Expectations by Strand

A. Literacy Connections and Applications

This strand focuses on students applying the seven transferable skills in language and literacy contexts,
developing digital media literacy skills, applying language and literacy learning in other contexts, and
engaging with texts that foster understanding of diverse identities, experiences, perspectives, histories,
and contributions. In the English program, the learning related to this strand takes place in the context
of learning related to Strand B, Foundations of Language; Strand C, Comprehension: Understanding and
Responding to Texts; and Strand D, Composition: Expressing Ideas and Creating Texts. Strand A should
be assessed and evaluated within these contexts.

Overall expectations
Throughout this course, in connection with the learning in strands B to D, students will:

A1. Transferable Skills

demonstrate an understanding of how the seven transferable skills (critical thinking and problem
solving; innovation, creativity, and entrepreneurship; self-directed learning; collaboration;
communication; global citizenship and sustainability; and digital literacy) are used in various language
and literacy contexts

Specific expectations
Throughout this course, in connection with the learning in strands B to D, students will:
Receptive and Expressive Communication
A1.1 analyze and explain how transferable skills can be used to support communication in various
cultural, social, linguistic, and domain-specific contexts, and apply them when reading, listening to,
viewing, and creating texts of various forms
Student Agency and Engagement
A1.2 evaluate and explain how transferable skills help them to express their voice, be engaged in their
learning, and implement a plan to develop their capabilities and potential

A2. Digital Media Literacy

demonstrate and apply the knowledge and skills needed to interact safely and responsibly in online
environments, use digital and media tools to construct knowledge, and demonstrate learning as critical
consumers and creators of media

39
Specific expectations
Throughout this course, in connection with the learning in strands B to D, students will:
Digital Citizenship
A2.1 evaluate and explain their rights and responsibilities when interacting online with appropriate
permission, and make decisions that contribute positively to the development of their digital identity
and those of their communities
Online Safety, Well-Being, and Etiquette
A2.2 demonstrate an understanding of how to navigate online environments safely, manage their
privacy, personal data, and security, and interact in a way that supports their well-being and that of
others, including seeking appropriate permission
Research and Information Literacy
A2.3 conduct research, considering accuracy, credibility, and perspectives, with a focus on
misinformation, disinformation, and curated information, to construct knowledge, create texts, and
demonstrate learning, while respecting legal and ethical considerations
Forms, Conventions, and Techniques
A2.4 evaluate the use of the various forms, conventions, and techniques of digital and media texts,
consider the impact on the audience, and apply this understanding when analyzing and creating texts
Media, Audience, and Production
A2.5 demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationships between the form, message, and context
of texts, the intended and unintended audience, and the purpose for production
Innovation and Design
A2.6 select and use appropriate digital and media tools to support the design process and address
authentic, relevant, real-world problems by developing and proposing innovative solutions
Community and Cultural Awareness
A2.7 communicate and collaborate with various communities in a safe, respectful, responsible, and
inclusive manner when using online platforms and environments, including digital and media tools, and
demonstrate and model cultural awareness with members of the community

A3. Applications, Connections, and Contributions

apply language and literacy skills in cross-curricular and integrated learning, and demonstrate an
understanding of, and make connections to, diverse voices, experiences, perspectives, histories, and
contributions, including those of First Nations, Métis, and Inuit individuals, communities, groups, and
nations

40
Specific expectations
Throughout this course, in connection with the learning in strands B to D, students will:
Cross-Curricular and Integrated Learning
A3.1 analyze and explain how the knowledge and skills developed in this course support learning in
various subject areas and in everyday life, and describe how they enhance understanding and
communication
Identity and Community
A3.2 demonstrate an understanding of the historical contexts, contributions, lived experiences, and
perspectives of a diversity of individuals and communities, including those in Canada, by exploring and
analyzing the concepts of identity, self, and sense of belonging in a variety of culturally responsive and
relevant texts
First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Perspectives and Ways of Knowing
A3.3 analyze themes explored in First Nations, Métis, and Inuit cultures to demonstrate an
understanding of the varied identities, perspectives, relationships, legacies, truths, and ways of knowing,
being, and doing

41
B. Foundations of Language
Overall expectations
By the end of this course, students will:

B1. Oral and Non-Verbal Communication

apply listening, speaking, and non-verbal communication skills and strategies to understand and
communicate meaning in formal and informal contexts and for various purposes and audiences

Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:
Effective Listening Skills
B1.1 evaluate and use various effective listening skills to enhance comprehension, including
paraphrasing, asking open-ended questions, making relevant responses in group discussions, and
reflecting on what has been said, and use these skills in formal and informal contexts and for various
purposes
Listening Strategies for Comprehension
B1.2 select and use a variety of listening strategies before, during, and after listening to analyze and
comprehend information communicated orally and non-verbally, seek clarification, and identify relevant
evidence to support a response appropriate to the context
Speaking Purpose and Strategies
B1.3 analyze the purpose and audience for speaking in formal and informal contexts, and select and
adapt speaking strategies to communicate clearly and coherently
Oral and Non-Verbal Communication Strategies
B1.4 identify and use oral and non-verbal communication strategies, including expression, gestures, and
body language, and evaluate and compare the effectiveness of these strategies in supporting
understanding or communication, including how their use may vary across cultures
Word Choice, Syntax, and Grammar in Oral Communication
B1.5 use precise and descriptive word choice, including domain-specific vocabulary from various
subjects, and cohesive and coherent sentences during formal and informal communication, to support
audience comprehension

B2. Language Foundations for Reading and Writing

demonstrate an understanding of foundational language knowledge and skills, and apply this
understanding when reading and writing

42
Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:
Word-Level Reading and Spelling: Using Morphological Knowledge
B2.1 use consolidated knowledge of the meanings of words and morphemes (i.e., bases, prefixes, and
suffixes) to read and spell complex words with accuracy and automaticity
Vocabulary
B2.2 demonstrate an understanding of a wide variety of words, acquire and use explicitly taught
vocabulary flexibly in various contexts, including other subject areas, and use consolidated
morphological knowledge to analyze and understand new words in context
Reading Fluency: Accuracy, Rate, and Prosody
B2.3 read a variety of complex texts fluently, with accuracy and appropriate pacing to support
comprehension, and when reading aloud, adjust expression and intonation according to the purpose of
reading

B3. Language Conventions for Reading and Writing

demonstrate an understanding of sentence structure, grammar, cohesive ties, and capitalization and
punctuation, and apply this knowledge when reading and writing sentences, paragraphs, and a variety
of texts

Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:

For an at-a-glance view of the mandatory learning across grades, see Appendix: Language Conventions
for Reading and Writing Continuum, Grades 1–9, Overall Expectation B3.

