STUDY SKILLS & RESEARCH METHODS

Course by Dr. Saif Aqachmar

Semester 5

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Table of Contents

1.1. Overview and Description .............................................................................................................. - 3 -

1.2. Definition of Research .................................................................................................................... - 3 -

1.3. Criteria of a Good Research .......................................................................................................... - 3 -

1.4. Objectives of Research ................................................................................................................... - 4 -

1.5. Types of Research .......................................................................................................................... - 6 -

1.6. Introduction to Research Design ................................................................................................... - 6 -

1.6.1. Meaning of Research Design ..................................................................................................... - 6 -

1.6.2. Need for Research Design ......................................................................................................... - 7 -

1.6.3. Characteristics of a Good Research Design ............................................................................... - 7 -

1.6.4. Research Design Concepts ......................................................................................................... - 7 -

1.6.5. Characteristics of a good research design .................................................................................. - 9 -

1.6.6. What Are the Different Types of Research Design? ................................................................. - 9 -

1.6.7. Five Common Types of Research Design ............................................................................... - 10 -

1.7. Sampling ........................................................................................................................................ - 11 -

1.7.1. Sampling Design ...................................................................................................................... - 11 -

1.8. Types of Data ................................................................................................................................. - 13 -

1.8.1. Secondary Data ........................................................................................................................ - 14 -

1.8.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data ................................................................. - 15 -

1.8.3. Primary Data ............................................................................................................................ - 16 -

1.8.4. Survey Methods ....................................................................................................................... - 16 -

1.8.5. Steps in Conduction of Survey ................................................................................................ - 20 -

1.8.6. Constructing a Survey Research .............................................................................................. - 20 -

1.8.7. Questionnaire ........................................................................................................................... - 21 -

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 1.1. Overview and Description

This course will provide students with the tools and skills needed to do research and conduct studies in
different fields especially the ones related to social sciences, humanities and languages.

1.2. Definition of Research

Research is not only a set of skills, but also a way of thinking. Within this framework of thinking,
you usually question what you observe, make an attempt to further explore, understand and explain your
observations, and draw conclusions and inferences to enhance your practice skills and their knowledge base.
It is looking at your practice or work situation inquisitively, critically and analytically to gain an in-depth
knowledge of its rationale, relevance, effectiveness and efficiency.

The word research is coined by two syllables: re plus search. The dictionary defines the former as a
prefix meaning again, a new, or over again and the latter as a verb, meaning to examine closely and
carefully, to test and try, or to probe. The simplest meaning of research is to search for facts, answers to
research questions and solution for the existing problem.

Research is defined as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about the presumed relationship about various phenomena. Research is a systematic
investigation to find answers to a problem.

We can conclude that Research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the fact or data, analyzing the facts, and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions toward the concerned problem or in certain generals for some
theoretical formulation.

1.3. Criteria of a Good Research

It is systematic: It implies that research is structured according to a set of rules to follow certain
steps in specified sequence. Systematic research also invites creative thinking, and certainly avoids use of
guessing and intuition for arriving at the proper findings, conclusion.

It is empirical: It implies that any conclusion drawn is based on hardcore evidence gathered from
information collected from real-life experiences and observations. This provides a basis for external ability
to research findings and conclusion.

It is valid and verifiable: It implies that research involves precise observation and accurate
description. The researcher selects reliable and valid instruments to be used for the collection of data and
uses some relevant statistical tools for accurate description of the results obtained. Whatever the researcher
concludes on the basis of finding is correct and can be verified by himself /herself and others.

It is logical: It implies that research is guided by the rules of reasoning and logical process of
induction general to specific and deduction specific to general that plays an important role in carrying out

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research. In fact, logical reasoning makes research feasible and more meaningful in the context of
quantitative decision making.

It develops theories and principles, which are very helpful in accurate prediction with regard to the
variables under study. On the basis of the sample observed and studied, the researcher makes sound
generalizations with regard to the entire populations. Thus, research goes beyond immediate situations,
objects, or groups being investigated by formulating a generalization or theory about these factors.

Its Purpose should be clearly defined and common concepts that are used should be operationally
defined.

The research procedure should be precisely planned, focused, and appropriately described in
order to enable other researchers to do research for further advancement.

Research design should be carefully planned to generate results to maintain objectivity.

The research report should be as much frank as possible to gauge effects of the findings.

Data analysis in the research report should be adequate to reveal its significance and the method
of analysis employed be appropriate.

Validity and reliability of data should be examined carefully.

Systematic approach: It implies that a planned and organized research saves researcher’s time and
money. Each step of investigation should be so planned that it leads to the next step. Part of this approach
are planning and organization.

Objectivity: It implies that true research should attempt to find an unbiased answer to the decision-
making problem.

Reproducible: It implies that in reproducible research procedure, an equally competent researcher

could duplicate, and from it deduce approximately the same results. The information with regard to samples,
methods, collection, etc., should be specified.

Relevancy has the task of avoiding collection of irrelevant information and saves time and money;
it compares the information to be collected with researcher’s criteria for action; it enables to see whether the
research is proceeding in the right direction.

1.4. Objectives of Research

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it; studies with this object in view
are termed as exploratory research studies.

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group; studies with this
object in view are known as descriptive research studies.
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 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something
else; studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies.

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables; such studies are known as hypothesis-
testing research studies or experimental studies.

5. Exploration: It implies that an understanding of an area of concern in very general terms. For example,
we wish to know how to go about doing more effective research on violence on women.

6. Description: It implies that an understanding of what is going on. For example, we wish to know the
attitudes of potential clients toward the use of washing machine.

7. Explanation: It implies that an understanding of how things happen. It involves an understanding of

cause-and-effect relationships between the events. For example, we wish to know whether a group of people
who have gone through a certain program have higher self-esteem than a control group.

8. Prediction: It implies that an understanding of what is likely to happen in the future. If we can explain,
we may be able to predict. For Example, if one group had higher self-esteem, is it likely to happen with
another group?

9. Intelligent intervention: It implies that an understanding of what or how in order to help more effectively
and efficiently.

