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WAVE OPTICS (ARETE - 2024-25)

Newtons corpuscular theory: It is based on rectilinear propagation of light. According to it Light

propagates in the form of tiny particles called Corpuscles. Color of light is due to different size of
corpuscles.

Huygens’ wave theory: Light travels in a hypothetical medium ether as waves. He proposed that light
waves are of longitudinal nature. Later, it was found that they are transverse.

Wave front: Wave front is defined as the imaginary surface constructed by the locus of all points of a
wave that have the same phase. The direction of propagation of light (ray of light) is perpendicular to
the wave front.

Types of wavefront

Plane WF
Spherical WF
Cylindrical WF

Light ray Light rays

Point source
Line source

Huygens’ Principle:
a) Every point on the given wave front acts as a source of new disturbance called wavelets. Which
travel in all directions with the velocity of light in the medium.
b) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any instant
gives the new wavefront at that instant. This is called secondary wave front.

Point source

wavelets

Primary wave Secondary wave

front front

➢ Wave front always travels in the forward direction of the medium.

➢ Light rays are always normal to the wave front.
➢ The phase difference between various particles on the wave front is zero.

REFRACTION AND REFLECTION OF PLANE W AVES USING H UYGENS PRINCIPLE:

Refraction of a plane wave: Let 𝑃𝑃′ represent the surface separating medium 1 and medium 2, as
shown in Fig. Let 𝑣1 & 𝑣2 represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively. We
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assume a plane wavefront AB propagating in the direction 𝐴′ 𝐴 incident on the interface at an angle i as
shown in the figure. Let 𝝉 be the time taken by the wavefront to travel the distance BC. Thus, BC = 𝒗𝟏 𝝉.

Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn from the point C on to E. Then, AE = 𝒗𝟐 𝝉 and CE would
represent the refracted wavefront. If we now consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain,

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒗 𝒄 𝒄⁄ 𝒏 𝒄
𝒗𝟐
Now, 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
= 𝒗𝟏 ⋅ 𝒄 = 𝒄 = 𝒏𝟐 , Here, 𝑛 = 𝒗 , 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
𝟐 ⁄𝒗𝟏 𝟏
Or, 𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface: Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on
a reflecting surface MN as shown in the figure. If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and
if 𝝉 represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance from the point B to C then the distance, BC
=v𝝉
CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to E, then AE = v 𝝉.
Thus, AE = BC.
If we now consider the triangles EAC and BAC,
AE = BC, AEC = ABC & AC is the common side. From the above facts we can
say that triangles EAC and BAC are congruent and therefore angles i & r, as shown in the
figure would be same i.e, angle of incident = angle of reflection. This is law of reflection.
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Refraction of a plane wave by (a) a thin prism, (b) a convex lens. (c) Reflection of a plane wave
by a concave mirror

Doppler’s Effect: Doppler’s effect is the apparent change in the frequency of the light observed by the
observer due to relative motion between the source of light and the observer.
When the waves are received from a source moving away from the observer, there is an apparent
increase in wavelength. This is called red shift.
When the waves are received from a source moving towards the observer, there is an apparent
decrease in wavelength. This is called blue shift.
The Doppler’s shift can be expressed as

𝜟𝝀 𝜟𝝂
Again 𝒄 = 𝝂𝝀, 𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝝀
=− 𝝂
𝜟𝝂 𝜟𝝀 𝒗
Therefore, we can write 𝝂 = − 𝝀 = − 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍
𝑪
here, 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 is the component of the source velocity along the line joining the observer to the source
relative to the observer & is positive when the source moves away from the observer.
(The formula given above is valid only when the speed of the source is small compared to that of light.)
Example 10.1 What speed should a galaxy move with respect to us so that the sodium line at
589.0 nm is observed at 589.6 nm?
Solution: Here, 𝜟𝝀 = 589.6 – 589.0 = + 0.6 nm
𝛥𝜆 𝑣 𝛥𝜆 +0.6
We know, 𝜆 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙𝐶
⇒ 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = c 𝜆 = 3 × 108 ( 589 ) = +3.06 × 105 𝑚/𝑠
Thus 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = +3.06 × 105 𝑚/𝑠 , & is positive, so the galaxy is moving away from us.