Syntax and Sentence Structure

B3.1 use their knowledge of sentence types and forms to construct complex sentences that connect and
communicate ideas accurately and effectively
Grammar
B3.2 demonstrate an understanding of the functions of parts of speech in sentences, consolidate and
refine their understanding of grammar, and use this knowledge to support comprehension and
communicate meaning clearly and precisely
Capitalization and Punctuation
B3.3 use and refine their understanding of the meaning and function of capitalization and punctuation
to communicate meaning clearly and coherently, when reading and writing

43
C. Comprehension: Understanding and Responding
to Texts
Overall expectations
By the end of this course, students will:

C1. Knowledge about Texts

apply foundational knowledge and skills to understand a variety of texts, including digital and media
texts, by creators with diverse identities, perspectives, and experience, and demonstrate an
understanding of the patterns, features, and elements of style associated with various text forms and
genres

Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:
Using Foundational Knowledge and Skills to Comprehend Texts
C1.1 read and comprehend various complex texts, using knowledge of words, grammar, cohesive ties,
sentence structures, and background knowledge
Text Forms and Genres
C1.2 analyze and compare the characteristics of various text forms and genres, including cultural text
forms, and provide evidence to explain how they help communicate meaning
Text Patterns and Features
C1.3 compare the text patterns, such as compare and contrast in an expository essay, and text features,
such as footnotes and copyright information, associated with different text forms, including cultural
texts, and evaluate their importance in helping readers, listeners, and viewers understand the meaning
Visual Elements of Texts
C1.4 evaluate how images, graphics, and visual design create, communicate, and contribute to meaning
in a variety of texts
Elements of Style
C1.5 identify various elements of style in texts, including voice, word choice, word patterns, and
sentence structure, and analyze how each element helps create meaning and is appropriate for the text
form and genre
Point of View
C1.6 analyze the narrator’s point of view, including limited, omniscient, or unreliable, in a variety of
texts, explain how it is communicated, and suggest alternative points of view, giving reasons

44
Indigenous Context of Various Text Forms
C1.7 read, listen to, and view a wide variety of text forms by diverse First Nations, Métis, and Inuit
creators to make meaning through Indigenous Storywork about First Nations, Métis, and Inuit histories,
cultures, relationships, communities, groups, nations, and lived experiences

C2. Comprehension Strategies

apply comprehension strategies before, during, and after reading, listening to, and viewing a variety of
texts, including digital and media texts, by creators with diverse identities, perspectives, and experience,
in order to understand and clarify the meaning of texts

Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:
Prereading: Activating Prior Knowledge
C2.1 identify and explain prior knowledge from various sources, including personal experiences and
learning in other subject areas, that they can use to make connections and understand new texts
Prereading: Identifying the Purpose for Reading, Listening, and Viewing
C2.2 identify a variety of purposes for engaging with texts, select texts from diverse creators that are
suitable for the purposes, and explain why the selections are appropriate
Monitoring of Understanding: Making and Confirming Predictions
C2.3 make predictions using background knowledge and textual information, pose questions to confirm
or refute their predictions, and revise or refine their understanding as indicated
Monitoring of Understanding: Ongoing Comprehension Check
C2.4 select suitable strategies, such as rereading, using the glossary, asking questions, and consulting
references and other resources, to monitor and confirm their understanding of complex texts and solve
comprehension problems
Monitoring of Understanding: Making Connections
C2.5 connect, compare, and contrast the ideas expressed in texts and their knowledges and lived
experiences, the ideas in other texts, and the world around them
Summarizing: Identifying Relevant information and Drawing Conclusions
C2.6 summarize and synthesize the important ideas and supporting details in complex texts, and draw
effective conclusions
Reflecting on Learning
C2.7 explain and compare how various strategies, such as visualizing, making predictions, summarizing,
and connecting to their experiences, have helped them comprehend various texts, and set goals for
future improvement

45
C3. Critical Thinking in Literacy
apply critical thinking skills to deepen understanding of texts, and analyze how various perspectives and
topics are communicated and addressed in a variety of texts, including digital, media, and cultural texts

Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:
Literary Devices
C3.1 analyze literary devices, including allusion, analogy, juxtaposition, and flashback, in a variety of
texts, and explain how they help create meaning and are appropriate for the intended purpose and
audience
Making Inferences
C3.2 make local and global inferences, using explicit and implicit evidence, to explain and support their
interpretations about various complex texts
Analyzing Texts
C3.3 analyze complex texts, including literary and informational texts, by assessing the credibility,
reliability, and significance of information and formulating conclusions
Analyzing Cultural Elements of Texts
C3.4 analyze cultural elements that are represented in various texts, including, norms, values, social
hierarchy, past times, language, and taboos, by investigating the meanings of these elements, making
connections to their lived experience and culture, and considering how the inclusion of these elements
contributes to the meaning of the text
Perspectives within Texts
C3.5 analyze explicit and implicit perspectives communicated in various texts, evaluate any evidence
that could show bias in these perspectives, and suggest ways to avoid any such bias
Analysis and Response
C3.6 explain how various topics, such as diversity, inclusion, and accessibility, are addressed in texts,
respond to the insights and messages conveyed, and different positions presented
Indigenous Contexts
C3.7 compare the ways in which historical periods, cultural experiences, and/or socio-political
conditions and events have influenced two or more texts created by First Nations, Métis, and Inuit
individuals, communities, groups, or nations, and how they relate to current lived experiences
Reflecting on Learning
C3.8 assess the effectiveness of the critical thinking skills they used when analyzing and evaluating
various texts, and set goals to improve their use

46
D. Composition: Expressing Ideas and Creating Texts
Overall expectations
By the end of this course, students will:

D1. Developing Ideas and Organizing Content

plan, develop ideas, gather information, and organize content for creating texts of various forms,
including digital and media texts, on a variety of topics

Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:
Purpose and Audience
D1.1 identify the topic, purpose, and audience for various texts they plan to create; choose a text form,
genre, and medium to suit the purpose and audience, and justify their choices
Developing Ideas
D1.2 generate and develop ideas and details about complex topics, such as topics related to diversity,
equity, and inclusion and to other subject areas, using a variety of strategies, and drawing on various
resources, including their own lived experiences
Research
D1.3 gather and synthesize information and content relevant to a topic, using a variety of textual
sources and appropriate strategies; evaluate the currency, quality, bias, and accuracy of information;
verify the reliability of sources; and check copyright and cite the sources for all content created by
others
Organizing Content
D1.4 classify and sequence ideas and collected information, selecting effective strategies and tools, and
identify and organize relevant content, evaluating the choices of text form, genre, and medium, and
considering alternatives
Reflecting on Learning
D1.5 evaluate the strategies and tools used to develop ideas and organize content for texts of the
chosen forms, genres, and media, explain which were most helpful, and suggest steps for future
improvement as a text creator