10. Awareness: It implies that an understanding of the world, often gained by a failure to describe or
explain.

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 1.5. Types of Research
Types of Research

Application Objectives Enquiry Mode

Pure Research Descriptive

Research Exploratory Mixed Method Quantitative
Research Research Research

Applied Research
Correlational Exploratory Qualitative
Research Research Research

1.6. Introduction to Research Design

Conceptualizing a research design is the important steps in planning a research study. The main function of
a research design is to explain how we will find answers to the research question. For any investigation, the
selection of an appropriate research design is crucial in enabling us to arrive at valid finding and conclusion.
Research can be explained as Re S + = earch Again E + xplore. Different names known for Research design
are Research outline, Plan, and Set of proposal.

This plan or design is generally vague and tentative in the beginning. As the study progresses and insights
into it deepen it undergoes many modifications and changes. A series of decisions in working out of a plan
include what, why, where, when, who, and how of the research.

1.6.1. Meaning of Research Design

Research design is a logical structure of an enquiry. The essence of the research design constitutes the given
research question or theory, type of evidence required to answer the question or to test the theory in a
convincing manner. Let us use an analogy to understand the term “research design.” While constructing a
building, the first decision to be arrived at is whether we need a high-rise office building, a factory, a school,
or a residential apartment, etc. Until this decision is made, we cannot sketch a plan layout and order
construction material or set critical dates for completion of the project.

Similarly, a researcher needs to have clarity on the research questions and then the research design will flow
to the research questions. To ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial research
questions as unambiguously as possible is the main function of a research design. We need to answer the
research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe some phenomenon for
obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the type of evidence.
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 The evidence that need to be collected to answer the research question constitute Sampling issues, Data
collection method, e.g., Questionnaire, Observation, Document analysis, Questionnaire design, etc. Thus,
the research design “deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem”. Research design aims to test
and eliminate alternative explanation of results, apart specifying the logical structure of the data.

Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to
research questions and to control variance. The plan and the structure of enquiry are formulated in order to
obtain answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or the program of the research. It
includes an outline of what the investigator will perform, starting with writing the hypothesis and their
operational implications to the final analysis of data. The structure of the research is the outline of the
research design, and the scheme is the paradigm of operation of the variable. The planning process includes
the framework of the entire research process, starting with developing the hypothesis to the final evaluation
of collected data. Strategy includes the methods to be used to gather and analyze the data. Research design
can be understood as that which gives the blueprint for collection, measurement, and analysis of data. The
design helps researchers to utilize available resources efficiently to achieve research

1.6.2. Need for Research Design

Because it: 1. Facilitates the smooth flow of various research processes. 2. Good research results can be
obtained with minimum utilization of time, money, and Efforts. 3. The validity of research results is based
on the initial research design. 4. If the initial research design is not properly prepared, it will jeopardize the
entire research process and will fail to meet the objectives.

1.6.3. Characteristics of a Good Research Design

1.6.4. Research Design Concepts
1.6.4.1. Independent and Dependent Variables

The independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates or changes, and is assumed
to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. For example, time that students spend watching American
movies is an independent variable, while their scores in listening comprehension at school is a dependent
variable, which is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment, and is 'dependent' on the
independent variable.

1.6.4.2. Extraneous Variable

Extraneous variables are independent variables that are not directly linked with the study but may influence
the dependent variable. For example, assume that a hypothesis was framed with a stated relationship among
the progress in academic performance of children and their self-study. Here, academic performance is the
dependent variable and self-study is the independent variable. Apart self-study concept, grasping power
may also affect academic performance, but grasping power is not related to the study’s purpose or objective.
Therefore, grasping power can be referred to as an extraneous variable. If any direct or indirect effect occurs
on the dependent variable because of the extraneous variable, it is called an “experimental error.

1.6.4.3. Control

Control is essentially devised to minimize the effects of extraneous variables. This is an important
characteristic of a good research design.
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 1.6.4.4. Confounded relationships

When a dependent variable is affected by the influence of an extraneous variable, then the relation among
the dependent and independent variables is confused or confounded by an extraneous variable.

1.6.4.5. Research hypothesis

If a hypothesized relationship or prediction or an assumption has to be tested using scientific methods, it is

called research hypothesis. A research hypothesis links an independent variable to a dependent variable. It
should generally contain a dependent and an independent variable.

Dependent: type of occupation

Independent: Gender
Hypothesis: it is believed that gender has an impact on the type of occupation.
It is assumed that females cannot get some certain jobs.
It is thought that some occupations are only meant for males.

1.6.4.6. Experimental and nonexperimental hypothesis

If the primary objective of conducting research is to test a hypothesis, it is termed research hypothesis
testing. This can be done for both experimental and nonexperimental research. When an independent
variable is manipulated during research, it is called as an experimental hypothesis testing research. Non-
experimental research hypothesis testing pertains to non-manipulation of an independent variable in
research.

For example, assume that a researcher wants to study whether watching American movies influences
students’ skills in speaking. For this study, if the researcher selects a random sample of 5026 students, it is
called non-experimental research hypothesis testing. This is because the independent variable is not
manipulated. If he or she selects a sample of 50 students and divides them into equal groups A and B, where
group A is provided with American movies all the time and Group B is a control group with no external
manipulations, it is called experimental research hypothesis testing as the independent variable is being
manipulated.

1.6.4.7. Experimental and control group

While conducting experimental research hypothesis testing, if the group is studied under usual conditions
then it is called a Control Group. When the group is studied under special conditions, then it is called an
experimental group. For example, if one considers the above illustration, Group B is the control group as
there is no external manipulation and normal conditions prevail. Group A is the experimental group as there
is an external manipulation. Research studies can be designed consisting of only experimental groups or
involving both experimental and control groups.

1.6.4.8. Treatments

Treatments refer to the conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subjected. For example,
if one considers the above example, treatments were available.

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 1.6.4.9. Experiment

The process involving checking the validity of a hypothesis statement of a research problem is called an
experiment. For example, if one wants to study the impact of watching movies on the performance of
various writing, listening, speaking, and reading, one can conduct an experiment. The experiment can be an
absolute experiment or a comparative experiment. The study of the impact of a movie watching on the
various skills performances is called an absolute experiment. The study of the impact of movies on the skills
performance compared to the impact of another factor on performance is called a comparative experiment.

1.6.4.10. Experimental units

Prespecified plots or blocks, where various treatments are used, are called experimental units. Experimental
units need to be defined very carefully.

1.6.5. Characteristics of a good research design

What Are the Characteristics of Research Design?

Here are the top characteristics of a research design:

• Reliability

Different types of research are conducted regularly. In such research, the researcher expects the research
design to formulate questions that evoke similar results every time. And a good research design is reliable to
satiate the researcher’s needs to generate the same results every time.

