to ensure proper embedment.

A trench excavated in clay should not be kept open any longer than necessary so as
to avoid instability due to change in moisture content.

Pipe laying
Before lowering into the trench, each unit should be inspected carefully for any
damage which may have occurred in transit or during handling and storage on site.
Pay special attention to jointing surfaces. Units should be lowered carefully into the
trench with tackle suitable for their weight and for the depth of the trench.

The contractor should have available, at the required time, all material and
equipment necessary for carrying out the work in accordance with the specification
and statutory safety requirements.

31
The contractor must ensure that the size and class of pipes or other units conform to
the contract specifications and manufacturer’s recommendations and that joint rings
are compatible with the units being laid.

Normal gradients
The pipes should be supported by the bedding over the length of their barrels and
their weight must never be carried by the sockets or by bricks and rocks in the
trench bottom. Socket holes must be provided at each joint. The pipes should be laid
and assembled in correct alignment.

If, in order to curve the pipeline, it is necessary to deflect the pipes at the joints, the
deflection should be applied only after the joint has been made in the normal manner
and should be limited to 75% of the manufacturer’s recommended limits to allow for
any subsequent movement.

Mechanical plant must not be used to press pipes down to their correct level.

Changing direction
Change in direction, either horizontal or vertical, should be made at a manhole or by
means of a precast bend unit.

Passing through rigid structures

For a pipeline connection to a manhole or passing through a wall it is essential to
ensure that the pipeline retains its flexibility. This may be achieved by casting into
the wall of the structure a short length of pipe such that there are flexible joints
adjacent to the wall. Depending on ground conditions short length pipes (rockers)
should be used (see Section 1.3.6).

Unstable ground
In unstable ground an appropriate installation method should be determined.
The following possibilities should be taken into account:

• Use of short lengths of pipe.

• Use of continuous support on pile caps/beams.
• Special preparation of trench bottom.
• Trenchless methods of construction such as pipe jacking or heading.

Passing under highways or railways

If disruption of traffic is to be avoided, pipes should be installed by jacking or in
heading.

2.4 JOINTING

A number of different joint designs are manufactured, all of which comply with the
performance requirements of BS EN 1916 and BS 5911-1.

The pipe manufacturer’s jointing instructions should be complied with but the basic
requirements for jointing concrete pipes are:

32
 a) Ensure by checking the delivery note against the printed information on the ring
that it is compatible with the pipes.

b) Before jointing, clean the spigot, socket and the ring before fitting and ensure
that all surfaces are dry.

c) Locate the joint ring (if required) onto the spigot without twisting and even out
the stretch around the spigot.

d) Lubrication – if required, follow the manufacturer’s instructions. A rolling ring

should not be lubricated.

e) Suspend the pipe at the balance point, clear of the bedding. Ensure that the
pipe to be joined is well aligned both horizontally and vertically. With rolling ring
joints, offer up the pipe spigot to the socket, but keep clear of engagement by
about 25mm so that the joint ring is not disturbed. With sliding ring joints, the
joint ring should be just in contact with the socket.

f) Jointing tackle or chain systems, should be used in accordance with the pipe
manufacturer’s instructions.

g) Fully support the pipe so that it does not rest on the joint ring whilst closing the
recommended joint gap.

h) Joint the pipes in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations, making

sure that the pipe moves without excessive slew or misalignment, that
extraneous matter does not enter the joint and that the joint ring is correctly
positioned. For jointing bends, special procedures may be appropriate.

i) After adjusting for line and level, release the tackle. Care should be taken not to
disturb the pipe or bedding material when removing slings.

Reassertion of rolling rings

With most types of rolling ring joint there is a tendency for the ring to reassert and,
with small pipes, this will tend to widen the joint gap, unless the last pipe laid is
temporarily held in the trench. A suitable gap must be left between the end of the
spigot and the shoulder of the socket of the next pipe to permit movement. The
manufacturer’s guidelines must be followed.

Back laying
In special circumstances, such as at manhole connections, it may be necessary to
joint a pipe socket onto the spigot of a pipe already laid.

When this is done, additional care is necessary to ensure that the joint is properly
made with the joint ring correctly positioned and that bedding material is not scooped
into the joint.

Fig.B2 Sliding Ring

33
Fig. B3 Rolling Ring – circular/tear drop/’G’ ring

Fig. B4 Integral sealing ring

NOTES:
1. Each joint type is diagrammatic and typical.
2. Rolling and fixed rings may be one of a variety of different profiles/cross
sections/designs.
3. Tolerances of joint profiles shall be determined by the pipe manufacturer and
described in factory documents.
4. Joint assembly shall be watertight/ airtight when constructed in strict accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
5. Pipes with integral seals offer some protection to the seal, however the same
precautions should still apply to protect the seal.

2.5 REINSTATEMENT

Trench reinstatement
After inspection and testing, backfilling should proceed whilst withdrawing trench
sheeting in stages where practicable.

The sidefill is of great importance and close attention to its selection, placing and
compaction will protect a new pipeline.