D2. Creating Texts

apply knowledge and understanding of various text forms and genres to create, revise, edit, and
proofread their own texts, using a variety of media, tools, and strategies, and reflect critically on created
texts

Specific expectations

47
By the end of this course, students will:
Producing Drafts
D2.1 draft complex texts of various forms and genres, including narrative, persuasive, expository, and
informational texts, citing sources, and use a variety of appropriate media, tools, and strategies to
transform information and communicate ideas
Printing, Handwriting, and Word Processing
D2.2 write fluently, with a personal style, touch type quickly and accurately, and select and use
appropriate word-processing programs and tools to produce texts of various lengths and complexity
Voice
D2.3 establish an identifiable voice in their texts, modifying language, style, and tone to suit the text’s
form, genre, audience, and purpose, and express their thoughts, feelings, and opinions about the topic
clearly
Point of View and Perspective
D2.4 explain the explicit and implicit points of view, perspectives, and bias conveyed in their texts,
evaluate how various audiences might respond, and suggest ways to acknowledge other perspectives
Revision
D2.5 make revisions to the content, elements of style, patterns, and features of draft texts, and add,
delete, revise, and reorganize sentences to improve clarity, focus, and coherence, using various
strategies and seeking and selectively using feedback
Editing and Proofreading
D2.6 edit draft texts to improve accuracy and style, checking for errors in spelling, punctuation,
grammar, and format; edit digital texts using word-processing software, including spell- and grammar-
checkers

D3. Publishing, Presenting, and Reflecting

select suitable and effective media, techniques, and tools to publish and present final texts, and critically
analyze how well the texts address various topics

Specific expectations
By the end of this course, students will:
Producing Final Texts
D3.1 produce final texts using appropriate techniques and tools, including digital design and production
tools, to achieve the intended effect
Publishing and Presenting Texts
D3.2 publish and present texts they have created, using various media and tools, and evaluate how their
choices helped them communicate their intended message

48
Reflecting on Learning
D3.3 evaluate the strategies and tools they found helpful when publishing and presenting texts, reflect
on what they learned at each stage of the creative process, analyze how their texts address various
topics, and suggest steps for future improvement as a text creator

49
Language Conventions Continuum for Reading Ontario Language Curriculum,
Grades 1 to 8, and Ontario English
and Writing, Grades 1–9, Overall Expectation B3 Curriculum, Grade 9, 2023

The chart that follows shows the language conventions associated with syntax and These language conventions need to be introduced and developed within the contexts of
sentence structure, grammar, and capitalization and punctuation that students are writing, reading, and oral communication, rather than in isolation, so that students can learn
expected to learn and apply through oral communication, reading, and writing. The to use them to communicate and comprehend in meaningful ways. Emphasis should be
chart indicates a continuum of learning – that is, initial development, consolidation, and placed on the function and role of a structure within a sentence, instead of simply its name.
refinement – stretching from Grade 1 to Grade 9. This continuum of learning refers to Although learning is embedded in context, instruction should still follow a thoughtful,
the approximate windows of time when students are initially developing, consolidating, purposeful sequence, systematically teaching conventions from simple to complex.
and refining the use of these conventions in their own writing. While the chart indicates Instruction should focus on supporting students in understanding the function of these
the windows when students are using the given structures in their writing, they will likely conventions in well-crafted sentences, and in using them to build correct, sophisticated
be adeptly using and understanding these conventions in oral language much earlier. sentences that effectively communicate meaning.

Legend

Initial Development (I) • Initial Development of Learning: Introduce the use of the concept in writing in a contextualized way according to students’ needs
• Students build on their oral grammatical knowledge during writing and reading activities

Consolidation (C) • Consolidation of Learning: Consolidate the concept in writing within planned learning in a contextualized way according to students’ needs
• Students identify, formulate, verify, and apply their grammatical knowledge during writing and reading activities

Refinement (R) • Refinement of Learning: Refine students’ understanding by providing opportunities for them to apply the concept to new contextualized learning
• Students refine their grammatical knowledge and apply it with proficiency during writing and reading activities

50 |
 B3.1 Syntax and Sentence Structure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

simple sentences: declarative (e.g., The dog barks loudly all day.) I C C R

simple sentences: imperative (e.g., Please turn on the water.) I C C R

simple sentences: interrogative (e.g., Where is the library book on structures?) I C C R

simple sentences: exclamatory (e.g., I am excited and happy to see my friend!) I C C R

compound sentences (e.g., Sherice sings in a band and sometimes she plays drums.) I C C C C C C C R

complex sentences (e.g., It is freezing outside because it is winter.) I C C C C C C

complex sentences with adverbial clauses (e.g., While Aamer is a big fan of soccer, he prefers cricket.) I C C C C C C

independent clauses (e.g., Swati reads articles, and Hong enjoys novels.) I C C C C R

dependent clauses (e.g., After Nagamo wrote her first novel last year, she decided to write a second novel.) I C C C C R

compound-complex sentences (e.g., Since Mykola is allergic to wheat, he could not have the rolls he made, but he
I C C C C
could have the soup.)

sentence fragments and run-on sentences I C C C R

complex sentences with adjective or relative clauses (e.g., The crowd, who looked happy, danced across the street.) I C C C

complex sentences with prepositional clauses (e.g., While we were playing football, the ball thrown by my friend
I C R
went into the lake.)

B3.2 Grammar (continued) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

common nouns (e.g., firefighter, drum, park) I C R

singular nouns (e.g., teacher, eraser, notebook) I C R

plural nouns (e.g., students, desks, berries) I C R

the pronoun “I” I C R

verb tense: past (e.g., Hiro walked home from school.) I C C C C C R

verb tense: present (e.g., Maham draws hearts on all her homework.) I C C C C C R

verb tense: future (e.g., Chi will write the email after lunch.) I C C C C C R

common adjectives (e.g., bumpy, brown, delicious, brilliant) I C C R

51 | Language Conventions Continuum for Reading and Writing, Grades 1–9, Overall Expectation B3
 B3.2 Grammar (continued) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

common conjunctions (e.g., when, so what, whether, unless) I C C C C C C C R

abstract nouns (e.g., peace, joy, imagination, reconciliation) I C C R

collective nouns (e.g., fleet, bunch, cluster, batch) I C C R

personal pronouns: subject (e.g., you, he, she, it, they, we) I C C C R

personal pronouns: object (e.g., you, her, him, it, them, us) I C C C R

personal pronouns: possessive (e.g., my, mine; your, yours; their, theirs; our, ours) I C C C R

forms of the verb “to be” (e.g., am, are, be, was, being) I C C C C C C R

comparative adjectives (e.g., She is younger than her brother.) I C C C R

superlative adjectives (e.g., They use the smallest bag to carry their groceries.) I C C C R

coordinating conjunctions (e.g., Karim can be a plumber, or he can be a welder.) I C C C C C C R