• Validity

There are many ways to measure the results of research. However, with the help of a good research
design, a researcher can select the right measuring tools that help in gauging the research results and align
them with the research objectives to measure its success or failure. Therefore, the research design’s
measuring tools must be valid and reliable enough to generate favourable results.

• Generalized

A good research design draws an outcome that can be applied to a large set of people and is not limited
to sample size or the research group. The more applicable the research results are, the more the chances of it
being accurate. Therefore, a good research design helps prove the research’s relevance and accuracy.

• Neutrality

At the start of every research, a researcher needs to make some assumptions that will be tested
throughout the research. A proper research design ensures that the assumptions are free of bias and neutral.
Furthermore, the data collected throughout the research is based on the assumptions made at the beginning
of the research.

1.6.6. What Are the Different Types of Research Design?

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 A researcher must be well-versed in different types of research design. Moreover, a clear understanding
of different research design types helps choose the right technique that incites favourable outcomes.
Research design is broadly divided into quantitative and qualitative research design. We’ll walk you through
them in detail below.

• Quantitative research design

Quantitative research design aims at finding answers to who, what, where, how, and when through the
course of research. Moreover, the outcome of the quantitative research is easy to represent in the form of
statistics, graphs, charts, and numbers.

• Qualitative research design

Qualitative research design aims at answering the how and why. It uses open-ended questions and helps
the subjects express their views clearly. Qualitative research is ideal for businesses that aim to understand
customers’ behaviour and requirements.

Lastly, let’s look at the subsects of qualitative and quantitative research designs widely used across
industries.

1.6.7. Five Common Types of Research Design

1.6.7.1. Experimental design

The experimental design aims to look at a problem scientifically; that’s why it tries to establish a clear
cause and effect of any event occurring in the research realm. Moreover, the research design tries to
understand the impact of the independent variable on the dependable variable. As a result, this research is
used to solve issues that try to analyze independent variables and their effect on dependable variables or
vice-versa.

1.6.7.2. Correlational design

Correlation research design establishes a relationship between two related variables. Over time, the
researcher observes the variables and then draws conclusions based on them. As a result, this type of
research design requires two types of variables to function to draw favourable results.

1.6.7.3. Descriptive design

Descriptive research design is a hypothesis-based method that defines the primary subject matter of the
research and tries to analyze it using different assumptions and techniques. This type of research design uses
data collection techniques like natural observation, case studies, and surveys to derive results.

1.6.7.4. Diagnostic design

Diagnostic research design examines the elements posing challenges to businesses and customers. The
methodology strives to explore the reason behind an issue and find solutions to solve it. Furthermore, this
research design tries to solve issues in a structured form that follows three phases- inception, diagnostic, and
solution.

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 1.6.7.5. Explanatory design

In this research design, the researcher explores innovative business concepts and ideas with the help of
different scientific tools and techniques. This research design is ideal for a business’s research and
development department because it offers innovative and creative ideas to solve a business problem.

Moreover, it can be used in companies trying to wrap their heads around design research and analytical
processes and their uses in the current business milieu.

Brand leaders piqued by the concept of design research can learn the fundamentals of modern processes
with Emeritus India’s comprehensive certificate courses. We have partnered with reputed universities and
colleges to offer the best product and design courses.

1.7. Sampling
1.7.1. Sampling Design

Where it is not possible to study the entire population, in such situations researchers use the concept of
sampling. For a variety of reasons, researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every unit of the
population they are studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of population called as a sample and
use these observations drawn to make inferences about the entire population.

Researchers usually cannot make direct observation of every individual in the population under study.
Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals called as a sample and to make inferences about the
entire population using those observations.

1.7.1.1. Element

The unit about which information is collected is called as an element. According to a well-defined
procedure this provides the basis for analysis. Elements should be well defined and the possibility of
identifying them physically is important. For example, in a retail stores survey, a shop may be considered as
a unit, whereas in a family budget enquiry a household may be treated as a unit.

1.7.1.2. Population or Universe

Population is the entire aggregation of items from which samples can be drawn. A population is a group of
individual persons, objects, items, or any other units from which samples are taken for measurement.
Pertaining to a given characteristic, population is a well-defined setup of all elements. It refers to the whole
that includes all observations or measurements of a given characteristic. Population is also called universe. It
may be defined as any identifiable and well-specified group of individuals.

For example, all primary school teachers, number of all college teachers, and all university students. A
population may be finite or infinite. A finite population is one where all the members can be easily counted.
An infinite population is one whose size is unlimited, and cannot be counted easily. For example, the
population of college teachers, school teachers, family members, etc., are examples of finite population and
the number of stars in the sky, the number of fishes in the sea, etc., are examples of infinite population.

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 1.7.1.3. Sample and Sampling

A part of the population is a sample. It can be an individual element or a group of elements selected from
the population. Although sample is a subset, it is representative of the population. Sample is suitable for
research in terms of cost, convenience, and time. Based on a probability or a nonprobability approach the
sample group can be selected. A sample usually consists of various units of the population. The size of the
sample is represented by “n.” A sample is any number of persons selected to represent the population
according to some rule of plan. Thus, a sample is a smaller representation of the population. A measure
based on a sample is known as a statistic.

1.7.1.4. Sample Size and Sampling Design or Strategy

Sample size is the number of selected individuals from whom you obtain the required information; it is
usually denoted by the letter (n). For example, number of students, number of family members, etc.

1.7.1.5. Sampling Design or Strategy

The sampling design or strategy is the way researcher selects the sample or students or families, etc.
It refers to the techniques or procedures the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from
which inferences about the population are drawn.

1.7.1.6. Sampling Units

At some stage of the sampling process, a sampling unit is that element or elements considered available for
selection. Sampling units and the elements are same in single stage sampling. For example, the relevant
population for conducting a socioeconomic survey in a region. In this case a sample of households may be
selected in three stages. First, a sample of Villages is selected. Then, from each selected Villages a sample of
villages is selected after making a list of all the villages in it. Finally, from each selected village, a sample of
households is selected after listing all the households in it. In this example, they are taken as first stage unit,
villages as second stage unit, and households as the third or the final stage unit. Each individual or case that
becomes the basis for selecting a sample is called sampling unit or sampling elements.