Good trenching practice including controlled removal of temporary supports and

compaction of backfilling as described above not only protects the pipeline but will
also reduce settlement and the risk of damage to adjacent underground services or
structures.

The trench should be backfilled as soon as possible after the pipes are laid bearing
in mind any specified test and inspection requirements.

34
Compaction of the envelope of material immediately around the pipe is extremely
important. In trench installations, as space is limited, mechanical compactors are
commonly used but caution should be exercised so as not to damage or displace the
pipe. The material should be compacted at near optimum moisture content and
should be brought up evenly in layers on both sides of the pipe, withdrawing trench
sheeting as backfill proceeds. Backfill material should not be pushed into the trench
from the surface nor dropped in bulk directly onto the pipe.

Heavy mechanical equipment should not be allowed to traverse pipelines with

limited cover except at prepared crossing places.

Fill material
Material for sidefill, initial and final backfill should be similar in character to the
surrounding soil; for example, the use of single size granular material in a clay soil
will create a natural drainage channel that could cause subsequent settlement.

Sidefill and initial backfill should be free from large stones, heavy lumps of clay,
frozen soil, tree roots and other rubbish, and should be readily compactable.

Sidefill
The sidefill should be placed and compacted as soon as possible after laying, or as
soon as it is safe to do so without damaging concrete beddings. Compaction should
be carried our evenly on each side of the pipe to prevent lateral or vertical
displacement.

Initial backfill
This should also be placed as soon as possible in order to provide protective cover
of not less than 300mm compacted depth. This should consist of bedding or
selected material placed carefully and evenly over the top of the pipe and lightly
compacted by hand.

Removal of trench supports

Trench sheeting should be removed as backfilling proceeds, where practicable as
soon as it is safe to do so.

Remaining backfill
This should be placed evenly in layers and compacted as appropriate.

2.6 TESTING

Acceptance tests on the completed pipeline give an indication of the level of control
of workmanship and materials during construction.

Visual inspection
Check for: -

a) Obstructions and debris.

b) Structural soundness of pipes.

35
c) Joints properly sealed.
d) Line and level within tolerance.

Man entry sized pipelines can be physically inspected whilst smaller diameters can
be visually inspected from manholes or by means of CCTV cameras.

Air and water tests

All lengths of drain and sewer up to DN 750 should be tested for leakage by means
of air or water tests.

These tests should be carried out after laying and before backfilling. Some backfill
may be placed at the centre of each pipe to prevent movement during testing. Short
branch drains connected to a main sewer between manholes should be tested as
one system with the main sewer. Long branches should be separately tested.

Air test
The air test is more convenient than the water test, but the leakage rate cannot be
measured accurately. An excessive drop in pressure in the air test may indicate a
fault in the line such as a displaced sealing ring or it may be due to faults in the
testing apparatus. Therefore the first check must be on the apparatus, especially the
seals of the stop ends and all connections.

The point of any leakage may be difficult to detect but spraying with soap solution
could indicate such leakage by the presence of bubbles.

Failure to pass this test is not conclusive and, when marginal failure does occur, a
water test should be made and the leakage rate determined before a decision on
rejection is made.

Air test requirements are specified in ‘Civil Engineering Specification for the Water
Industry’.

Water test
A water test is the more conclusive method of testing a completed pipeline but
problems of availability and disposal of the quantity of water involved may cause
difficulty. Before backfilling, leakage can be clearly located, its amount assessed and
where necessary appropriate remedies applied.

To test the pipeline:-

a) Insert plugs in both ends of the drain or sewer and in connections if necessary.
Precautions should be taken by strutting or otherwise, to prevent any
movement of the drain or sewer during testing.
b) Fill the system with water ensuring all the air has been expelled.
c) Allow at least two hours before test readings are taken to permit conditions to
stabilise, adding water to maintain the test head.
It may be necessary to extend this period for large diameter pipes, up to
twenty-four hours or more before a stable condition is reached.
d) Apply required test head at the upper end by means of a flexible pipe leading

36
 from a graduated container or stand pipe.
e) Apply the test pressure of 1.2m head of water above the soffit of the drain or
sewer at the high end with a maximum of 6m head at the low end. If this
exceeds 6m test the drain or sewer in stages.
f) Measure the loss of water over a period of 30 minutes by adding and metering
quantities of water at intervals of 5 minutes to maintain original water level in
the standpipe.

Over this 30 minute period the quantity of water added should not exceed 0.05 litre
per 100 linear metres per millimetre of nominal size of the drain or sewer.