subordinating conjunctions (e.g., You need to walk slowly because you may fall on the ice.) I C C C C C C R

recognition of the words that adverbs modify (e.g., The principal spoke calmly during the meeting.) I C C C C C R

possessive nouns (e.g., women’s, man’s, students’) I C C R

linking verbs (e.g., to be, to become, to seem) I C C C C C R

progressive tense (e.g., He was writing an email when the phone rang.) I C R

interrogative adjectives (e.g., what, which, whose) I C C R

prepositions (e.g., in, at, on, in front of, next to) I C C C C R

interjections (e.g., wow, hey, ouch) I C C R

relative pronouns (e.g., The woman who called earlier did not leave a message.) I C C C C C

perfect tense (e.g., You have shopped in that store.) I C C C C R

interrogative verbs (e.g., Did you break my favourite toy?) I C C C C C

imperative verbs (e.g., Place your order in the next five minutes.) I C C C C C

pronouns as adjectives (e.g., Neither came at the time of the meeting.) I C R

52 | Language Conventions Continuum for Reading and Writing, Grades 1–9, Overall Expectation B3
 B3.2 Grammar (continued) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

direct objects for nouns (e.g., They promised the children new bicycles.) I C C C C

intensive pronouns (e.g., He himself was responsible for his success in sports.) I C C C C

reflexive pronouns (e.g., She bought herself a mango.) I C C C C

proper adjectives (e.g., There are ten Canadian provinces and three territories.) I C C R

correlative conjunctions (e.g., Either we walk to school or we ride our bicycles.) I C C C R

gerunds as nouns (e.g., Running is my favourite summer activity.) I C C C

distinguish and convert between active voice for verbs (e.g., The cat chases the mouse.) and passive voice for verbs
I C C C
(e.g., My first day of school is one that will always be remembered.)

prepositional phrases (e.g., Look to your right and you will see the garage.) I C C C

indirect objects (e.g., They gave me a pencil.) I C C

predicate nouns (e.g., My favourite hobby is camping.) I C C

predicate adjectives (e.g., That music sounds wonderful.) I C C

participles (e.g., The boys sitting on the bench were talking.) I C C

adverbial phrases (e.g., The person was cheering very loudly.) I C C

B3.3 Capitalization and Punctuation (continued) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

capital letters at the beginning of sentences (e.g., We walked to the park this morning.) I C R

appropriate punctuation marks at the end of sentences (e.g., The weather is cloudy.) I C R

capital letters for proper nouns (e.g., My family travelled from Brantford to Toronto by train.) I C R

commas to separate items in lists (e.g., I like to skate, sled, and snowshoe in the winter.) I C R

apostrophes for possessives (e.g., Ira’s sister was late to meet him for lunch.) I C C R

quotation marks for direct speech (e.g., Maia said, “I am busy now.”) I C C C R

capital letters in dialogue (e.g., The woman exclaimed, “We are so happy that you enjoyed your day.”) I C C C C C R

capitals for words in titles (e.g., The book was called The Journey across Canada.) I C C R

53 | Language Conventions Continuum for Reading and Writing, Grades 1–9, Overall Expectation B3
 B3.3 Capitalization and Punctuation (continued) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

commas and quotation marks to mark direct speech and direct quotations from texts (e.g., “Free bus passes for all
I C C C C R
students,” said Mr. Bond.)

apostrophes for contractions (e.g., It’s a nice day outside.) I C C R

capital letters for proper adjectives (e.g., They like to eat Indian, Korean, and Japanese food.) I C C C C R

commas to set off nouns of direct address (e.g., Dad, where is my baseball bat?) I C C C R

quotation marks to indicate the title of a short work (e.g., “The Peaceful Day” is a short story.) I C C R

commas to set off advanced phrases or clauses, such as appositives and participles (e.g., The store owner, who
I C C C C
sells fruit and vegetables, has one child.)

colons for introducing a list after a complete sentence (e.g., There were many colours in the painting: red, purple,
I C C R
and green.)

colons in formal letters and memo salutations (e.g., To whom it may concern:) I C C R

colons to indicate new speakers in script dialogue (e.g., Narrator: The curtain opens to a large sunny window.) I C C R

commas after transitional words or phrases (e.g., Lastly, you place the taco on the plate.) I C C R

colons to introduce a quotation after a complete sentence (e.g., This phrase recurs throughout the film:
I C R
“Pass the rice.”)

semicolons to separate two independent clauses (e.g., I went to the market; I forgot to buy corn soup.) I C C

commas to set off conjunctive adverbs (e.g., Your dog got into the neighbour’s yard; in addition, he dug up
I C C
the flowers.)

ellipses or dashes to indicate an admission, a pause, or a break (e.g., Yesterday he enrolled...in art instead of music.) I C C

© King’s Printer for Ontario, 2023

54 | Language Conventions Continuum for Reading and Writing, Grades 1–9, Overall Expectation B3
Glossary
The definitions provided in this glossary are specific to the curriculum context in which the terms are
used.

academic vocabulary
Words used in academic dialogue and texts. Academic vocabulary is less common in general
conversation. Examples include: approach, concept, and distribution. Also called Tier 2 words.
(Compare domain-specific words.) See also tiers of vocabulary.

affix
A morpheme attached to the beginning or end of a base to modify its meaning. Affixes are bound
morphemes; they cannot stand alone. Prefixes and suffixes are both affixes. See also prefix, suffix.

allegory
A story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning. Each character or event
may be a symbol representing an idea or quality.

alliteration
The deliberate repetition of sounds or syllables, especially initial consonants, for stylistic effect. For
example, “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers” and “the snake slithers slowly”.

allusion
A brief reference, explicit or implicit, to a place, person, event, or to a part of another text.

alphabetic knowledge
Knowledge of the letters of the alphabet by name and an understanding of alphabetic order.<br>

analogy
A literary device that involves a comparison of two otherwise unlike things, for the purpose of
explanation or clarification.

anthropomorphism
The attribution of human characteristics or behaviour to what is not human, such as an animal or object.

antonym
A word opposite in meaning to another word (e.g., hot/cold).