Write a research question, hypothesis and explain or give details about your research method, design,
population (unit, stages, and sample), and variables

1.7.1.7. Sampling Frame

Sampling frame, at a stage of sampling process, is a list of all sampling units belonging to the population to
be studied with their proper identification and available for selection. In fact, the actual sample is drawn
from the sampling frame. Therefore, the sampling frame contains all the sampling units of the population
under consideration. It should exclude units of any other population. The sampling frame should be up to
date and free from errors of omission and duplication of sampling units. In fact, a lot of time and effort is

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spent on preparing a suitable sampling frame, in marketing research studies. For example, a list of registered
voters, a map, an organization’s employee list, etc.

1.7.1.8. Probability and Random Sampling Methods

The random sampling method is also often called probability sampling. A sampling in which every member
of the population has a calculable and nonzero probability of being included in the sample is known as
probability sampling. In random sampling all units or items in the population have a chance of being chosen
in the sample. In other words, a random sample is a sample in which each element of the population has a
known and nonzero chance of being selected. Random sampling always produces the smallest possible
sampling error. In the real sense, the size of the sampling error in a random sample is affected only by a
random chance. Because a random sample contains the least amount of sampling error, we may say that it is
an unbiased sample. It is to be noted that we are not saying that a random sample contains no error, but
rather the minimum possible amount of error.

1.7.1.9. Types of Sampling

1.1.1.1.1. Non-Probability or Non-Random Sampling

Nonprobability sampling or nonrandom sampling is also known as deliberate sampling and purposive
sampling, and involves the selection of units based on factors other than random chance. Some of its types
are: Haphazard, Accidental, or Convenience Sampling; Quota Sampling; Purposive Sampling or
Judgment Sampling; Snowball or Network or Chain Referral or Reputation Sampling.

1.1.1.1.2. Probability Sampling Methods or Random Sampling Methods

The random sampling method is also often called probability sampling. A sampling in which every
member of the population has a calculable and nonzero probability of being included in the sample is known
as probability sampling. In random sampling all units or items in the population have a chance of being
chosen in the sample. Some of its types are: Simple Random Sampling; Systematic Sampling; Stratified
Random Sampling; Cluster Sampling; Area Sampling.

1.8. Types of Data

There are two types of data available for a researcher 1) Primary data is the data that is collected for the
first time through personal experiences or evidence, particularly for research. It is also described as raw data
or first-hand information. The mode of assembling the information is costly, as the analysis is done by the
researcher himself or herself. The investigator supervises and controls the data collection process
directly.The data is mostly collected through observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires, surveys,
personal interviews, telephonic interviews, case studies, and focus groups, etc.

Secondary data is a second-hand data that is already collected and recorded by some researchers for
their purpose, and not for the current research problem. It is accessible in the form of data collected from
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different sources such as government publications, censuses, internal records of the organisation, books,
journal articles, websites and reports, etc. This method of gathering data is affordable, readily available, and
saves cost and time. However, the one disadvantage is that the information assembled is for some other
purpose and may not meet the present research purpose or may not be accurate.

Primary Data Secondary Data

Definition

Primary data are those that are collected Secondary data refer to those data that
for the first time. have already been collected by some other
person.

Originality

These are original because these are These are not original because someone
collected by the investigator for the first else has collected these for his own
time. purpose.

Nature of Data

These are in the form of raw materials. These are in the finished form.

Reliability and Suitability

These are more reliable and suitable for These are less reliable and less suitable as
the enquiry because these are collected someone else has collected the data which
for a particular purpose. may not perfectly match our purpose.

Time and Money

Collecting primary data is quite expensive Secondary data requires less time and
both in the terms of time and money. money; hence it is economical.

Precaution and Editing

No particular precaution or editing is Both precaution and editing are essential

required while using the primary data as as secondary data were collected by
these were collected with a definite someone else for his own purpose.
purpose.

1.8.1. Secondary Data

Secondary data can help the researcher in identifying the research problem, formulation of research
hypotheses, and generation of new ideas that can be later authenticated by primary research. Secondary data
are those that have already been collected by some other agency and that have already been processed.
Secondary data are the data that already exist, which has been collected by some other person or
organization for their own use, and is generally made available to other researches free or at a concessional
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rate. Sources of secondary data include websites, trade associations, journals, books, etc. a researcher should
use a judicious mix of primary and secondary data to optimize the quality of research findings.

1.8.1.1. Internal sources of secondary data

Internal sources of secondary data are those that are available within an organization or an institution. The
examples of internal sources of secondary data are departmental reports, production summaries, financial
and accounting reports, and marketing and sales studies, students’ scores or success and failure mean and
rate.

1.8.1.2. External Sources of Secondary Data

External sources exist outside the company. External sources of secondary data occur in books and
periodicals, government sources, computer-retrievable databases, trade and manufactures’ associations,
publications, median sources, commercial sources, syndicated services, directories, external experts and
special collections. These might include Books and Periodicals, Government Publications,
Nongovernmental Associations, Directories, Industry Experts, and Special Collections.

1.8.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1.8.2.1. Advantages of secondary data

1. It is cheaper, and takes less time to gather, thus saving the researchers a lot of money and time that they
would have otherwise spent in gathering primary data. 2. It can help identify, clarify, and redefine the
research problem. 3. It might also hold a solution to the problem. 4. It may provide alternative methods
that can be used for primary research. 5. For better creativity, it generates requisite information. 6. It can be
collected by the researcher from a published or compiled research at very little cost and usually very
speedily. 7. It provide access to information that would not ordinarily be obtainable by an individual
organization.

1.8.2.2. Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1. Lack of Availability: It might so happen that there are no secondary data available for special cases or
that the organization holding such data is not willing to make it accessible to outsiders. For example, if a
company such as Ashok Leyland would like to conduct a research for the market potential of its vehicles in
particular cities in India, then, in this context, it is very unlikely that any secondary data would be available.
2. Lack of Relevance: Due to difference in units of measurement, use of surrogate data in the secondary
sources, difference in definition of classes and time, relevance might be reduced. 3. Inaccurate Data: Errors
that can occur in any of the steps or due to personal bias, and can make the secondary data inaccurate and
therefore unusable. 4. Data Fitness Problem: As secondary data have been compiled for other purposes,
rarely are they completely pertinent to the information needs of the problem at hand. 5. Identify the Data
Source: When secondary sources of secondary data are used, not only are details of methodology of original
source nonavailable, but also errors originating at the secondary source may affect the accuracy of the
original data. 6. Examine the purpose for which data were published: Sources must be treated with caution,
which publish to promote the interests of a particular group or for political commercial or social reasons.
Similarly, data published have limited use to promote sales or to carry on a particular propaganda or to
promote views of a particular interest group, unless it is carefully interpreted in light of purpose of
publication. Suspected data include published anonymously, defensive by an organization, under conditions
that suggest a controversy, in a form that reveals a strained attempt at frankness, to controvert inferences
from other data, etc.