For example:

For a 150m length of DN 800 the allowable leakage would be:

150
0.05 X X 800 = 60 litres
100
Should the pipeline not comply with these requirements it will probably be
attributable to one of the following:-

a) Leakage from test equipment.

b) Trapped air

c) Leakage from joints, e.g. displaced ring

d) Leakage from damaged or defective pipe

37
TECHNICAL GUIDE
October 2006

No 3 – Installation – Jacking Pipes

3. INSTALLATION – JACKING PIPES
3.1 INTRODUCTION

The installation of pipelines for drainage purposes in the UK has traditionally been
carried out using open-cut trenches in both urban and rural locations. However, in
recent years an increasing proportion of pipeline construction projects have utilised
pipe jacking or the form of the miniaturised tunnelling technique known as
microtunnelling. Although the basic pipe jacking method has been used in various
forms for centuries, only in the past ten or twenty years have we seen significant
advances in the equipment technology. This has resulted in a raising of confidence
in the techniques and has led to a series of successful pipeline engineering schemes
which have made extensive use of pipe jacking and microtunnelling. Normally, for
pipelines constructed in this manner up to DN 900 the technique is referred to as
microtunnelling and above this as pipe jacking but the principle remains the same.
CPSA members manufacture a range of jacking and microtunnelling pipes and
associated products (see http://www.concretepipes.co.uk/members/index.html for
information on members).

3.2 TECHNIQUE AND EQUIPMENT TYPES

Essentially, the pipe jacking or microtunnelling method consists of the construction

of a number of excavated shafts from which a tunnelling shield is launched and
behind which a succession of smooth-walled concrete pipes are jacked. When the
shield reaches the destination or reception shaft, it is either re-launched in a different
direction or removed to another location and the process repeated. The excavated
drive and reception shafts are usually converted to finished manholes once pipeline
installation is complete.

Spoil excavated by the rotating cutting head in the front of the shield is removed by
an auger flight or by mixing with water and pumping to the ground surface for
treatment and disposal. Some progress has been made with the development of
machines which can compact soil to the sides of the shield as it advances. Other
equipment types use vacuum systems for the removal of excavated material to the
surface.

Particularly high levels of installation accuracy can be achieved with these systems

38
since they use sophisticated steering and guidance methods based on laser
technology and optional automatic computer control. Finished bores have frequently
been described as “like rifle barrels”. Equipment has been developed which can
install sewer pipes at small diameters (down to house connection or lateral size of
DN 150) without the need for a trench.

3.3 ADVANTAGES OF THE TECHNIQUE

The advantages of using a trenchless method such as pipe jacking can be

substantial. Any attempt to dig up long stretches of the urban road network very
often results in severe disruption to the community, delays and diversions to traffic,
pollution of the environment through excessive dirt, dust and noise, loss of profit for
local businesses, damage to properties or other buried pipes and cables and so on.
These items are usually referred to as social costs and are nearly always absorbed
by the community rather than paid as direct engineering costs.

However, when one considers further, other equally serious problems become
apparent. Frequently, the as-dug material excavated from the trench is not suitable
for re-use as backfill. This waste spoil must be transported away from the area and
dumped in some form of landfill site. Such sites are becoming more difficult to find
and the cost of using them is increasing. Also, new backfill material such as crushed
stone has to be imported to the site and these operations usually involve heavy
wagons inflicting damage to roads and using fuel which in turn produces more
pollution. These environmental costs are compounded by the damage and visual
impact to the countryside from landfill and quarrying sites.

Pipe jacking and microtunnelling can dramatically reduce many of these social and
environmental problems. The techniques now offer significant benefits in much
reduced excavations since they only require relatively small launch and reception
shafts for the miniaturised tunnelling equipment. Streets and roadways can often be
kept open to traffic with little hindrance or disruption. The environment in general
benefits from a no-dig approach because far less transportation of trench
reinstatement materials is required (normally limited to only the displaced spoil from
the actual pipes and manholes). Reduced levels of reinstatement lead to cost
savings, as much of the cost of a pipeline scheme is in the excavation and
subsequent reinstatement. Installation depths of up to 35m have successfully been
achieved, which would not be possible with open cut methods.

3.4 CONCRETE TRENCHLESS PIPELINE PRODUCTS

The UK concrete pipe manufacturing industry is playing a leading role in the

advancement of these trenchless techniques. Several of the CPSA member
companies produce jacking and microtunnelling pipes in a range of sizes. These
pipes are manufactured to produce accurate joint surfaces with square faces and a
strong high density concrete with a smooth surface finish to assist in reducing
jacking forces.

Jacking and microtunnelling pipes are available in sizes from DN 450 up to DN 2400
and utilise elastomeric seals in a steel banded joint. These pipes are manufactured

39
to comply with the requirements of European Standard EN 1916:2002 and the UK
complementary standard BS 5911-1:2002. The external surface of the pipeline is
smooth for easy insertion through the ground during installation. For steel banded
joints, both mild and stainless steels are available. Jacking pipes can be supplied
with grout holes and cast-in lifting sockets as required.

Other products for use with this trenchless method include caisson sections in sizes
from DN 2000 to DN 4000 complete with base sections fitted with cutting shoe. Also
produced are lead pipes which are rebated to accommodate the tunnelling shield
and interjack pipes (leading and trailing pipes in pairs) for use with intermediate
jacking stations.