55
assonance
The deliberate repetition of similar vowel sounds for stylistic effect (e.g., feel/clean).

automaticity
The ability to use skills or perform procedures accurately with little or no mental effort. Automaticity in
reading and spelling refers to the ability to decode and spell words quickly and accurately without
having to stop and think about each letter or sound in the word. In general, automaticity develops with
practice.

base
A structural element that forms the foundation of a written word; any unit of a word to which affixes
can be added. (e.g., act is the base of acted, action, activity, activate, react). Types of bases include:

• bound base. A base that requires an affix to form a word (e.g., -ject in inject and project).
• free base. A base that forms a word on its own (e.g., eat, date, weak).

bias
An opinion, preference, prejudice, or inclination that limits an individual’s or group’s ability to make fair,
objective, or accurate judgements. Bias may occur in any text. Explicit bias refers to attitudes and
opinions that are consciously held and conveyed in texts. Implicit bias refers to unconscious attitudes or
stereotypes conveyed in texts that may influence an audience’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviour.

blending
An aspect of phonemic awareness that involves the ability to combine individual phonemes (sounds) to
form words. (Compare segmenting.)

bound base
See base.

capitalization
The use of a capital letter to begin a sentence; to indicate a proper noun, a personal title, an acronym, or
an initialism; and to set off important words in titles and headings.

clause
A group of words containing a subject and a verb that are related to one another. All sentences must
contain at least one clause.

• independent clause. A clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own as a
simple sentence.

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 • dependent clause. A clause that does not express a complete thought and cannot stand on its
own as a sentence. Also called a subordinate clause.

coherence
The underlying logical connectedness of the parts of an oral, written, visual, or multimodal text. A
paragraph is coherent if all of its sentences are connected logically so that they are easy to follow. An
essay is coherent if its paragraphs are logically connected.

cohesive ties
Words or phrases, including anaphors, synonyms, conjunctions, and pronouns, used to integrate
information within and across sentences and to link and connect ideas in a text. Also called cohesive
devices.

compound word
A word made from two or more words (e.g., sunshine, snowball, football).

comprehension
The ability to understand and draw meaning from texts.

comprehension strategies
A variety of strategies that students use before, during, and after listening, reading, and viewing to
construct meaning from texts, including: activating and using background and prior knowledge; making
predictions; monitoring comprehension (e.g., visualizing; generating and asking questions; making
connections); summarizing; and reflecting on their learning.

consonance
The deliberate repetition of similar consonant sounds for stylistic effect (e.g., stroke/luck).

consonant
A speech sound (e.g., /p/, /g/, /n/) made by completely or partly stopping the flow of air through the
breath channel. See also vowel.

continuous sound
A sound that can be stretched out or elongated. Examples include /f/, /m/, and /s/. All vowels make
continuous sounds. (Compare stop sound.)

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conventions
Accepted practices or rules in the use of language, and of features in a text form or genre. Some
conventions help convey meaning (e.g., punctuation and grammar in written texts); some describe
accepted practices in a genre (e.g., the main characters in children’s books should be children or
animals; locations in horror films should be dark and secluded) and some describe rules for the
presentation of content (e.g., sizes of margins and indents in an academic essay). Oral, written, visual,
and multimodal texts each have their own conventions that influence the way we interpret their
meanings. See also genres, text features, text form.

critical analysis
The process of examining the ideas, arguments, and evidence presented in a text, assessing their
credibility or reliability, considering different perspectives, and drawing conclusions.

critical thinking
The process of thinking about ideas or situations in order to understand them fully, identify their
implications, make a judgement, and/or guide decision making. Critical thinking includes skills such as
questioning, predicting, analyzing, synthesizing, examining opinions, identifying values and issues,
detecting bias, and distinguishing between alternatives.

cultural elements
See elements of text.

cultural text
This text form includes sign systems, storytelling tools, and symbols that contribute to and shape a
society’s culture. Cultural texts have underlying cultural, historical, and/or social meanings. They either
require certain cultural knowledge to be understood, are produced through a certain cultural context or,
as most texts do, become representative of a culture’s beliefs and values. For example, an Indigenous-
specific cultural text form, which may include elements of material culture, expresses and
communicates beliefs and values in a First Nations, Métis, or Inuit culture and embodies cultural and
social perspectives and meanings, in relation to their use in contemporary and historical contexts (e.g.,
clothing, regalia, oral teachings, stories, songs, music, dances, carvings, cultural practices, and
languages). Some cultural text forms are protected, according to a culture’s traditions. It is therefore
critical for individuals to understand that it may be necessary for them to engage with and seek
direction from the specific communities from which a cultural text form originates before using it.
Understanding the conventions and symbols used within a specific cultural context is necessary to
interpret cultural text forms effectively.

culturally responsive and relevant text

A text that engages readers’ interests as it considers or connects the identities, backgrounds, lived
experiences, perspectives, and knowledges of the reader.

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cursive writing
A style of handwriting where the letters are rounded and joined together in a flowing manner, generally
for the purpose of making writing faster.

decodable text
Text that contains words reflecting grapheme-phoneme correspondences and morphological patterns
that have been explicitly and systematically taught to early readers. Decodable texts are used in early
reading instruction to practice phonics skills. See also grapheme-phoneme correspondence,
morphology, phonics.

decoding
The process of applying phonemic awareness and knowledge of grapheme-phoneme correspondence,
including knowledge of letter–sound patterns, to sound out words. (Compare encoding). See
also grapheme-phoneme correspondence, phonemic awareness.

derivational affix
An affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. Adding a derivational affix to a
base is one of the most common ways of deriving a new word in English. Most affixes are Greek, Latin,
or Anglo-Saxon in origin.

derivational family
A word family made up of all the words derived from the same base.

dialogue
A conversation between two or more characters in a story, or by two actors in a play or film.

digital media literacy

The skills, strategies, mindsets, dispositions, and social practices that enable people to creatively and
critically participate in digitally networked contexts. Digital media literacy includes the ability to combine
the multimodal properties of media literacy with the technological capabilities of digital literacy.

digital text
A text created, stored, and transmitted in a digital form (e.g., web page, social media post, email,
computer graphic).

digraph
A combination of two letters representing one sound (e.g., consonant digraphs: ph, sh, ch, etc., and
vowel digraphs: ar, ea, ir, er, oa, ue, etc.)

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diphthong
A sound formed by the combination of two vowels in one syllable. Diphthongs are sometimes called
gliding vowels because the sound is made by moving from one vowel to the next.

disinformation
False information that is deliberately spread. Disinformation is a subcategory of misinformation.
(Compare misinformation.)

domain-specific context
The particular field or area of knowledge that is relevant to a given communication. Communication
within a domain may involve specialized knowledge, styles, conventions, and terminology.

domain-specific words
Terms that are specific to a field of study and are not typically encountered in everyday reading. Also
called Tier 3 words. See also academic vocabulary, tiers of vocabulary.

editing
The making of changes to the content, structure, and wording of drafts to improve the organization of
ideas, eliminate awkward phrasing, correct grammatical and spelling errors, and generally ensure that
the writing is clear, coherent, and correct. (Compare proofreading.) See also writing process.

elements of style
Elements and devices used by creators of texts to help create meaning and aesthetically pleasing and
distinctive texts. For example, elements of literary style include word choice, sentence structure, and
syntax; figurative language; literary devices, rhetorical devices (e.g., repetition, emphasis, dramatic
pause); and techniques to add rhythm and sound (e.g., alliteration, onomatopoeia). Elements of visual
style include use of colour, line, shape, texture, pattern, and space to achieve harmony, balance, and
focus. Elements of style in film include lighting and shooting style. Also called stylistic elements. See
also alliteration, figurative language, literary device, onomatopoeia, syntax, word choice.

elements of text
The characteristic aspects of a particular text form or genre (e.g., the compositional elements of fiction
include plot, characters, point of view, setting, style, and theme; audio elements of a film include
speech, music, sounds, sound effects, and volume; the elements of an image include colour,
composition, line, shape, contrast, repetition, style; cultural elements of texts include the use of cultural
symbols, imagery, and motifs, the representation of cultural values, beliefs, and practices, and the
historical and social context in which the text was created). See also genres, point of view, style, text
form, theme.