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 1.8.3. Primary Data
1.8.3.1. Survey Research

Surveys can be classified on basis of the method and mode of communication, the degree of structure, the
amount of disguise in a questionnaire and its structure, and the timeframe for data collection. Based on the
selection of an instrument or method of data collection, the researcher can use qualitative, e.g., ask open-
ended questions or quantitative, e.g., use forced choice questions. The major types of surveys are cross
sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys.

1.1.1.1.3. Cross-Sectional Survey

In this type of survey, the total target population is divided into various segments and then using a sampling
method data are collected from all these segments. Then, the collected data are analyzed to define the
relationship among the various variables based on cross-tabulation. For example, a study designed to
establish the relationship between ethics of parents and their views on Internet filtering is likely to bring in
varied responses who are studied at the same time from different sections of society.

Advantages: 1. More representative of the population, less time-consuming, and economical. 2. Can be
used to study the difference in the consumption levels, trends in income, job changes, and buying behavior
of individuals from various groups and subgroups of the population. 3. When he or she wants to collect data
from varied or different types of groups, which may be in terms of age, sex, group, nation, tribes, and so on,
at a single time. 4. Can be a study on the effect of socialization of children of different age groups of a
particular country.

Disadvantages: Cross-sectional studies cannot be used when it comes to defining the same research
objectives over a period of time. Here, longitudinal studies are required.

1.1.1.1.4. Longitudinal Survey:

Longitudinal studies use multiple surveys to gather data over a period of time. It is used only when the
subject wants to study the same sample for a longer period of time. It may be used to study the behavioral
changes, attitude changes, and religious effects or any event or practice that may have a long-time effect on
the selected sample or population. They help in monitoring the behavioral changes, which is of interest to
the researcher taking place in the population. This type of survey is flexible and can over a period of time
interview different respondents provided the new subjects are also from the same group or subgroup
originally interviewed. Hence, longitudinal surveys are essential not only to learn about current social
situations but also to measure their variation over a time period. A number of different designs are available
for the construction of longitudinal surveys. They are Trend Studies, Panel Surveys, and Cohort Panels.

1.8.4. Survey Methods

Surveys conducted through interviews are generally classified based on the method of communication
used in the interview. Surveys should be designed in such a way that helps in making accurate decisions.
Predominantly there are three major ways that can be used as an instrument in collecting data with the
survey research.

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 1.8.4.1. Sampling

A representation of the population or universe selected for the study is known as a sample. In survey
research, the technique of sampling in collecting data can itself act as an instrument. For example, if the
objective of researcher is to study the level of job satisfaction amongst the employees of an organization.
Then, the researcher can select at least five to ten persons of each department of the organization and
study their attitude. The sampling can be done with the help of randomization, a method of sampling that
provides an equal chance for each subject to be involved in the study, in order to avoid any bias. It can be
done with the help of the Lottery Method, Fish bowl technique and stratification, or a method of sampling
that categorizes the population into various categories and subcategories and then conducting the
research.

1.8.4.2. Questionnaire Design

Questionnaire design is a vital issue in interviewing. From the respondent a properly designed
questionnaire can tap the necessary information. Therefore, researchers always design a tactful set of
questions to give useful answers to probe and prompt the interviewee. The categories of questionnaires
are Structured, Unstructured, Disguised, and Undisguised. Questionnaires, in which the individual needs
to select the most suitable alternative, are basically a kind of paper pencil and multiple-choice test. With
the help of a questionnaire, the researcher at a single time may collect data from a large number of
samples. Questionnaires can be administered to the sample by Mail survey, Group-administered
questionnaire, and Household drop-off survey.

1.8.4.3. Mail Survey

Through mail the researcher may forward a soft copy of the questionnaire to a large number of
respondents and can get the data collected from them at a single time. Mail survey is one of the methods
of obtaining responses that are relatively less time consuming, convenient, and inexpensive. Yet, the
questions that require on-the-spot response or detailed answer is difficult to be achieved through mail
survey.

1.8.4.4. Group-Administered Questionnaire

This questionnaire is one of the traditional methods of administering questionnaire. The researcher calls for
a large number of respondents to be present as a group at a stipulated time period. Under such group
settings, the respondents are asked to respond to a structured sequence of questions written in paper or
questionnaire. The greatest advantage of this method is that with regard to any question, the respondents can
clarify their doubt that has been asked by the researcher instantly.

1.8.4.5. Household Drop-off Survey

In this method, the researcher goes door to door to the respondents and personally hands over as well as
collects the questionnaire from them. It is a kind of pick-and-drop facility that is provided by the researcher
so that the researcher can answer the questions according to their convenience.

1.8.4.6. Personal Interviews

Based on the respondents to be interviewed and the means to contact them, the different methods of
personal interview are door-to-door interviewing, executive interviewing, and mall intercept surveys.
Personal interviews are characterized by the researcher, interviewer, interviewee, and interview
environment. The researcher, interviewer, and interviewee have specific to each of them some inherent and
acquired characteristics. As such, in some way or the other, they are able to influence the interviewing
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process. Based on the type of data to be collected the choice of the interview environment is chosen by the
researcher.

1.8.4.7. Structured Interview

Structured interviews are those interviews in which the questions that are to be asked from the
respondents are prepared and preplanned in advance by the researcher. The researcher serially imposes those
prepared questions on the respondents and note down the answers given by them. Structured interviews are
from the most part orally administered questionnaires. Such questions restrict the interviewee from giving
his or her own answers and require him or her to choose from among the alternatives given. This saves a
considerable amount of time as the respondent is quick to choose from among the options given to him or
her. Thus, rather than going off the track, the interviewer takes the interview in the required direction. The
structured questionnaire makes the interview somewhat “funnel’ shaped. Without any influencing factors,
the interviewer consciously guides the interviewee through a sequential, preformulated set of tactful
questions to extract the “factual” responses. This leads to accomplish the goal of the interview. The common
features of structured interviews include a common vocabulary for all interviewees, question formats have
the same meaning for all, in exactly the same way all respondents are interviewed, in advance with their
order the questions are set and for all respondents the range of possible responses are the same.