3.5 FURTHER INFORMATION

More information on the pipe jacking and microtunnelling method can be found in the
publications of the Pipe Jacking Association (PJA) as listed in Section 9. The United
Kingdom Society for Trenchless Technology (UKSTT) is another useful source of
information on trenchless techniques including pipe jacking.

For specific product information please refer to CPSA member companies web sites.
http://www.cpm-group.com/ ,
http://www.ennstone.co.uk/,
www.cvbuchan.co.uk ,
www.stanton-bonna.co.uk
http://www.fpmccann.co.uk
http://www.hughesconcrete.co.uk/
http://www.miltonprecast.co.uk/

40
TECHNICAL GUIDE
October 2006

No 4– Installation – Manholes

4 - INSTALLATION – MANHOLES
This section describes the recommended procedure for the installation of precast
concrete manholes. For general information on pipeline installation, see Section 2.

4.1 PLANNING

Sequence of operations
a) Place the bottom unit with either integral precast, or insitu concrete base.
b) Erect the required number of standard components and seal the joints as
appropriate all in accordance with the design.
c) Place a reinforced concrete cover slab on top.
d) If required place a corbel slab then add the appropriate number of adjusting
units.
e) Fit the manhole top for access from ground level.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION
To ensure that the manhole structure is vertical, accurate leveling of the formation or
the insitu concrete foundation is essential.

Shaft and chamber sections with tongued and grooved joints should be installed with
the socket/groove facing upwards whereas units with ogee joints should have the
spigot upwards.

Precast cover slabs can be laid directly onto the shaft or chamber rings. Manhole
tops can then be bedded on the adjusting units to achieve the level required.

Jointing to pipeline
To allow for any differential settlement between manhole and pipeline, short “butt”
pipes, either spigot or socket, should be built into the manhole wall so that a flexible
joint is incorporated as close as possible to the outside of the manhole or the

41
concrete surround if used.

Depending on ground conditions, short length pipes (rockers) then connect these
butt pipes to the incoming pipe runs. Additional care must be taken to ensure that
the joints are properly made.

4.3 JOINTING
Precast manhole components are provided with joints formed within the wall section.
These are rebated or tongued and grooved and are sealed with proprietary mastic
seals, sand/cement mortar, or units fitted with rubber ring joints may be available.
Precast concrete manhole units, well jointed, provide an adequate seal under normal
conditions. Any lift holes will need to be sealed with a sand/cement mortar, or a
proprietary non-shrink mortar.

Fig.D1 Examples of Manhole Joints

42
4.4 REINSTATEMENT

In-situ concrete surround

In-situ concrete surround to precast concrete manholes, except for side-entry
manholes, is unnecessary other than for exceptional structural reasons such as
embankments, or in sloping or unstable ground. Side entry manholes should be
provided with 150mm thick surround of ST4 concrete extending the whole length of
the pipe in which the manhole is placed.

Backfilling
As each precast manhole section is placed, backfill should be returned in layers and
compacted as for pipelines. Backfill must be brought up evenly around the manhole
to prevent displacement. Additionally care should be taken to avoid damaging the
connecting pipelines.

4.5 TESTING

It is generally unnecessary to apply water tests to manholes. In working conditions

manholes are not normally full of water. This only happens under rare conditions of
surcharge. Prevention of infiltration is of more relevance than exfiltration, and where
this occurs it can be seen and remedied by sealing using an appropriate method.

43
 TECHNICAL GUIDE
October 2006

No 5 – Glossary of Terms
5 - GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Adaptor
Fitting that provides for connections to structures, to pipes of other materials, or to
valves.

Aggregates
Cleaned gravel, crushed stone and sand used in the manufacture of concrete
pipeline products.

Backdrop manhole
Manhole with a connection, by means of a vertical pipe, at or just above invert, from
a drain or sewer at a higher level.

Backfill material
Fill placed above the bedding and surround material above a buried pipeline.

Barrel
That portion of a pipe throughout which the internal diameter and cross-section
remain substantially uniform.

Base Unit
Vertical component with integral base, with or without benching, and with
appropriate flexible joints to provide watertight connections with pipelines, with or
without integral connecting pipe(s) or adaptor(s).

Bedding material
The construction material supporting a buried pipeline, introduced under or around
the pipes so as to produce, in combination with the pipes themselves, a pipeline able
to resist the design loads.

Bedding class
The design for the bedding of a pipeline, designed to distribute the external loads
around the whole or part of the periphery, allowing the use of a specific bedding
factor.

44
Bedding factor
Ratio of the maximum design load for the pipe, when installed with a particular
embedment, to the test load which produces the same maximum bending moment.

Benching
A surface at the base of a chamber with the dual purpose of confining the flow of
sewage to avoid the accumulation of deposits and of providing a safe working
surface.

Bend
Fitting that provides for a change of alignment within a pipeline.

Biscuit
See ‘Cover slab’

BSI
British Standards Institution.

Butt pipe
Small lengths of pipe, either spigot or socket protruding, built into a manhole wall to
provide a flexible joint as close as possible to the outside of the manhole.