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encoding
The process of applying knowledge of grapheme-phoneme correspondences (also called letter-sounds
patterns) to spell words. (Compare decoding.)

expressive communication
The process of expressing a message using verbal and/or non-verbal communication. Expressive
communication includes writing, speaking, and representing. (Compare receptive communication.) See
also representing.

figurative language
Words or phrases used in a non-literal way to create a desired effect (e.g., metaphors, similes,
personification). See also imagery, literary device.

flashback
A device used in film and literature that takes the audience from the present moment in a chronological
narrative to a scene in the past.

FLSZ rule
Spelling rule in which one-syllable words ending with the sound /f/, /l/, /s/, or /z/ double the last letter.
For example, puff, spell, hiss, and fizz follow the FLSZ rule. Also called the floss rule.

fluency
The ability to identify words accurately and to read text quickly with ease, pace, automaticity, and
expression. As they develop fluency, students read expressively, with proper phrasing and punctuation,
and gain more meaning from the text.

foreshadowing
A literary device in which a creator provides an indication of future events in the plot.

free base
See base.

genres
The types or categories into which texts are grouped. For example, literary genres include: novel, short
story, essay, poetry, and drama. See also conventions.

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grapheme
A letter or a cluster of letters that represent a phoneme in a word. For example, single letters often
represent a phoneme (e.g., c, g, t, p) but digraphs (e.g., sh, ch) are common and three or four letters can
also represent a single phoneme occasionally (e.g., <igh> in light or <eigh> in eight). See also phoneme.

grapheme-phoneme correspondence
The association between a grapheme and its corresponding phoneme. For example, when a student
sees the letter d and articulates the sound /d/ (as in dog). Grapheme-phoneme correspondence is also
called letter-sound correspondence. See also grapheme, phoneme.

graphic text
See visual text.

hyperbole
A literary device in which exaggeration is used deliberately for effect or emphasis (e.g., a flood of tears,
piles of money).

idiom
A group of words that, through usage, has taken on a special meaning different from the literal meaning
(e.g., Better late than never! or Piece of cake.)

imagery
Descriptions and figures of speech (e.g., metaphors, similes) used by writers to create vivid mental
pictures in the mind of the reader. See also figurative language, literary device.

Indigenous Storywork
A framework, described by Stó:lo scholar Jo-ann Archibald, for understanding the characteristics of
Indigenous oral narratives and the process of storytelling. Indigenous Storywork establishes a receptive
listening context for holistic meaning-making, bringing storytelling into educational contexts and
demonstrating how stories have the power to heal the heart, mind, body, and spirit. Indigenous
Storywork is built on the seven principles of respect, responsibility, reciprocity, reverence, holism,
interrelatedness, and synergy.

inference
A conclusion or opinion reached using reasoning and evidence from a text, based on what the creator
states and implies in the text and what the reader brings to the text from their prior knowledge and
experience.

• local inference. An inference formed based on an understanding of implied information at the

local level of sentences and paragraphs.

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 • global inference. An inference based on an understanding of implied information in the whole
text (e.g., about the theme of the text). A global inference usually requires the application of the
reader’s previous knowledge.

informational text
See text form.

intonation
The stress and pitch of spoken language. Intonation is used to communicate information additional to
the meaning conveyed by words alone (e.g., a rising intonation at the end of a sentence indicates a
question). (Compare tone.)

irony
A technique using contrast or contradiction for the purposes of humour or emphasis; for example, a
statement that has an underlying meaning different from its literal or surface meaning.

language conventions
See conventions.

letter-sound correspondence
See grapheme-phoneme correspondence.

literacy
The ability to understand and express thoughts or ideas in a given language. Traditional literacy refers to
the ability to read and write. See also digital media literacy.

literary device
A particular pattern of words (e.g., rhyme, parallel structure), figure of speech (e.g., hyperbole, irony,
metaphor, personification), or technique (e.g., comparison and contrast, foreshadowing, juxtaposition,
analogy) used in literature to produce a specific effect. Also called a stylistic device. See also figurative
language, imagery.

literary text
See text form.

media
The plural of medium. See medium.

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media text
Any work, object, or event that communicates meaning to an audience. Most media texts use words,
graphics, sounds, and/or images, in print, oral, visual, or digital form, to communicate information and
ideas to their audience. Examples include: advertisement, database, vlog, film, newspaper, magazine,
brochure, interview, clothing, song, dance. See also multimodal text.

medium
The channel or system through which a text is conveyed, determined by the text’s mode(s), purpose,
and audience, and including print, audio, visual, audio-visual, and digital means. For example, the
medium for a written text might be a handwritten letter or book; the medium for an oral text might be a
podcast or video clip. The plural is media. Media for reaching mass audiences include print, radio,
television, artifacts, and the internet. See also mode of communication.

metalinguistic awareness
An individual’s ability to reflect on and evaluate the structure of language objectively. Metalinguistic
awareness refers to awareness in the area of phonology, syntax, and pragmatics. It allows individuals to
monitor and control their language use, and is a strong predicator of reading development for all
children. Multilingual children may experience accelerated development of metalinguistic awareness.

metaphor
A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to something to which it is imaginatively but not
literally applicable (e.g., heart of gold, night owl).

misinformation
Any kind of inaccurate or misleading information. Misinformation can be spread unintentionally by
those who believe it to be correct. (Compare disinformation.)

mode of communication
An element in meaning making that describes the means by which communications are designed and
perceived. The six modes of communication are linguistic (reading, writing, speaking, and listening),
visual (representing and viewing), aural (sounds and music), gestural (e.g., using body language, facial
expressions, gestures), spatial (e.g., using scale, proximity, direction), and multimodal. See
also multimodality.

morpheme
The smallest unit of meaning within words. A morpheme can be either a prefix, a suffix, or a base.
Words are made up of one or more morphemes.

morphological knowledge
The understanding of how morphemes can be used to form words.