Example 10.2
(a) When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and refracted
light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency. Explain why?
(b) When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does the reduction in
speed imply a reduction in the energy carried by the light wave?
(c) In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by the square of the amplitude of the
wave. What determines the intensity of light in the photon picture of light.

Ans: (a) Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light with the atomic constituents
of matter. Atoms may be viewed as oscillators, which take up the frequency of the external agency
(light) causing forced oscillations. The frequency of light emitted by a charged oscillator equals its
frequency of oscillation. Thus, the frequency of scattered light equals the frequency of incident light.

(b) No. Energy carried by a wave depends on the amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of wave
propagation.

(c) For a given frequency, intensity of light in the photon picture is determined by the number of photons
crossing a unit area per unit time.
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Phase: The argument of sine or cosine in the expression for displacement of a wave is defined
as the phase. For displacement y = a sin t; term  t = phase or instantaneous phase.
Phase difference (): The difference between the phases of two waves at a point is called phase
difference i.e. if 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 and 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) so phase difference = 
Path difference (): The difference in path lengths of two waves meeting at a point is called path
𝝀
difference between the waves at that point. Also 𝜟𝒙 = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝝋.
Resultant amplitude and intensity
If suppose we have two waves 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 and 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑); where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 = Individual
amplitudes,  = Phase difference between the waves at an instant when they are meeting a point. I1, I2
= Intensities of individual waves
Resultant amplitude: After superimposition of the given waves’ resultant amplitude (or the
amplitude of resultant wave) is given by 𝐴 = √𝑎𝟏𝟐 + 𝑎𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝑎𝟏 𝑎𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
For the interfering waves y1 = a1 sin t and y2 = a2 cos t, Phase difference between them is 90o.
So resultant amplitude 𝐴 = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22
Resultant intensity: As we know intensity  (Amplitude)2  I1 = ka 12 , I 2 = ka 22 and I = kA
2

(k is a proportionality constant). Hence from the formula of resultant amplitude, we get the following
formula of resultant intensity 𝐼 = 𝐼𝟏 + 𝐼𝟐 + 𝟐√𝐼𝟏 𝐼𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
The term 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 is called interference term. For incoherent interference this term is zero so
resultant intensity 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
Coherent sources
The sources of light which emits continuous light waves of the same wavelength, same frequency
and in same phase or having a constant phase difference are called coherent sources.
Two coherent sources are produced from a single source of light. Two independent light sources can
never be coherent.
Interference of Light: Interference is the phenomenon in which two light waves of same
frequency, same angular wave number but different amplitude and constant phase difference
superpose to form the resultant wave of the lower, higher, or same amplitude.
Condition for observing sustained interference
(i) The initial phase difference between the interfering waves must remain constant: Otherwise,
the interference will not be sustained.
(ii) The frequency and wavelengths of two waves should be equal: If not the phase difference will
not remain constant and so the interference will not be sustained.
(iii) The light must be monochromatic: This eliminates overlapping of patterns as each wavelength
corresponds to one interference pattern.
(iv) The amplitudes of the waves must be equal: This improves contrast with I max = 4 I 0 and
I min = 0.

Constructive interference Destructive interference

(i) When the waves meet a point with same phase, (i) When the wave meets a point with opposite
constructive interference is obtained at that point (i.e. phase, destructive interference is obtained at that
maximum light) point (i.e. minimum light)
(ii) Phase difference between the waves at the point of (ii) 𝝋 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 or(𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)𝝅; n = 1, 2, ...
observation 𝝋 = 𝟎𝒐 or 𝟐𝒏𝝅 or (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝅; 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐. . . ..
𝝀
(iii) Path difference between the waves at the point of (iii) 𝜟 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐 (i.e. odd multiple of /2)
observation 𝜟 = 𝒏𝝀 (i.e. even multiple of /2)
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(iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will (iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of
be maximum observation will be minimum
If 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎0 ⇒ 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑎0 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎1 − 𝑎2
If 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
(v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be (v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation
maximum will be minimum
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2√𝐼1 𝐼2
2 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 ) 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (√𝐼1 − √𝐼2 )
If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝐼0 If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛

Interference are of two types:

Resultant intensity due to two identical waves:
For two coherent sources the resultant intensity is given by I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos 

For identical source I1 = I 2 = I0  I = I0 + I 0 + 2 I 0 I 0 cos  = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2

∅
2


[1 + cos = 2 cos 2 ]
2
In interference redistribution of energy takes place in the form of maxima and minima.
I + I min
Average intensity: I av = max = I1 + I 2 = a12 + a 22
2
Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities:
2 2
I max  I1 + I 2   I1 / I 2 + 1  2 2
= =  =  a1 + a 2  =  a1 / a 2 + 1 
 I − I   I / I −1 a −a  a /a −1
I min  1 2   1 2   1 2   1 2 
Young’s Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)
Monochromatic light falls on two narrow slits S1 and S2 which are very close together acts as two
coherent sources, when waves coming from two coherent sources (S 1 , S 2 ) superimposes on each
other, an interference pattern is obtained on the screen. In YDSE alternate bright and dark bands
obtained on the screen. These bands are called Fringes.
Screen
4 Dark
d = Distance between slits 3 Bright
3 Dark
D = Distance between slits and screen 2 Bright
2 Dark
S1
 = Wavelength of monochromatic light emitted 1 Bright
1 Dark
S d Central bright
from source 1 Dark fringe
S2 1 Bright
2 Dark (or Central maxima)
2 Bright
3 Dark
3 Bright
4 Dark
D

(1) Central fringe is always bright, because at central position  = 0 o or  = 0

(2) The fringe pattern obtained due to a slit is brighter than that due to a point.
(3) If the slit widths are unequal, the minima will not be complete dark. For very large width uniform
illumination occurs.
(4) If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit is illuminated with blue light, no
interference pattern is observed on the screen.
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(5) If the two coherent sources consist of object and it’s reflected image, the central fringe is dark
instead of bright one.
(6) Path difference
Path difference between the interfering waves meeting at a point P on the screen
is given by
𝑦𝑑
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (∆𝑥 ) = = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐷
where x is the position of point P from central maxima.
For maxima at P: 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆; where n = 0,  1,  2, …….
(𝟐𝒏−𝟏)𝝀
and for minima at P: 𝛥𝑥 = ; where n =  1,  2, …….
𝟐

y
S1
 
d
C
M
S2

Screen
D

Fringe: Fringe is the alternating light and dark bands that forms as a result of interference. There are
two types of fringes
a. Bright fringe: Fringes that are produce by constructive interference are known as bright fringe.
b. Dark fringe: Fringes that are produce by destructive interference are known as dark fringe.
D 𝝀 𝜷
All fringes are of equal width. Width of each fringe is  = and angular fringe width 𝜽 = = 𝑫.
d 𝒅
nλD
Position of nth bright fringe from central maxima 𝒚n = = nβ; 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐. . ..
d
(𝟐n−𝟏)λD (𝟐n−𝟏)β
Position of nth dark fringe from central maxima 𝒚n = = ; 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑. . ..
2d 2

Example 10.3 Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre away. What
is the fringe separation when blue-green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?
Ans: Given, Distance between the slits (𝑑) = 1 𝑚𝑚 = 10−3 𝑚
Wavelength of blue-green light (𝜆) = 500 𝑛𝑚 = 500 × 10−9 𝑚
Distance between the two slits (𝐷) = 1 𝑚
𝜆𝐷 500×10−9 ×1
Now, we know fringe width (β) = 𝑑
= 10−𝟑
= 5 × 10−4 𝑚 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚

Example 10.4 What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment due to
each of the following operations:
(a) The screen is moved away from the plane of the slits;
(b) The (monochromatic) source is replaced by another (monochromatic) source of short wavelength;
(c) The separation between the two slits is increased;
(d) The source slit is moved closer to the double-slit plane;
(e) The width of the source slit is increased;
(f) The monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light?
𝜆𝐷
Ans: a) When screen is moved away, D increases. As β = 𝑑 , therefore width of the fringes increases.
𝜆
However, angular separation (𝑑 ) remains same.
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𝜆𝐷
b) We know, fringe separation β = 𝑑 , where, 𝜆 = wavelength, 𝐷 = Separation between screen and
slits, 𝑑 = distance between two slits. Here, 𝜆 decreases, thus fringe width β decreases.