Caisson method
A method for installing manholes utilising a steel cutting shoe fitted to the base
section and a specially developed joint system which enables shafts to sink into the
ground under their own weight or with limited downward force.

CCTV
Closed Circuit Television used for inspection of buried pipelines.

CEN
European Committee for Standardisation.

Centrifugal spinning
A method of manufacture where concrete is fed into a steel mould rotating
horizontally on a spinning bed at high speed, the compaction being by vibration and
centrifugal force.

Chamber or shaft unit

Vertical hollow component of uniform cross-section except at the joint profile.
Flexible joints to accommodate connecting pipelines may be provided as for a base
unit.

Circular pipe
Pipe whose barrel cross-section in a plane perpendicular to its longitudinal axis is
described by two concentric circles.

45
Circular unit
Circular pipe, or fitting for use with such a pipe.

Civil Engineering Specification for the Water Industry (CESWI)

A standard specification for civil engineering contracts in the UK water industry.
Produced by UK Water Industry Research Limited.

Combined sewer
A sewer designed to carry both wastewater and surface water in the same pipeline.

Concrete cover
Actual thickness of concrete over any reinforcement.

Connecting pipe
Short pipe with plain, spigot or socket ends.

Cover frame seating ring

Unit, normally reinforced, used in place of engineering bricks to adjust the cover and
frame to the required level.

Cover slab
Unit forming the horizontal roof of a chamber or shaft and having an access opening,
immediately above which an adjusting unit or frame and cover is designed to fit.
Sometimes known as a ‘biscuit’.

Crown
The highest point of the external surface of pipe barrel at any cross section.

Crushing load
See ‘Minimum crushing load’.

Crushing strength
See’ Strength class’.

Crushing test
Test for pipes and manholes to determine strength.

DN
See ‘Nominal size’.

Domestic wastewater
Wastewater discharged from kitchens, laundry rooms, lavatories, bathrooms, toilets
and similar facilities.

Double step
A manhole step which is designed to support two feet or two hands, and is intended
to be installed in a single vertical alignment.

46
Drain
Pipeline, usually underground, designed to carry wastewater and/or surface water
from a source to a sewer.

Drain system
Network of pipelines and ancillary works that conveys wastewater and/or surface
water to a cesspool, sewer system or other place of disposal.

Dry weather flow

Rate of flow in a drain or sewer system in specified dry weather conditions.

Elastomeric joint ring

An annular ring of circular or other cross section used to provide a watertight seal
between pipe spigot and socket in a flexibly jointed pipeline.

Exfiltration
Escape of sewage from a drain or sewer system into surrounding ground.

External diameter
Mean external diameter of the pipe barrel at any cross-section.

Fitting
Adaptor, bend, connecting pipe, junction or taper (reducer).

Flexible joint
A type of joint using an elastomeric joint ring to provide a watertight seal whilst
permitting a specified amount of movement between adjacent pipes.

Flexible pipe
Pipe, the load carrying capacity of which is limited by diametral deformation under
load to the ultimate design criteria without breaking or overstressing.

Foul sewage
See ‘Wastewater’.

Foul sewer
Sewer system carrying wastewater.

Gradient
Ratio between the vertical and the horizontal projections of a pipe length.

Gravity system
Drain or sewer system where flow is caused by the force of gravity and where the
pipeline is designed normally to operate partially full.

Gully cover slab

A frame or surround manufactured from concrete, with or without a drainage slot, to
accommodate a road gully grating and frame.

47
Gully - trapped
A hollow cylinder with base, manufactured from concrete with an outlet so designed
as to form a water seal and to facilitate the connection of pipelines, and provided
with a rodding eye.

Gully - untrapped
A hollow cylinder with base, manufactured from concrete with an outlet to facilitate
the connection of pipelines, which acts as a rodding eye.

High Frequency Vibration Casting

Most common method of manufacturing concrete pipes where semi dry concrete is
fed into a vertical steel mould and compacted by high frequency vibration
transmitted through either the core or from a table underneath.

Hydraulic flow charts

Charts for the determination of pipe diameters based on roughness factor, discharge
volume and velocity and hydraulic gradient.

Hydrostatic test
Test undertaken to determine the watertightness of pipes.

Infiltration
Ingress of groundwater into a drain or sewer system.

Inspection chamber
Structure as a manhole, but without access for personnel.

Integrated seal
Seal incorporated into a unit during manufacture.

Internal barrel length

Length between the base of the socket and the end of the spigot of a unit.

Internal diameter
Mean internal diameter of the pipe barrel at any cross-section.

Internal height
Dimension of a unit relating to the jointing faces or invert.

In wall joint
A type of joint where the socket is made within the wall of the pipe, usually referred
to as a rebated, ogee or tongue and groove joint.

Invert
The lowest point of the internal surface of a pipe barrel or chamber at any cross-
section.

48
Jacking pipe
Unreinforced or reinforced concrete pipe, incorporating a flexible joint within the wall
thickness, rebated or butt-ended with collar and designed to be installed by the
pipejacking method.

