NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

DIPLOMA

IN

HEAVY EQUIPMENT ENGINEERING

MODULE: 352-13-B

STEERING, SUSPENSION & UNDERCARRIAGE

FIRST EDITION
2021
 Copyright

This module or any part of it cannot be used or reproduced in any form

without the permission of Northern Technical College (NORTEC).
Northern Technical College
Automotive Department
P.O Box 250093
Kansenshi
Ndola
Zambia
Fax: +260-212- 680142
E-mail: principal@nortec.edu.zm
Website: www.nortec.edu.zm

CRONYMS
DOT Department of Transport
ECAS Electronically controlled air suspension
ECU Electronic Control Unit
HMU hand metering unit
KPI King-Pin Inclination
LIN Local Interconnect Network
MIG Metal inert gas
OEM Original engine manufacturer
RCU Remote control unit
SAI Steering Axis Inclination

Acknowledgements

The Northern Technical College Management wishes to thank those below

for their contribution to this module:
No NAME POSITION INSTITUTION
1 PATRICK MANDONA LECTURER - WRITER NORTEC

Contents
ACRONYMS..........................................................................................................................2
UNIT B13.1: IDENTIFYING TYPES OF HEAVY EQUIPMENT STEERING
SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................................7
1.1. Explaining functions of the steering systems...........................................8
1.2. Analysing characteristics of steering system............................................8
1.3. Types of steering systems..................................................................................8
1.4. Components of mechanical steering system.............................................11
1.5. Functions of components of steering system............................................12
1.6. Steering column....................................................................................................17
1.7. Four- wheel steering............................................................................................20
1.8. Steering geometry...............................................................................................22
1.9. Center point steering..........................................................................................29
1.10. Ackerman Layout...............................................................................................29
1.11. Ackerman layout................................................................................................30
1.12. Toe-out –on turns...............................................................................................31
1.13. Power assisted steering...................................................................................32
1.10 Operation of components of full power steering system.....................43
1.11 Clutch and brake steering system................................................................46
UNIT B13.2: DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING STEERING SYSTEMS...54
2.1. Safety on Various steering system components: -..................................54
2.2. Removing and refitting Hydraulic Steering components......................54
2.3. Disassembling steering system components............................................54
2.4. Inspecting steering components for damage............................................54
2.5. Assembling steering system components..................................................55
UNIT B13.3: SERVICING AND REPAIRING STEERING SYSTEM......................60
1.1. Safety procedures................................................................................................60
1.2. Steering system services...................................................................................60
UNIT B13.4: DIAGNOSING STEERING SYSTEM FAULTS............................61
1.1. Testing and adjusting steering system........................................................61
1.2. Power steering diagnosis...................................................................................61
UNIT B13.5: MAINTAINING SUSPENSION SYSTEM.........................................63
5.1. Operating principles of suspension components.....................................63
5.2. Testing suspension components....................................................................65
UNIT B13.6: IDENTIFYING TYPES OF MACHINE FRAMES AND
CHASSIS................................................................................................................................96
6.1. Purpose of heavy equipment frame..............................................................97
6.2. Types of heavy equipment frames................................................................98
6.3. Locating types of heavy equipment frames...............................................99
UNIT B13.7 ALIGNING AND MAINTAINING THE FRAME............................101
7.1. Safety procedures during frame alignment.............................................101
7.2. Forces acting on the frame.............................................................................101
7.3. Types of frame damage...................................................................................102
7.4. Frame damage categories..............................................................................103
UNIT B13.8 IDENTIFYING UNDERCARRIAGE COMPONENTS.................109
8.1. Types of undercarriage....................................................................................109
8.2. Components of undercarriage.......................................................................111
8.3. Functions of undercarriage components...................................................112
UNIT B13.9 DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING UNDERCARRIAGE
COMPONENTS...................................................................................................................124
9.1. Safety procedures..............................................................................................124
9.2. Operation of undercarriage components..................................................125
9.3. Maintaining undercarriage..............................................................................125
UNIT B13:10 MAINTAINING UNDERCARRIAGE................................................134
10.1. Troubleshooting undercarriage faults......................................................135
10.2. Testing undercarriage....................................................................................136
10.3. Using measuring tools and procedures...................................................138
UNIT 13.11: DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING TRACKED STEERING
MACHINE SYSTEM............................................................................................................139
11.1. Components of the tracked steering system........................................140
11.2. Operation of tracked steering system.....................................................140
UNIT 13.12: DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING TRACKED STEERING
MACHINE SYSTEM............................................................................................................140
12.1. Disassembling steering components........................................................140
12.2. Inspecting steering components for.........................................................141
12.3. Assembling steering components..............................................................141
UNIT 13.13 DISCUSSING WHEELS AND TYRES................................................141
13.1. Purpose of tyres................................................................................................142
13.2. Identifying components of wheels.............................................................142
13.3. Identifying types of tyres..............................................................................147
13.4. Merits of tubeless over tubed tyres..........................................................153
13.5. Types of tyre terminology.............................................................................156
UNIT B13.14 DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING WHEELS....................164
14.1. Safety procedures pertaining to the task...............................................164
14.2. Removing wheel from machine..................................................................164
14.3. Using tools and equipment for tyre repairing.......................................165
 14.4. Disassemble a wheel assembly..................................................................165
14.5. Using tools and equipment for tyre repairing.......................................165
14.6. Assemble a wheel assembly........................................................................165
14.7. Install wheel back to the machine.............................................................165
UNIT 13.15 MAINTAINING WHEELS AND TYRES..............................................166
15.1. Observing Safety procedures......................................................................166
15.2. Removal procedures: -...................................................................................166
15.3. Inspection procedures: -................................................................................167
15.4. Maintenance procedures...............................................................................167
15.5. Carrying out tyre mending...........................................................................168
UNIT B13.16 DIAGNOSING WHEELS AND TYRE FAILURES..........................169