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morphology
The study of word structures and the patterns (e.g., prefixes, roots, and suffixes) of how words are
formed, and how words are related to each other in the same language.

multimodal text
A text that uses more than one mode to communicate meaning (e.g., children’s picture book; graphic
novel; film; video; website; speech with visual aids). Most media texts are multimodal. See also mode of
communication, text.

multimodality
The use of a combination of multiple sensory and communicative modes, such as auditory, visual, audio,
gestural, tactile, and spatial. See also mode of communication.

narrator
A character who recounts the events of a novel, narrative poem, play, or film, or a person who delivers a
commentary accompanying a text. For example, an omniscient narrator of a story knows what all the
characters are thinking and is the all-knowing voice in the story. See also point of view.

non-verbal communication
Aspects of communication that convey meaning without the use of words or voice (e.g., facial
expressions, gestures, body language, eye movement, silence, proximity, touch), and by using objects
and pictures in place of words and speech. Gestures and other types of non-verbal communication may
have diverse cultural connotations.

onomatopoeia
The use of a word having a sound that suggests its meaning (e.g., splash, murmur, buzz, twitter). See
also literary devices.

oral communication
The exchange of information and ideas through speech or the spoken word. It can be face-to-face or by
way of a communication device such as a telephone or video conferencing application. Aspects of
spoken language include word choice, pronunciation, and fluency, as well as tone, pitch, and pace. Non-
verbal communication (e.g., body language) can emphasize spoken words. See also fluency, non-verbal
communication.

oral text
A text that is transmitted orally (e.g., greeting, conversation, question, statement, exclamation,
instructions, directions, poem, rhyme, song, rap, story, anecdote, announcement, news broadcast,
interview, oral presentation, speech, recitation, debate, report, role play, drama). Oral texts often
include prosodic and non-verbal elements to help clarify their meaning.

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orthographic knowledge
Knowledge of how letters represent sounds in spoken language. Orthographic knowledge includes
knowledge of the English spelling system and its patterns, including grapheme positions and
combinations in a word. See also position-based tendencies.

orthography
The spelling system of a language.

parts of speech
Categories of words sorted by their grammatical and semantic functions within sentences. English
contains the following common parts of speech:

• noun. A word that refers to people, places, things, and ideas.

• pronoun. A word that replaces a noun.
• verb. A word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being.
• adjective. A word that describes a noun or pronoun.
• adverb. A word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
• preposition. A word that connects nouns, pronouns, and phrases.
• conjunction. A word or phrase that connects other words, phrases, or sentences, clauses.
• interjection. A word or phrase that expresses emotion. It has no grammatical connection with
the sentence in which it is used.
• article. A type of adjective used before a noun to indicate whether the identity of the noun is
known (definite article) or unknown (indefinite article).

personification
A figure of speech in which a thing or abstraction is represented as a person or by a figure in human
form (e.g., The sun smiled down on us. Or The stairs groaned as we walked on them.) See also figurative
language, elements of style.

perspective

A particular attitude towards or way of regarding something.

• explicit perspective. A perspective in a text is expressed clearly, directly, and unambiguously.

• implicit perspective. A perspective in a text that is present or implied but expressed indirectly; it
may be an attitude or view held subconsciously by the creator.

See also bias.

persuasive text
See text form.

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phoneme
The smallest unit of sound in spoken words.

phonemic awareness
A subcomponent of phonological awareness. Phonemic awareness refers to the ability to identify and
manipulate the smallest unit of sound in spoken words, called a phoneme. See also blending, phoneme,
phonological awareness, segmenting.

phonics
The systematic and structured teaching of grapheme-phoneme correspondences and how to use these
to decode/read and encode/spell words. See also decoding.

phonological awareness
The ability to reflect on the sound structure of spoken language, including the ability to identify and
produce words that share the same rhyme, hear individual syllables within a word, and break a syllable
into its onset and rime. See also phonemic awareness, syllable.

point of view
The perspective of the narrator in relation to the story; the vantage point from which events are seen
(e.g., first, second, or third person; omniscient, limited, or unreliable). See also narrator.

position-based tendencies
Tendencies or rules related to position-based spellings and accurate pronunciation. To spell and
pronounce words, students need to understand the concept of position-based grapheme-phoneme
correspondences; for example, when the letter i is placed before the letter e in the middle of a word, it
is pronounced as /ee/: niece, piece. See also orthographic knowledge.

prefix
A morpheme that precedes a base to form a different word (e.g., trans- before form or act). See
also affix, suffix.

proofreading
The careful reading of a final draft of written work to eliminate typographical errors and to correct
errors in grammar, usage, spelling, and punctuation. See also editing, writing process.

prosody
Reading aloud or speaking expression, which is determined by phrasing, pause structures, stress,
intonation, and general expressiveness.

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punctuation
The use of symbols (e.g., periods, commas, semicolons) to distinguish elements within a sentence or to
separate sentences. Punctuation marks create and clarify meaning in a written text and help the reader
understand how text sounds when it is read aloud. See also parts of speech, sentence types.

r-controlled vowel
A vowel that is immediately followed by the letter r. The r controls, or colours, the pronunciation of the
vowel, changing it to a sound that is distinct from short or long vowels. For example, the vowel in spot is
a short /o/, but the vowel in sport is the r-controlled /ô/.

receptive communication
The process of receiving and understanding a message conveyed using verbal and/or non-verbal
communication. Receptive communication includes reading, listening, and viewing.
(Compare expressive communication.) See also viewing.

representing
The process of communicating visually in various formats (e.g., a chart, diagram, photograph, video).
Representing involves students understanding the purposes and audiences for visual texts and applying
suitable techniques and conventions as well as a critical understanding of their choices.
(Compare viewing.) See also expressive communication.

revising
The process of making major changes to the content, structure, wording, and elements of style of a draft
text to improve the organization of ideas, eliminate awkwardness of expression, correct errors, and
generally ensure that the text’s meaning is clear, coherent, and correct. See also editing, proofreading,
writing process.

rhyme
Words rhyme when they have the same or similar ending sounds; for example, rain rhymes with pain,
stain.

satire
The use of irony, sarcasm, or other forms of humour to expose or criticize human folly or vice.

schwa
A vowel that is unstressed, toneless, and neutral, occurring in unstressed syllables (e.g., a in about or o
in synonym). Schwa sounds are the most common vowel sounds in the English language. They are often
transcribed using an upside down e symbol (Ə).

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segmenting
An aspect of phonemic awareness that involves separating a word into individual sounds (phonemes).
(Compare blending.)

semantic features
Meaning-based properties that capture the similarity of meaning among sets of related words. For
example, young, female, and human are semantic features of the word girl. See also word schema.

sentence forms
English has four main sentence forms:

• simple. A sentence consisting of one independent clause.

• compound. A sentence made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a semicolon or
coordinating conjunction, usually preceded by a comma.
• complex. A sentence made up of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
• compound-complex. A sentence made up of two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

sentence types

English has four main sentence types:

• declarative. A sentence that makes a statement.