Joint
Connection between the adjacent ends of two components including the means of
sealing.

Jointing
Method of connecting pipes and fittings.

Junction
Fittings used to connect, at an angle, two separate pipelines.

Kitemark
Third Party Certification Symbol which confirms that the product has been
manufactured to the relevant Standard and approved by BSI.

Landing slab
Unit forming an intermediate horizontal platform within a manhole and having an
access opening.

Lifting systems
Systems developed by manufacturers to assist in the lifting and jointing of pipes.

Manhole
Vertical watertight structure used to connect pipelines, to change direction and/or
level, to permit access for personnel and/or equipment for inspection and
maintenance and to allow aeration and ventilation.

Microtunnelling
Method of steerable remote control pipejacking to install pipes of internal diameter
less than that permissible for man-entry.

Minimum crushing load

Load that a unit is required to withstand.

Nominal size
Numerical designation of the size of a unit or a component within a structure, which
is a convenient integer approximately equal to the manufacturing dimension in
millimetres for the internal diameter (DN). For a unit with an egg-shaped bore, the
nominal size (WN/HN) is given with the numerical designation of width/height. For a
unit with a rectangular internal shape, the nominal size (LN/WN) is given with the
numerical designation of length/width.

49
Ogee joint
See ‘Rebated joint’.

Ogee pipe
A pipe made with ogee joints.

OPC
Ordinary Portland Cement.

Open cut
Traditional method of installation with pipes laid in an open trench prior to backfilling.

Outfall
Final length of pipeline from which sewage is discharged to a treatment works or
receiving water.

Ovoid pipe
Egg shaped pipe.

Partially separate system

A sewer system, normally of two pipelines, where one pipeline carries wastewater
together with a designed volume of surface water and the other pipeline carries the
balance of the surface water.

Perforated pipe
An unreinforced pipe with circular perforations.

PFA
Pulverised fuel ash.

Pipe
Hollow precast concrete unit of uniform bore throughout its internal barrel length,
except in the vicinity of the joint profile, manufactured with or without base.

Pipejacking
Method for directly installing pipes behind a shield machine by hydraulic or other
jacking from a drive shaft such that the pipes form a continuous string in the ground.

Porous pipe
A hollow cylinder manufactured from unreinforced porous concrete, of uniform
internal diameter and cross-section throughout its length, except at the joint profile.

Proof load
Load that a reinforced concrete unit is required to withstand with a defined limit on
cracking.

50
Rebated joint
A joint made within the wall thickness of a unit, including ogee and tongue and
groove joints.

Reducing slab
Reducing unit forming the horizontal roof of a chamber and having an opening to
accommodate a shaft unit above it.

Reinforced concrete pipe

Pipe that is structurally reinforced with one or more steel cages, suitably positioned
to resist tensile stresses in the pipe wall.

Rigid pipe
Pipe, the load carrying capacity of which is limited by breaking or overstressing,
without significant deformation of its cross-section.

Rocker pipes
Short lengths of pipe jointed to butt pipes to provide for differential settlement at
manholes.

Roughness value (ks)

A measure of the resistance of the surface of a pipe or channel under turbulent flow
which is expressed in millimetres.

Rubber ring
See ‘Elastomeric joint ring’.

Rung iron
See ‘Double step’.

Seating ring
See ‘Cover frame seating ring’.

Self-cleansing
Ability of the flow in a drain or sewer to carry away solid particles, which would
otherwise be deposited in the pipe.

Separate sewer
Sewer system, normally of two pipelines, one carrying wastewater and the other
surface water.

Septic sewage
Anaerobic sewage containing sulfides.

Sewage
Wastewater and/or surface water conveyed by a drain or sewer.

51
Sewer
Pipeline or other construction, usually underground, designed to carry wastewater
and/or surface water from more than one source.

Sewerage
See ‘Sewer system’.

Sewer system
Network of pipelines and ancillary works which conveys wastewater and/or surface
water from drains to a treatment works or other place of disposal.

Sewers for Adoption

A design and construction guide for developers produced by the Water Service
Association for adoptable sewer systems.

Single step
A manhole step which is designed to support one foot or hand, and is intended to be
installed in a staggered configuration.

Soakaway
Vertical chamber of circular cross-section, perforated to allow the passage of water
and with or without an access shaft.

Socket
End part of a pipe which is formed to accept the insertion of a spigot.

Soffit
The highest point of the internal surface of a pipe barrel or chamber at any cross-
section.

Specials
Non standard products available on request from manufacturers.

Spigot
End part of a pipe which is formed to insert into a socket.

Springing Level
The level of a pipe barrel midway between soffit and invert.

SRPC
Sulfate Resisting Portland Cement.

Steel banded joints

Type of joint where the socket is made within the wall thickness of the pipe by
means of an integral steel collar. Used for jacking pipes.

Step iron
See ‘Single step’.