Overview

Welcome to DIPLAMA IN HEAVY EQUIPMENT ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

LEVEL II
MODULE No. 352—13B: - STEERING, SUSPENSION & UNDERCARRIAGE

This Module will equip you with knowledge, skills and appropriate
attitudes to maintain and repair steering systems, suspension and
undercarriage systems, wheels and tyres effectively and efficiently.

Is this course for you?

This module is one of the prerequisites for you to qualify for level II
certification in Heavy Equipment Engineering. It is studied in the second
year of study and comprises both theoretical, labs, research and practical
lessons.

Module Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

1. Identify functions and types of Heavy equipment
steering systems
2. Carry out disassembling and assembling of steering
systems
3. Diagnose steering system faults
4. Rectify steering system faults
5. Describe the functions of suspension system
components
 6. Disassemble and assemble the suspension system
components
7. Diagnose suspension faults
8. Service the suspension system
9. Identify types of machines frames and chassis
10. Align and maintain frames
11. Identify undercarriage components
12. Disassemble and assemble undercarriage
components
13. Diagnose undercarriage faults
14. Service undercarriage components
15. Identify components of wheels and tyres
16. Disassembling and assembling wheels and tyres
17. Maintaining wheels and tyres
18. Diagnosing wheels and tyre faults

Timeframe
This module is expected to be covered within a period of 250 hours. The
250 hours will include studying the actual module and carrying out all the
activities given

Assessments
During the course of study of this module, assessments shall be
administered as follows:
1. Two assignments per each term amounting to a total of six (6)
assignments
2. Two (2) tests in each of the first two terms amounting to a total of
four (4) tests
3. One (1) mock examination prior to Teveta Summative examination.
UNIT B13.1: IDENTIFYING TYPES OF HEAVY
EQUIPMENT STEERING SYSTEMS

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Explain functions of the steering systems
2. Identify Components of mechanical steering system
3. Analyse qualities of Steering boxes
4. Analyse construction steering column
5. Analyse Four-wheel steering
6. Explain Steering Geometry
7. Analyse Ackerman Layout
8. Explain Power Assisted Steering
9. Identify types of Full Power Steering System
10. Explain operation of components of full power steering
system
11. Explain functions of components of clutch and brake
steering system
12. Analyse operation of clutch and brake steering system
13. Describe components of Differential steering system