𝜆𝐷
c) We know, fringe separation β = , where, 𝜆 = wavelength, 𝐷 = Separation between screen and
𝑑

slits, 𝑑 = distance between two slits. When separation between slits is increased, d increases.
Therefore, fringe width β decreases.

d) Let s be the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of the two slits. For interference
𝑠 𝜆
fringes to be seen, the condition < should be satisfied, where 𝑑 is the distance between the two slits.
𝑆 𝑑
Otherwise, interference patterns produced by different parts of the source overlap and no fringes are
seen. Thus, as S decreases, the interference pattern gets less and less sharp. When the source too
close, the fringe separation remains fixed.

e) Let s be the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of the two slits. For interference
𝑠 𝜆
fringes to be seen, the condition < should be satisfied, where 𝑑 is the distance between the two slits.
𝑆 𝑑
As width of source slit is increased, the interference pattern gets less and less sharp. When the source
𝑠 𝜆
slit is so wide then < is violated and interference pattern disappear.
𝑆 𝑑

f) When a source of white light is used, central fringe is white. As blue has lowest value of λ , the
fringe closest on both sides of central white fringe is blue and the farthest fringe is red. After a few
colored fringes, the pattern disappears.

Diffraction of Light: It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an

obstacle/aperture of the size of the wavelength of light.

Shadow
Light

Light Shadow

Aperture Obstacle

Types of diffraction: The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types

a. Fresnel diffraction: In this type both source and screen are at finite distance from the obstacle
or aperture, the diffraction is called Fresnel type. In this case incident wavefront is spherical.
(Not in syllabus)

b. Fraunhofer diffraction: In this case both source and screen are effectively at infinite distance
from the obstacle or aperture. In this case incident wavefront is planar one.
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Diffraction of light at a single slit: In case of diffraction at a single slit, we get a central bright band
with alternate bright (maxima) and dark (minima) bands of decreasing intensity. This is shown in graph.

𝟐𝝀𝑫 𝟐𝝀
➢ Width of central maxima 𝛽0 = 2𝑥 = ; and angular width =
𝒅 𝒅

➢ Minima occurs at a point on either side of the central maxima, such that the path difference
between the waves from the two ends of the aperture is given by 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 ; where n = 1, 2, 3 ....
n
i.e., d sin  = n   sin  =
d
➢ The secondary maxima occur, where the path difference between the waves from the two ends
𝜆
of the aperture is given by 𝛥𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 ;
 (2n + 1) 
where n = 1, 2, 3 .... i.e., d sin  = (2n + 1)  sin  =
2 2d
Comparison between interference and diffraction
Interference Diffraction
Results due to the superposition of waves from two Results due to the superposition of wavelets from
coherent sources. different parts of same wave front. (single coherent
source)
𝜆𝐷 All secondary fringes are of same width but the
All fringes are of same width 𝛽 = 𝑑
central maximum is of double the width
𝜆𝐷
𝛽0 = 2𝛽 = 2 𝑑

All fringes are of same intensity Intensity decreases as the order of maximum
increases.
Intensity of all minimum may be zero Intensity of minima is not zero.
Positions of nth maxima and minima Positions of nth secondary maxima and minima
𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑦𝑛(Bright) = 𝑑
, 𝑦𝑛(Dark) = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝑑
𝑦𝑛(Bright) = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝑑
, 𝑦𝑛(Dark) = 𝑑

Path difference for nth maxima 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 𝜆

for nth secondary maxima 𝛥𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2

Path difference for nth minima 𝛥𝑥 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆 Path difference for nth minima 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
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Condition of diffraction: Size of the obstacle or aperture should be nearly equal to the wavelength.