1.8.4.8. Unstructured Interview

Unstructured questionnaires are usually open-ended. Unstructured questionnaires try to probe into
the mind of respondent, allowing the interviewee to express his or her own thoughts rather than restricting
him or her to the available response options. When the researcher conducts an interaction with the
respondent in an informal atmosphere, interviews are said to be unstructured. Nothing is preplanned in
advance. The response of the sample gives a clue to the researcher to ask the next question.

1.8.4.9. Executive Interviewing

Executive interviewing is similar to door-to-door interviewing with the only difference that it is specific to
workplace respondents. It is concerned with the finding out information related to some industrial product of
service, required the interviewing of people who use these products in their offices, etc. The process is
expensive but it is worth it. This is because the users more often than not make time for the interview as they
too are interested in expressing their opinions and learning more about the products and services they use at
work. The interviewer should ensure that he or she reaches the venue on time. Often, the interviewees are
busy at work and the interviewer might be required to wait for the meeting, at other times, the appointment
might be postponed due to time constraints.

1.8.4.10. Self-Administered Interviews

In a self-administered interview, the questionnaire is filled out by the respondent without the
intervention of an interviewer. Such interviews are not assisted by interviewer or the computer. These self-
administered interviews are mostly conducted in the shopping malls, supermarkets or Big Bazaar or D-Mart,
hotels, theatres, and airlines as these locations provide captive audiences, etc.

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 Passengers and regular customers are given brief questionnaires to enquire about their views of the
quality of service offered in an airline or hotel. However, the absence of the interviewer results in a
limitation, namely, that clarifications on responses to open-ended questions cannot be obtained. A customer
might just indicate his or her liking as a reason for buying a particular product or brand, which is of no
utility from a managerial perspective. The absence of the interviewer thus makes it difficult to race the
buying decision of the customer to any of the product or brand attributes. Even the limited quantity of
information is generated. However, the absence of the interviewer proves to be a boon in disguise as it
eliminates the possibility of interviewer bias. The use of Kiosks is another recent improvement in self-
administered interviews. Kiosks are multimedia, touch-screen computers contained in freestanding cabinets.
The capacity of these preprogrammed computers to administer complex surveys is enhanced by their ability
to display full-color scanned images and play stereo sound clips on any show videos. Due to their numerous
applications, these kiosks having been successfully tested at trade shows are now being tried in retail stores.
Kiosk interviewing is less expensive and is known to derive more honest results than methods that involve
an interviewer.

1.8.4.11. Mall-Intercept Surveys

The concept of mall interviewing, a predominant type of personal interview, in the United States
today has become a popular way to collect survey data. The technique gained popularity in the early 1960s
when big, enclosed shopping centers attracted a large number of people from various sections of society.
Something of an ideal sample for researchers. Mall-intercept interviews are often viewed as an inexpensive
substitute for door-to-door interviews. Shopping mall-intercept interviewing involves the mall-intercept, as
the name implies, stopping or intercepting shoppers in a mall at random, qualifying them if necessary,
asking whether they would be willing to participate in a research study, conducting the interview right on the
spot, taking them to the research agency’s interviewing facilities located in the mall.

Prior to the mall intercept, surveys were conducted in other places having a high concentration of
people, such as supermarkets, discount stores, theatres, and railway stations. Since its interception, mall
intercept surveys have come a long way. The present period is witnessing huge developments and
advancements in mall intercept surveys, with enterprising researchers opening permanent offices and test
centers in malls. Today, some mall research facilities are equipped with complete food preparation, storage
facilities for conducting taste tests, focus group facilities, video tape equipment, etc.

Since each mail has its own customer characteristics, the chances of deriving biased information is
more as compared to door-to-door sampling. When the chances of demographic influences are negligible or
the target group is a special population, mall-intercept interviews are useful. It comes in handy for surveys
that require coordination and timing such as cooking and tasting food products and for products that need to
be demonstrated. A special case of mall-intercept interviewing is Purchase Intercept Technique. This
technique involves an in-store observation and in-store interviewing, where consumers are intercepted and
interviewed while buying a specific product. The interviewer then probes into the reasons for selecting the
particular product. Mall-intercept surveys screen over other modes of survey interviews in respect of cost of
research and degree of control, time taken for execution, and the quality of information collected.

1.8.4.12. Mail Surveys

In a mail survey, questionnaires are sent to qualified respondents by mail or e-mail. In research, mail
surveys used are ad-hoc mail surveys and mail panels. The only difference between the two is that in the

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case of ad-hoc mail surveys there is no prior contact. A questionnaire is just sent to a sample selected from
an appropriate source and responses are awaited. The selected sample is used only for a single project.

1.8.5. Steps in Conduction of Survey

Step 1: Determination of the Aims and Objectives of Study: At the outset, the researcher must analyze
and assess the relevant areas or issues that need to be studied. The basic aims and objectives have to be
clearly specified by the researcher, once the research area is selected. These have to be focused and analyzed
so as to make the purpose of research relevant and understandable. The researchers have to come up with the
basic aims and objectives that would be focused and analyzed in their overall research.

Step 2: Define the Population to be Studied: The researcher also needs to define the target population,
which would be studied by him or her after selecting the theme of the research. The population or universe
would be a collection of people or object who would possess at least one common characteristic, which is
going to be helpful and which would also provide direction in the process of conducting the research.

Step 3 Design and Construct a Survey: Once the target population is defined by the researcher, he or
she needs to design a survey research. On the basis of the framed design, the research decides to conduct a
survey, selects instrument for survey, for example, telephonic interview, with the help of which data will be
collected. After the selection of the instrument, the researcher conducts a pilot study, i.e., a small survey
taken in advance of a major investigation or research. The pilot study helps the researcher to analyze for the
present research the significance and relevance of the instruments selected by the researcher.

Step 3: Select a Representative Sample: The process of construction of the survey instruments gives a
way to the selection of the sample from the target population. The researcher selects a sample, which
represents nearly maximum characteristics of the whole universe or population. The results or the findings
of the survey conducted on the sample can be easily generalized on the population as a whole, if the selected
sample is a good representation of the population.