Introduction
Automobiles are controlled by a steering system. Steering system
provides the directional change for the movement of an automobile and it
maintains in a position as per the driver’s decision without much strain on
him. The steering system allows the driver to guide the vehicle along the
road and tum left or right as desired. The wheels are changed from their
straight ahead ·position for turning the vehicle to one side. It is obtained
by mounting the steering wheel assembly suitably on the axle.
The safety of any automobile mainly depends on the performance of the
steering and braking systems. Many of the accidents are happened due to
the driver’s negligence, improper job of inspecting, repairing or
maintaining the steering system. These problems can be avoided by
knowing thoroughly about steering system. So, the knowledge about this
system is very important to operate the vehicle in a safe mode.

Steering is done by moving the axes of rotation of front …heels with

respect to the chassis frame. So, the inner wheel turns through a greater
angle than outer one. If it is not so, a greater wear will occur. Each wheel
rolls on arc with a steering having a common centre. For ensuring a
proper control of the automobile, the driver must be able to
1. tum in different directions so that it may not go astray.
2. control the speed of the vehicle for moving according to
requirements.
3. slow down or stop when required whether slowly or suddenly.

By supplying more or less quantity of fuel, the accelerator controls the

engine speed. The speed of the vehicle is changed by a gearshift lever for
obtaining different gear speed. For stopping the vehicle, brakes are used.
The Steering should be arranged in such a way that the wheels roll
without slipping or scuffing. So, the steering must be light and stable with
a certain degree of self-adjusting ability.

1.1. Explaining functions of the steering systems

A good steering system must perform the following functions
satisfactorily.
1. It provides wheels swinging to the left or right.
2. It provides vehicle turning as per the will of the driver.
3. It provides the directional stability.
4. It helps to control wear and tear of tyres.
5. It helps in achieving the self-rightening effect.
6. It converts the rotary movement of the steering wheel into an
angular turn of front wheels.
7. It multiples the effort of the driver by leverage to make Wheels easy
to turn.
8. It absorbs a major part of road shocks in such a way from being
transmitted to hands of the driver.

1.2. Analysing characteristics of steering system

For ensuring proper, smooth operation and performance of the steering
system, the steering system of any vehicle should satisfy the following
requirements.

1. It multiples the turning efforts applied on the steering wheel by the

driver.
2. The shocks of the road surface absorbed by wheels should not be
transmitted to the driver’s hands.
3. When the driver releases the steering wheel after completing the
turn, the wheel should achieve a straight-ahead position
immediately, called self-rightening effect.
4. It must keep the wheel at all time in rolling motion without rubbing
on the road.
 5. This system should associate to control the speed.
6. It must be light and stable.
7. It must easily be operated with less maintenance.

1.3. Types of steering systems

The layout of the steering system differs with the type of steering system
whether manual, power assisted or full power steering. Component
identification and constructional description are important for system
repair and faulty diagnosis. This section deals with identification and
location of steering components.

1.3.1. Mechanical
Cars and trucks built before the 1950s had manual steering systems,
meaning that the effort needed to turn the steering wheel and the front
wheels was supplied by the driver. Steering wheels were larger in
diameter and steering gearbox ratios tended to be higher to help reduce
driver effort, but turning the wheels still required a lot of muscle power,
and drivers could become quickly fatigued when conditions required them
to turn the wheels often.

1.3.2. Power Assisted

Power steering uses hydraulics or fluid pressure in order to help the
steering systems. Power steering is preferred when quick turns need to be
taken. There are three main power steering components: - power steering
pump, power steering fluid reservoir, steering gear box. Power steering
can be of three types: -

1. Hydraulic power steering

2. Electric power hydraulic steering (EPHS)
3. Fully electric power steering (EPS)

Hydraulic power sheerings mainly use hydraulic fluid and the pressure
that is generated through this hydraulic fluid helps the driver in steering
the wheels. In EPHS the customary drive belts and pulleys that drive a
power steering pump are replaced by a brushless motor. It is driven by an
electric motor and thus also reduces the amount of power that needs to
be taken from the engine otherwise. The third category is electric power
steering. In this kind of system, an electric motor replaces the hydraulic
pump and a fully electric power steering system is established. The
electric motor is either attached to the steering rack or to the steering
column. The very important component is the electronic control unit that
controls the steering dynamics.