• imperative. A sentence that makes a request or gives a command or instruction.
• interrogative. A sentence that asks a question.
• exclamatory. A sentence that expresses strong emotion or feelings and ends in an exclamation
mark.

See also punctuation.

set for variability

A reader’s ability to adjust for close approximations of pronunciation when reading words, such as by
flexing vowel sounds or by adjusting syllable stress and schwa. See also schwa.

simile
A figure of speech in which two unlike things are compared using the words like or as (e.g., runs like a
cheetah and busy as a bee.) See also figurative language.

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stop sound
A consonant sound that is formed by briefly blocking the air from leaving the vocal tract. A stop sound
cannot be stretched out or elongated. Examples include /b/ in cub, /t/ in bit, and /p/ in top.
(Compare continuous sound.)

style
A manner of writing, speaking, or representing. In a literary work, style usually refers to distinctive
characteristics of the word choice, figurative language, literary devices, language patterns, and sentence
structures of the work. In other forms, a creator’s distinctive style is the sum of all the stylistic elements
and devices they consistently use. See also elements of style, figurative language, literary device.

stylistic elements
See elements of style. See also literary device.

suffix
A morpheme that is added to the end of a base to create a different word. See also affix, prefix.

summarizing
Stating the main points or facts of a text.

syllable
The smallest segment of a word that includes one vowel sound, which may have an accompanying
consonant, for example, family has three syllables: fam-i-ly.

symbolism
The use of something concrete or visible to stand for or represent an abstract idea.

synonym
A word that has the same or almost the same meaning as another word (e.g., clean/pure).

syntax
The arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a sequence to form sentences. The order of words in
a sentence is part of what determines their grammatical function (e.g., subject, object). See also parts of
speech.

synthesizing
Linking, combining, and/or integrating ideas and information within and across texts into a coherent
whole.

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text
A means of communication that uses words, graphics, sounds, and/or images, in print, oral, visual, or
digital form, to present information and ideas to an audience. Texts can take multiple forms and include
multiple modes such as an artifact imbued with interwoven meaning(s). See also text form.

text conventions
See conventions.

text features
The technical or design aspects of a text that clarify and/or give support to the meaning in the text (e.g.,
in a written text: title, table of contents, headings, subheadings, lists, bold font, illustrations; in a digital
text: hyperlinks, drop-down menus, pop-ups, banners). See also conventions, elements of texts.

text form

A category or type of text that has certain defining characteristics. The concept of text forms provides a
way for readers, listeners, viewers, and creators to think about the purpose of a text and its intended
audience. Most texts are of multiple forms (e.g., a comic strip is a visual text that may also be narrative,
expository, literary). Text forms include but are not limited to:

• descriptive. A descriptive text provides an account or representation of a person, object, or

event, using descriptive or figurative language.
• expository. An expository text explains something, providing evidence, or uses a text pattern
such as comparison and contrast, or cause and effect. A narrative exposition provides factual
background information within a story. Also called an explanatory text.
• functional. A functional text is any text that is useful in daily life; it usually includes information
that helps the reader, listener, or viewer make decisions and complete tasks.
• informational. An informational text informs the reader, listener, or viewer about a specific
topic. This term is also used to describe any non-literary text.
• literary. A literary text is a text created to tell a story or to entertain. Its primary purpose is
usually aesthetic, but it may also contain political messages or beliefs.
• narrative. A narrative text tells a story or recounts a series of connected events. A personal
narrative is told from the first-person point of view.
• persuasive. A persuasive text attempts to convince or influence the reader, listener, or viewer
to do or believe something. An argument aims to persuade others that an action or idea is right
or wrong, using logic and providing evidence.
• procedural. A procedural text describes procedures or how to do something.
• report. A report gives an account of something observed, heard, done, or investigated.
• visual. A visual text is an image, or a text in which images may play a major role.

See also cultural text, digital text, media text, oral text, visual text.

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text patterns
Ways in which content in a text is organized to create a specific effect or convey meaning. Text patterns
in writing include time order or chronological order (events presented in time sequence); comparison
and contrast (an outline of similarities and differences); cause and effect (an outline of events or actions
linked to their consequences); generalization (general statements supported by examples);
combined/multiple orders (two or more organizational patterns used together: for example,
comparison/contrast and cause/effect).

theme
The main idea or implicit message that recurs in or pervades a text. (Compare topic.)

tiers of vocabulary

Vocabulary can be classified into three tiers according to frequency of use, complexity, and meaning.

• Tier 1 words. Words that frequently occur in spoken language and typically do not have multiple
meanings. These words often do not require direct instruction.
• Tier 2 words. Words that are found more often in written language than in oral language and
are useful across many different content areas. These words have high utility for students and
should be the focus of explicit vocabulary instruction.
• Tier 3 words. Words that are generally specific to a particular content area and have less broad
utility for students. See also domain-specific words.

tone
A manner of speaking, writing, or creating that reveals the creator’s attitude towards a subject and/or
audience. (Compare intonation.)

topic
The subject of a text. (Compare theme.)

viewing
The process of understanding and appreciating visual texts in various formats. Viewing involves
analyzing the techniques and conventions of visual texts, and becoming critical viewers of visual media.
(Compare representing.) See also receptive communication.

visual elements
The pictorial, graphic, and aesthetic elements of an image (e.g., colour, composition, line, shape,
contrast, repetition, style) or text (e.g., typography, illustration, graphic design).

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visual text
A picture, image, or graphic design (e.g., a drawing, painting, collage, or photograph; a chart or diagram;
a graphic design or layout; a film shot; a storyboard; the visual component of a graphic novel, comic
strip, cartoon, game, poster, billboard, advertisement, traffic sign). Images may include diverse cultural
connotations and symbols, and portray diverse people, cultures, and practices. Also called a graphic
text.

voice
The distinctive style or character of a text arising from how the creator uses various elements and
features of a text form or genre to create the mood of the work as a whole (e.g., in a written or spoken
text, word choice, sentence structure, imagery, rhythm, sound, tone; in a visual text, use of materials,
techniques, themes, and colour palette).

vowel
A speech sound made with the mouth fairly open and the tongue not touching the top of the mouth.
Examples include: /ē/ as in “me”, /u/ as in “to”. See also consonant.

word choice
The careful selection of words to communicate a message or establish a particular voice or writing style.
Word choice plays a key role in establishing correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. Also called diction.

word schema
Knowledge of the meaning of specific words and words in general that can be used to derive the
meaning of new words.

writing process
The process involved in producing a polished piece of writing. The writing process comprises several
stages, each of which focuses on specific tasks. The main stages are: planning for writing, drafting,
revising, editing, proofreading, and publishing. See also editing, proofreading.

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