≈𝑑 ⇒
≈1
𝑑
Greater the wavelength, more is the diffraction effect. It is due to this reason that diffraction effect is
very commonly observed in sound.
If the size of the obstacle is much greater or smaller than the wavelength, then diffraction is not
observed.
PYQ
2013
1. How is a wavefront defined? State Huygens’ principle of propagation of light wave. 1+2
2. In a YDSE two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre away. What is the
fringe separation when blue-green light of wavelength 500 nm is used? 3
2014
1. State two important difference between interference and diffraction. 2
2015
1. What is the shape of the wavefront of light emitted by a long neon bulb placed at a finite distance. 1
2. What is a coherent source. State two important difference between interference and diffraction. 1+2
3. Explain Huygens’s principle of wave optics. Use this principle to prove laws of refraction in case of a plane
surface. 5
4. What is blue shift? Sodium light of wavelength 5890Å travelling from a galaxy is observed to be 5896Å.
What is the speed of the galaxy? 5
2016
1. The beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 6500Å and 5200Å is used in YDSE of slit separation is 2
mm and where the screen is 120 cm away. Find the distance to the third fringe of the central maximum for
wavelength 6500Å. What is the least distance from the central maximum, where the bright fringes due to both
the wavelengths coincide? 1+4
2019
1. What are coherent sources? In a YDSE the intensity of light at a point on the screen where path difference is 

is k units. Find the intensity at a point where path difference is 3. 3
2018
1. Two slits are 1 mm apart and the screen is placed at some distance. Where the slits are illuminated by
light of wavelength 500nm, fringe separation between the screen is 0.5nm. What is the distance between
the slits. 3
2. With what speed should a galaxy move with respect to earth so that sodium line at 589 nm is observed at
589.6nm. 3
3. Deduce Snell’s law of refraction for a plane wave using Huygens’s principle. 3
4. “When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and refracted light
both have same frequency as the incident frequency”. Is the statement true? If yes, why? If you think it is
not true, why?
5. What is the effect on the interference fringes in YDSE when the monochromatic source is replaced by a
source of white light?
6. If you move source slit closer to the double slit in Young’s experiment, what will be effect on the fringes.
2020
1. State Huygens principle in optics. Using this principle derive the law of reflection or refraction. Which
quantity remain unchanged when a light wave suffers reflection or refraction? 1+ 3
1
2. Are two identical bulbs of same power and manufactured by the same company coherent source? 2
1
3. Write short note on Doppler effect. 2
2
2022
1. Mention at least one example of coherent source of light. What will be the phase difference between two
1
light waves, if the path difference between them is 2.5 𝜆. 2 + 1.
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2. When the double slit of the Young’s experiment is replaced by a single slit, name the pattern of the fringes
formed on the screen. What is the phenomenon due to which we see colours when a CD is viewed?
Mention at least one difference in the fringe pattern observed due to interference and diffraction
phenomena. Describe a simple experiment by which you can observe the diffraction phenomenon in your
home.
2023
1. Discuss the phenomena of diffraction produced by a single slit by drawing a neat diagram.
Ans: We know that due to diffraction, the waves passing through the narrow slit tend to spread out. In
a single slit diffraction pattern, a central maximum is larger than the maxima on either side of the central
maxima. Let us draw the experimental arrangement for the single slit diffraction pattern as shown in the
figure below.

Here, D is the distance between the screen and slit, d is the width of the slit and x is the position of the
minima. We have the condition of the maxima of diffraction, dsinθ = nλ.
Here, n is the order of diffraction, d is the width of the slit and λ is the wavelength of the light used.
We can see the similar diffraction pattern on either side of the central maxima. The position of the
minima from the central maxima is given as, 𝑥 = λD/d.
Thus, we can express the width of the central maxima as, Δx = 2λD/𝑑.
The spectrum of the diffraction pattern appears broad if the width of the slit is a minimum. We see the
diffraction pattern due to a series of constructive and destructive interference of light.