52
Strength class
Minimum crushing load in kilonewtons per metre, divided by one thousandth of
either its nominal size (DN) or nominal width (WN) or nominal length (LN).

Stringing out
The process of placing pipes from stack or lorry alongside the line of the trench
ready for laying.

Stub pipe
See ‘Butt pipe’.

Surcharge
Condition in which wastewater and/or surface water is held under pressure within a
gravity drain or sewer system, but does not escape to the surface to cause flooding.

Surface water
Water from precipitation, which has not seeped into the ground and which is
discharged to the drain or sewer system directly from the ground or from exterior
building surfaces.

Surface water sewer

Sewer system carrying surface water.

Tamping
The process of compaction, using hand or mechanical means, applied to bedding
and backfill material around a buried pipeline.

Tongue and groove joint

See ‘Rebated joint’.

Trade effluent
Wastewater discharge resulting wholly, or in part, from any industrial or commercial
activity.

Trench excavation
See ‘Open cut’.

Unit
Precast concrete pipe, fitting or component of a manhole or inspection chamber
structure.

Ultimate (collapse) load

Maximum load reached by the testing machine during a crushing or vertical strength
test (when the load-recording facility does not show any further increase).

Unreinforced concrete pipe

Pipe that does not contain structural steel reinforcement.

53
Vertically Cast
See ‘High Frequency Vibration casting’.

Vertical unit
Base, chamber or shaft unit.

Waste water
Water changed by use and discharged to a drain or sewer system.

54
TECHNICAL GUIDE
October 2006

No 6 – References
6. REFERENCES
6.1 Industry Reference Documents
1 Sewers for Adoption 6th Edition March 2006 Water UK / WRc
2 Sewers for Adoption 6th Edition – Combined March 2006 Water UK / WRc
Addendum
3 Civil Engineering Specification for the Water Industry June 2004 WRc
(CESWI) 6th edition
4 Simplified Tables of External 1986 TRL HMSO
Loads on Buried Pipelines
5 Guide to Design-Loadings for Buried Pipelines (Out of 1983 TRL HMSO
print)
6 Tables for the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and 2005 HR Wallingford and D
Channels 8th edition H Barr
7 Specification for Highway Works 2001 Department of
Transport HMSO
8 An introduction to pipe jacking and microtunnelling 1995 Pipe Jacking
design Association PJA
9 Guide to Best Practice for the Installation of Pipe Jacks 1995 Pipe Jacking
and Microtunnels Association (PJA)
10 Concrete in Aggressive Ground - BRE Special Digest 1 2005 BRE
11 Imported Granular and Selected As-dug Bedding and 1994 WRc
Side Fill Materials for Buried Pipelines Water Industry
Specification 4-08-01
12 Precast Concrete Pipes - Unreinforced and 1991 WRc
Reinforced, with Flexible Joints - Water Industry
Specification 4-12-01
13 Specification for Polypropylene Encapsulated Steps for 1990 WRc
Use in Manholes and Access Chambers - Water
Industry Specification 4-33-01
14 Specification for Flexible Couplings for Gravity Sewage 1993 WRc
and Drainage Pipes - Water Industry Specification 4-
41-01

55
6.2 British Standards
1 BS EN 1916 – Concrete pipes and fittings, unreinforced, steel fibre and reinforced 2002 BSI
2 BS EN 1917 – concrete manholes and inspoenction chambers, unreinforced, steel fibre 2002 BSI
and reinforced
3 BS 5911 – 1 : 2002 - Specification for unreinforced and reinforced pipes 2002 BSI
4 BS 5911 – 3 : 2002 - Specification for unreinforced and reinforced manholes and 2002 BSI
soakaways
5 BS 5911 – 4 : 2002 - Specification for unreinforced and reinforced inspection chambers 2002 BSI
6 BS 5911 – 6 : 2002 - Specification for road gulley and gulley cover slabs 2002 BSI
7 BS EN ISO 9001 - Model for Quality Assurance in Production, Installation and 1994 BSI
Servicing
8 BS EN 197-1:2000 Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for 2000 BSI
common cements
9 BS EN 13101:2002 Steps for underground man entry chambers. Requirements, 2002 BSI
marking, testing and evaluation of conformity
10 BS 1881 Testing Concrete 1970- BSI
1998
11 BS EN 681-1:1996 - Materials requirements for Elastomeric Seals for Joints used in 1996 BSI
Water and Drainage Applications
12 BS 3892 Pulverised Fuel Ash 1996- BSI
1997
13 BS 4027: 1996 Specification for Sulfate Resisting Portland Cement 1996 BSI
14 BS 4449:1997 Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete 1997 BSI
15 BS 4482:2005 Steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete products. Specification 2005 BSI
16 BS 4483:2005 Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete. Specification 2005 BSI
17 BS 6031:1981 Code of Practice for Earthworks 1981 BSI
18 BS EN 206-1:2000 Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity 2000 BSI
19 BS 8500-2:2002 Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. 2002 BSI
Specification for constituent materials and concrete
20 BS 8500-1:2002 Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Method 2002 BSI
of specifying and guidance for the specifier
21 BS EN 752-1:1996 Drain and sewer systems outside buildings. Generalities and 1996 BSI
definitions
22 BS EN 752-2:1997 Drain and sewer systems outside buildings. Performance requirements 1997 BSI
23 BS EN 752-3:1997 Drain and sewer systems outside buildings. Planning 1997 BSI
24 BS EN 752-4:1998 Drain and sewer systems outside buildings. Hydraulic design and environmental 1998 BSI
considerations