1.3.3. Full Power

All three power steering systems perform the same important function,
but they execute it differently. A hydraulic system uses mechanically
pumped high pressure fluid, an electro-hydraulic system uses an electric
motor to pressure fluid, and an electric system uses an electric motor and
sensors. The end result is the same: You can easily turn the steering
wheel under all conditions. Fully electric power steering systems save
about one mile per gallon, require less maintenance and are more reliable
that a hydraulic system.

Hydraulic Power Steering

This system uses pressurized power steering fluid, supplied by the power
steering pump, to decrease steering effort. An engine-driven accessory
drive or serpentine belt turns on the pump and directs high-pressure
power steering fluid via the high-pressure hose to the input side of the
power steering gear-control valve.

High pressure acting on the control valve assists the driver when turning
the front wheels. Power steering fluid is stored in a reservoir. Proper fluid
level in the reservoir is maintained when the fluid returns from the
steering gear at much lower pressure. Hydraulic power steering systems
continuously pump fluid and are susceptible to engine speed — high
revolutions per minute equal high-pressure output, lower revolutions per
minute equal low-pressure output. To maintain constant pressure, a power
steering pump uses a bypass valve to maintain constant pressure no
matter what the engine speed.

Electro-Hydraulic Power Steering

These systems employ a brushless electric motor to drive the hydraulic
power steering pump instead of an engine driven accessory drive or
serpentine belt. This system operates the same and provides the same
feel of a conventional hydraulic power steering system.

Electric Power Steering or Motor-Driven Power Steering

This system eliminates hydraulics and pressurized fluid from the system.
When the driver turns the steering wheel, a brushless bi-directional
permanent magnet motor connected to the steering gear or steering
column turns the front wheels. Sensors detect which way the steering
wheel is turned to assist the movement of the steering gear in the correct
direction. No matter what kind of system you have, power steering only
acts on the steering gear when the driver turns the wheel.
1.3.4. Track-type
Tractors equipped with twin tracks require the operator to rotate the track
undercarriages at different speeds and/or in opposite directions in order to
steer the tractor. The method the operator uses to steer the tractor
determines how sharp of a turn the tractor performs. Each of the following
track steering methods creates a different turning radius:
1. Counter-rotation
2. Brakesteer
3. Powerturn
4. Neutralsteer

The operator determines the machine’s turning radius by using one of the
methods to steer the tractor in a circle. The circle made by the widest
point of the machine’s undercarriage forms the turning circumference.
The distance straight from the edge of the circumference to the center of
the circumference is the tractor’s turning radius. Not all track-type
tractors are capable of performing all of the steering methods.

1.4. Components of mechanical steering system

1.4.1. Conventional steering arrangement
The typical heavy vehicle equipped with conventional steering system
consists of: a steering wheel, steering column, steering gear box, drop
arm, a drag link, steering arm, stub axle, track rod and tie-rods.