Step 4: Administer the Survey: The researcher conducts the survey, after the selection of the sample, by
administering the survey instrument or tool on the selected sample. This step helps in the collection of the
required data or information from the sample.

Step 5: Analyze and Interpret the Findings of the Survey: The researcher analyzes the data; once the
data have been collected, with the help of required statistical tools and then on the basis of the information
revealed, interprets the findings. This step involves several processes such as coding the data and then
processing it.

Step 6: Prepare the Report of the Survey: The researcher prepares a report of the overall research
conducted, on the basis of the analysis and interpretation of the results. The report contains the details of
aims, objectives, data analysis, interpretation, and discussion of the results. In this step, the researcher tries
to evaluate how the findings meet the proposed aims and objectives of the research.

Step 7: Communicate the Findings of the Survey: The most important step of conducting the survey
research is to disseminate the survey findings. The researcher needs to communicate the findings to the
target population and for the future research to be done on a similar field, it is an equally important record.
The impacts of the survey results are also assessed on them, on the basis of which the researcher may also
recommend certain policies on decision making.

1.8.6. Constructing a Survey Research

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 In the process of conducting a survey research, the researcher needs to design a framework of the
instruments and processes of data collection, on the basis of which the overall research would be done. The
researcher needs to decide the Survey Research content, format, and wordings that would be included in the
survey instruments. No doubt the researcher selects any one of the kinds of instruments that is a
questionnaire or an interview, he or she needs to frame questions. The questions should be so worded that
there is clarity in what is being asked and should have the capability of eliciting response. The survey
instruments are the backbone of research and that is why the statements or the questions of the researcher
should be short and specific as well. The researcher constructs the survey instrument by framing questions,
once the framework of the process of research is decided. While writing the questions for the survey, the
researcher needs to take care of a few basic aspects, which include:

1. Deciding the content, scope, and objectives of the question;

2. Selecting the most convenient format of response, for example, Likert-type 5-point scale, multiple choice
questions, and so on;

3. Deciding on how to frame the questions that would elicit the required response;

4. Bringing out the best response and favorable conditions for the survey formatting the series of questions;
and

5. While preparing the questions and taking full care of the moral values and ethics of the respondents to get
the best results, the researcher needs to be very sensitive.

Difficulties and Issues of Survey Research

There are certain issues that the researcher might have to understand and take full care, if he or she plans
to go for a survey research. They are as follows:

1. Issues on Selecting the Type of Survey: Selecting the kind of survey that might be most appropriate or
suitable for his or her study is one of the most critical decisions for a researcher. The researcher should be
aware of the kind of population that would be suitable for the study. Again, they should also be comfortable
with the language of the selected population. The researcher should also analyze the geographic restrictions
and try to find out for a dispersed population which method can be most feasible.

2. Issues on Survey Instruments: The researcher should have complete knowledge of the suitability of the
questions that would be asked to the respondents, while constructing the survey. Within a survey research
some of the controversial issues are the type of questions, clarity, specificity of the questions, the length of
the questions, etc.

3. Bias Issues: On the findings of the survey research, the researcher’s biases and prejudices might have
a significant influence, so they should be fully aware of the repercussions of their biases. Their behavior
should be socially desired ones, so he or she should not lose track and also avoid false reports. In such cases,
issues of bias are really difficult but an essential agenda in a survey research.

4. Administrative Issues: Important aspects that need to be preplanned even before the advancement of the
research are cost, mode of survey, feasibility of the area selected, required time period, etc.

1.8.7. Questionnaire

Questionnaire is a data collection instrument. The researchers for collecting data most commonly usethis
method. The researcher lists the questions to which he or she requires answers, in order to gather data on a
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particular research topic. The list of questions grouped in some order is either given personally, or mailed to
the target population.

1.8.7.1. Construction of Questionnaire

Caution must be taken in the selection of questions and variables, so that the researcher can receive
accurate answers that he or she wants to explore. The purpose of this type of data-gathering technique is
to obtain valid and reliable information so that smooth investigation can be conducted and hypothesis can
be tested. A clear understanding of the problem under study is essential for the researcher. Hence, before
finalizing the contents of the questionnaire, he or she needs to review the related literature. The covering
letter explains the identity of the researcher, objectives of the research, need for questionnaire, tell the
respondents what use will be made of the results and precisely what will happen to their answers, request
the respondent for cooperation, explain the purpose of the questionnaire, and ensure the confidentiality of
respondent’s answers. This assurance will motivate the respondents to express their views freely.

Steps in Questionnaire Construction

1. Determining the scope of the questionnaire

2. Deciding the type of questions to be asked, i.e., close ended or open ended
3. Preparing the draft questionnaire
4. Pretesting the questionnaire with a sample population
5. Revising the questionnaire, according to the suggestions received
6. Distributing the questionnaire
7. Sending reminders to the population under study
8. Receiving the responses
9. Analyzing and interpreting the data received and

10. Writing the research report.

Length of the Questionnaire

For a standard questionnaire, there is no prescribed length. Due to its cost effectiveness, researchers want to
ask a maximum number of questions in one questionnaire. Length of the questionnaire depends on the topic
of the research problem and size of the target population.

Guiding Principles to be Followed for Questionnaire Construction

1. It should be self-explanatory.
2. As open-ended questions receive vague and incomplete responses, which are difficult to interpret,
questions should be restricted to close ended.
3. Less number of questions in the questionnaire helps in receiving high response rate.
4. Attractive layout of the questionnaire helps in obtaining completed questionnaires.
5. In filling up the questionnaire, proper instructions should be provided to the respondents.

1.8.7.2. Structured Questions

Those questions that pose definite and concrete questions, the format of which is preplanned and predefined
in advance, are called as structured questionnaires. When there is a need to clarify vague or inadequate
replies by respondents or when further details are needed, only then additional questions are asked. Some of

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the types of structured questions are Dichotomous questions, Level of measurement-based questions, and
Filter or Contingency questions.