56
6.3 Relevant Organisations
British Precast • Telephone: +44 (0) 116 253 6161
60 Charles Street • Fax: +44 (0)116 251 4568
Leicester • Email: info@britishprecast.org
LE1 1FB • Web site: www.britishprecast.org
BRE • Telephone: +44 (0)1923 664000
Building Research Establishment • Fax: +44 (0)1923 664010
Garston • Email: enquiries@bre.co.uk
Watford • Web site: www.bre.co.uk
WD25 9XX
BSI • Telephone: +44 (0)20 8996 9000
British Standards Institution • Fax: +44 (0)20 8996 7001
389 Chiswick High Road • Email: cservices@bsi-global.com
London • Web site: www.bsi-global.com
W4 4AL
CIRIA • Telephone: +44 (0) 20 7549 3300
Construction Industry Research and • Fax: +44 (0) 20 7253 0523
Information Association • Email: enquiries@ciria.org
Classic House • Web site: www.ciria.org.uk
174 – 180 Old Street
London
EC1V 9BP
EA • Telephone: 08708 506 506
Environment Agency • Fax: 01709 312 820
Head Office • Email: enquiries@environment-
Rio House agency.gov.uk
Waterside Drive • Web site: www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Aztec West
Almondsbury
Bristol BS32 4UD
HA • Telephone: 08459 556 575 (switchboard)
Highways Agency • Email: ha_info@highways.gsi.gov.uk
123 Buckingham Palace Road • Web site: www.highways.gov.uk
London,
SW1W 9HA
Office of Public Sector Information / • Telephone: +44 (0)870 600 5522
• Fax: +44 (0)870 600 5533
The Stationery Office (Previously HMSO) • Email: customer.services@tso.co.uk
TSO Orders/Post Cash Dept • Web: www.tso.co.uk
PO Box 29
Norwich
NR3 1GN
HR Wallingford ((Formerly HRS) • Telephone: +44 (0) 1491 835381
HR Wallingford Ltd, • Fax: +44 (0) 1491 832233
Howbery Park • Email: info@hrwallingford.co.uk
Wallingford • Web: www.hrwallingford.co.uk
Oxfordshire
OX10 8BA
PJA • Telephone: +44 (0)845 0705201
Pipe Jacking Association • Fax: +44 (0)845 0705202
10 Greycoat Place • Email: secretary@pipejacking.org
London • Web: www.pipejacking.org
SW1P 1SB

57
 TRL • Telephone: +44 (0)1344 773131
Transport Research Laboratory • Fax: +44 (0)1344 770356
Crowthorne House • Email: enquiries@trl.co.uk
Nine Mile Ride • Web: www.trl.co.uk
Wokingham
Berkshire
RG40 3GA
UKSTT • Telephone: +44 (0)1926 330 935
United Kingdom Society for Trenchless • Fax: +44 (0)1926 330 935
Technology • Email: admin@ukstt.org.uk
38 Holly Walk • Web: www.ukstt.org.uk
Leamington Spa
Warwickshire
CV32 4LY
United Kingdom
UKWIR • Telephone: +44(0)207344 1807
1 Queen Anne's Gate • Fax: +44(0)20 7344 1859
London • Email: mail@ukwir.org.uk
SW1H 9BT • Web: www.ukwir.org/
Water UK • Telephone: +44 (0)20 7344 1844
1 Queen Anne's Gate • Fax: +44 (0)20 7344 1866
London • Email: XXXXXXX
SW1H 9BT • Web: www.water.org.uk
WRc plc • Telephone: 01793 865000
Frankland Road • Fax: 01793 865001
Blagrove • Email: solutions@wrcplc.co.uk
Swindon • Web: www.wrcplc.co.uk
Wiltshire
SN5 8YF

If you would like any further information please contact:

Concrete Pipeline Systems Association

60 Charles Street
Leicester
LE1 1FB

Tel: 0116 253 6161 Fax: 0116 251 4568

Email: mail@concretepipes.co.uk Web: www.concretepipes.co.uk

The information in this guide is to the best of our knowledge true and accurate, but all instructions, recommendations or suggestions are made
without guarantee. Since the conditions of use are beyond their control, the Concrete Pipeline Systems Association disclaim any liability for
loss or damage suffered from the use of this data or these suggestions. Furthermore, no liability is accepted if use of any products in
accordance with this data or these suggestions infringes any patent. The Concrete Pipeline Systems Association reserves the right to change
product specifications without further notice.

58