Fig. 1.1. Manual steering arrangement

i. Steering wheel: imparts driver’s effort to the steering box through

the steering column.
ii. Steering column: links the steering wheel to steering gear box.
iii. Steering box: provides gear reduction so that with only a small
operator’s effort, a much larger force can be applied to the steering
 linkage. The steering box also converts rotary motion from the
steering wheel into semi-rotation of the pitman arm.
iv. Drop arm (Pitman arm): is a forged lever arm splined and locked
to the steering box output rocker shaft, also known as pitman shaft.
v. Drag Link: this tubular rod converts the circular movement of the
drop arm into linear push or pull motion of the steering arm also
known as drag link arm. The opposite end of the steering arm is
attached to one end of the stub-axle. The combined action of the
drag link and steering arm swivels the stub-axle. At each end of the
drag link is a ball joint which provides relative movement in two
planes.
vi. Drag-Link Arm: also known as steering arm connects the drag link
to one end of the stub axle. Its function is to provide the leverage
required to convert the linear movement of the drag link to an
angular movement of the stub axle at the kingpin.
vii. Stub-axles: each steered road wheel is mounted on a short axle
shaft commonly known as stub axle. The stub axle has two
extended horizontal prongs which fit over the ends of axle-beam. A
short circular bar known as Kingpin passes vertically through both
prongs and the eye of the axle-beam to form a hinge pivot. The stub
axle thus, acts as both the wheel axle and the pivot support
member in the horizontal plane for the steered road-wheels.
viii. Track rod arms: each stub axle has a forged track-rod arm rigidly
bolted approximately at right angles to the wheel axis in the
horizontal plane. The length of this arm provides the leverage
required to rotate the stub axle about the kingpin, the rotary
movement being transferred to the other stub axle by means of the
track rod.
ix. Track-rod: to enable the two stub- axles pivot together, a tubular
track rod spans the wheel track. The ends of this rod are fitted with
ball-joints are themselves bolted to the track-rod arms which make
up part of each stub-axle. These ball joints are restrained to move in
the horizontal plane only. When the drag-link moves it rotates one
of the stub-axles, and this motion is transferred to the other stub-
axle through the track rod. The drag link movement may be either a
pull or a push action.
x. Tie-rod ends: allow angular movement, but not free play, in the
lateral, longitudinal and vertical directions. They may be either fixed
(ball and socket) or adjustable.

1.5. Functions of components of steering system

Qualities of steering box
The steering gearbox contains the gears that transmit the driver’s
steering inputs to the steering linkage that turns the wheels, and it
multiplies the driver’s steering changes so that the front wheels move
more than the steering wheel.

Types of steering boxes

1. Worm and wheel
2. Worm and sector
3. Worm and roller
4. Screw and nut
5. Cam and peg
6. Recirculating ball
7. Rack and pinion

Construction and operation of steering box

1. Worm and wheel: -A power assist steering system utilizing a
steering gearbox with a worm-screw to gear-segment transition
from a steering-wheel shaft to a sector shaft and a worm-screw to
worm-wheel transition from a power-assist shaft to the steering-
wheel shaft. The worm-screw and worm-wheel combination for the
power-assist shaft to the steering-wheel shaft may be replaced with
a ballnut worm-screw and a ball-track worm-wheel.

Fig. 1.2. Worm and Wheel steering gearbox

2. Worm and Sector: -In the worm and sector steering gear, the worm
on the end of the steering shaft meshes with a sector mounted on a
sector shaft. When the worm is rotated by rotation of the steering
wheel, the sector also turns rotating a sector shaft. Its motion is
transmitted to the wheel through the linkage. Note that 6the sector
shaft is also known as pitman arm shaft, pitman shaft, roller shaft,
steering arm shaft, cross shaft.
 Fig. 1.3. Worm and sector steering gearbox

An adjusting nut or plug is provided for adjusting the end play of the worm
gear.

3. Worm and Roller: -In the worm and roller steering gear, a two-
toothed roller is fastened to the sector or roller shaft so that it
meshes with the threads of the worm gear or shaft at the end of the
steering shaft or tube. When the worm shaft is turned is it causes
the roller to move in an arc so as to rotate the roller shaft, and at
the same time turn on the pin connecting it to the shaft. The roller is
mounted on a ball bearing. The worm shaft is mounted on bearing
designed to resist both radial and end thrust. This type of steering
gear is widely used on American passenger cars.

Fig. 1.4. Worm and roller steering gearbox

"Variable steering ratio" means that the ratio is larger at one

position than another. Therefore, the wheels are turned faster at
certain positions than at others. At the center or straight-ahead
position, the steering gear ratio is high, giving more steering
control. However, as the wheels are turned, the ratio decreases so
that the steering action is much more rapid. This design is very
helpful for parking and maneuvering the vehicle.
4. Cam and Lever: -The lever carries two studs that are mounted in
bearings and engage the cam. As the steering wheel is turned, the
studs move up and down on the cam. This action causes the lever
and pitman arm shaft to rotate. The lever moves more rapidly as it
nears either end of the cam. This action is caused by the increased
angle of the lever in relation to the cam. Like the worm and roller,
this design allows for variable steering ratio.