1.1.1.1.5. Dichotomous Questions

Dichotomous question has only two possible responses. For example, Yes or No, True or False, On or

Off, Right or Wrong, and so on. The layout of these questions appears in the questionnaire:

Q: Does the library of your College/School have an electronic database system? Yes / No

Q: Please mention your gender: Male / Female

1.8.7.3. Level of Measurement-Based Questions

The basic levels of measurement are Nominal, i.e., based on names, classification of persons, objects, and
groups; Ordinal, i.e., based on ranks and preferences and Interval measurements, i.e. based on ratings, for
example, a nominal question may have numbers before each response, which may only represent the serial
order, as follows:

-Please state the category to which you belong:

- General /Open - OBC - SC/ST - NT/VJ

The question based on interval scale may be based on rating the choices, out of which the most commonly
used scale is Likert response scale, which has a rating of 1–5, or 1–7, or 1–9. For example,

The university has a well-equipped and fully furnished computer-laboratory:

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree Agree Cannot say Disagree Strongly disagree

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 Filter or Contingency Questions

When a question framed is design in such a way that it is followed by succeeding questions, which
are subparts of the main question, such types of question frame design is known as filter or
contingency questions. For example, if a researcher wants to ask whether the respondent has ever
attended the library of the college and if the researcher also wants to know how many times the
respondent has attended the library, then the format of the question will be as follows:

Q: Have you ever regularly attended the library of your college? Yes / No

Q: If yes, then how many times?

Once in a month Every week of the month Every day in a month to get the subsequent answers, the
researcher should use multiple filter question responses. But he or she should take full care that in
order to maintain the interest of the respondent, they should not exceed more than two to three levels
for any question.

1.8.7.4. Unstructured Questions

The chief advantage of the unstructured questionnaire is flexibility. Unstructured questions are
usually used in interviews, where either the researcher does not prepare a list of questions and the
series of questions might depend upon the response of the subjects or they ask questions in an informal
atmosphere. The researcher should take full care and should give a silent probe, verbally encourage,
ask for clarification, and have full empathy with the respondent, in order to get adequate and required
information.

1.8.7.5. Designing a Questionnaire

Step 1: Preliminary decision: What information will be sought after a thorough scanning of
secondary sources of data will be assessed. Determine the target respondent.

Step 2: Decide on the type of questionnaire and the method of administration.

Step 3: Evaluation of question content: Before including a question in the schedule, examine the
question is really essential, respondent can understand the question, i.e., for the target respondent, it
may not be too technical, ambiguous, or advanced, and the respondent can answer the question. Say,
the respondents possess sufficient knowledge. As such, it is better not to ask too much of factual data
or about history specially, if it invades into one’s privacy or usually, they refuse to cooperate, when it
requires too much effort to answer.

Step 4: Check question phrasing: Like words have ambiguity in meaning, any implied alternatives in
the question, any assumptions to be made to answer the question, etc.

Step 5: The type of response format will depend on the objective of the research, nature of data to
becollected, and analysis to be performed.

Step 6: Determine sequence of questions: Use simple, easy, and interesting opening questions; design
branching questions with utmost care; place the questions in a proper sequence and logical manner,
etc.

Step 7: The physical layout of the questionnaire must be assessed. The questionnaire must be printed
 properly and design must be attractive; presented in an elegant form; and facilitate handling.

Step 8: Pretest or Pilot test of the questionnaire is essential. On a small number of target respondents,
it is a good practice to pretest a questionnaire. To assess both individual questions and their sequence
of response pattern, the pretest is done. Accordingly, a researcher must revise the questions that cause
problems. While developing a questionnaire, a researcher must do’s and don’t the following:

1. Use simple and easy words,

2. Ambiguous questions should be avoided,
3. Implicit alternatives should be avoided,
4. Questions that require too much memory recall and calculation should be avoided,
5. Double-barreled questions should be avoided,
6. A questionnaire should first secure some basic information to get the respondent’s cooperation,
interest, and gradually try to collect more information about the phenomenon of interest,
7. It is easier to administer multiple choice response categories that require one simple tick.

1.8.7.6. Questionnaire Format

Questionnaire format is normally used when the data are collected from a large population about the
Awareness, Attitudes, Opinions, Past and Present behavior. Situation and experience of the
researcher greatly influence the process, as there is no standard procedure to construct a questionnaire.
A questionnaire format depends upon the amount of structure and disguise required during data
collection.

1.1.1.1.6. Structure

A highly structured questionnaire is one in which the question to be asked and the responses
permitted are explicitly prespecified. In a nonstructured questionnaire, the questions to be asked are
kept flexible in their own words. Also, the respondents are allowed to answer the questions in a
manner they like. The response pattern may vary from open-ended to close-ended. In an open-ended
question, the respondent is free to choose the possible response. In a close-ended question, the
researcher prespecifies certain options and from the given options, the respondent is allowed to choose
the alternatives. For example,

Open-ended: What brand of hair oil do you use?

Close-ended: Mention the brand of hair oil you use from the list given below:
( P ) ( arachute I ) ( ndulekha ) ( Dabur ) ( KeshKing )

1.1.1.1.7. Disguise

In disguised questions, the purpose is not made obvious to the respondents and is asked in an indirect
manner. Questions that are direct and the purpose of asking them is known clearly to the respondents
are termed as nondisguised questions. When the issues concerned are such that respondents may not
give correct answer to direct questions, in such situations disguised questions are used. Questionnaires
could be classified into categories such as structured–nondisguised, structured— disguised,
nonstructured–nondisguised, and nonstructured–disguised questionnaire.

1. Structured–Nondisguised Questionnaire
In marketing research studies, structured–nondisguised questionnaires are very popular. These are
more applicable when sample size is large.

25
 2. Structured–Disguised Questionnaire
When responses are required toward certain sensitive issues such as attitude toward aids patients,
abortion, etc., Structured–Disguised Questionnaires are more appropriate.

3. Nonstructured–Nondisguised Questionnaire
When a freehand is to be provided to the respondents, so that an indepth information on the subject
could be solicited, then in such situation Nonstructured–Nondisguised questionnaires are used. For
example, in industrial marketing research wherein number of respondents would be low.

4. Nonstructured–Disguised Questionnaire
These are mainly used in Motivation research, Word association test, Sentence completion test,
Thematic appreciation test, Cartoon test, etc.

1.8.7.7. Questionnaire Administration

Depending “on the way it is administered,” the questionnaire method may vary. These could be
broadly classified into following categories:
1. Personal interview, wherein there is a face-to-face interaction between interviewers and
respondents.
2. Telephonic survey, in which survey is conducted over telephone, i.e., unlike personal interview
there is only a voice contact.
3. Mail survey, which is conducted through mail and as such there are no interviewers.

Adopted from

Research Methods: Techniques and Trends by Umesh Kumar Bhayyalal Dubey and D.
P. Kothari

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