Fig. 1.5. Cam and lever steering gearbox

5. Recirculating ball: -The circulating ball gear is similar to the worm

and ball bearing not steering gear. The balls are contained in half
nut and a transfer tube. As the cam or worm rotates, the balls pass
from one side of the nut to the transfer tube to the opposite side. As
nut cannot turn, and movement of the balls along the track of the
cam carries the nut allowing with it and rotates the rocker shaft.

Fig. 1.6. Recirculating ball steering gearbox

6. Cam and double lever steering gear: -In the cam and double lever
steering gear, a special worm called a cam, replaces the worm used
in two types just described above. The cam is cylindrical in shape,
its actuating part being a groove of variable pitch made narrower at
the cam centre than at the end. This provides non-reversibility in
the centre part of the cam where most of the car steering takes
place. The twin levers are mounted on the cross shaft and are
 located so that the studs engage the cam from the side. When the
cam is turned, the studs move along the cam groove to cause the
lever to swing through an arc, and thus turning the cross shaft.

Fig. 1.7. Cam and double lever steering gearbox

7. Worm and ball bearing nut steering gear: -In the worm and ball
bearing and steering gear, a ball nut is mounted on the worm of the
steering shaft. The warm and the nut have mating spiral grooves in
which steel balls circulated to provide a frictionless drive between
the worm and nut. Two sets of balls are used, with each set
operating independently of other. A ball return guide is attached to
the outer surface of the nut. When the steering shaft is turned to
the left or right, the ball nut is moved up and down by the balls
which roll between the worm and nut. A sector gear mounted on the
sector shaft meshes with the ball nut, so that it gets motion by the
ball nut.

Fig. 1.8. Worm and ball bearing nut steering gearbox

8. Cam and roller steering gear: -In the cam and roller steering gear a
cam meshes with the roller. As the cam rotates, the roller is
compelled to follow the cam and in doing so causes the rocker shaft
to rotate, thus moving the drop arm. The counter of cam is designed
to mesh with the arc made by the roller so maintaining a constant
 depth of mesh depth of mesh and evenly distributing the load and
wear on the mating parts.

Fig. 1.9. Cam and roller steering gearbox

9. Cam and peg steering gear: -In the cam and peg steering gear
attached to the rocker arm is a taper peg which engages in the cam.
When the cam rotates, the peg moves along the groove causing the
rocker shaft to rotate.

Fig. 1.10. Cam and peg steering gearbox

10. Rack and pinion steering gear: -In the rack and pinion is
mounted on the end of the steering shaft. It engages with a rack
which has ball joints at each end to allow for the rise and fall of the
wheels. The roads connect the ball joints to the stub-axles. The
rotary movement of the steering wheel turns the pinion which
moves the rack sideways. This movement of the rock is converted to
the wheels.
 Fig. 1.11. Rack and pinion steering gearbox

1.6. Steering column

The automotive steering column is a device intended primarily for
connecting the steering wheel to the steering mechanism.
A steering column may also perform the following secondary functions:

1. Energy dissipation management in the event of a frontal collision;

2. Provide mounting for: the multi-function switch, column lock, column
wiring, column shroud(s), transmission gear selector, gauges or other
instruments as well as the electro motor and gear units.
3. Offer (height and/or length) adjustment to suit driver preference

Steering lock
Modern vehicles are fitted with a steering lock which is an anti-theft
device. It is fitted to the steering column usually below the steering wheel.
The lock is combined with the ignition switch and engaged and
disengaged either by a mechanical ignition key or electronically from the
vehicles electronic control unit.

Fig. 1.12. Steering lock

Collapsible joints
A common device to enhance car safety is the collapsible steering
column. This is designed to collapse in the event of a collision to protect
the driver from harm. The column can collapse after impact with a
tolerance ring inserted between the inner shaft of the steering column and
the external housing. The wavelike protrusions on the circumference of
the tolerance ring act as a spring to hold the two parts in place in normal
driving conditions. At a specific level of force, for example in the event of
a collision, the tolerance ring allows the inner shaft to slip inside the
housing, so the column can collapse, absorbing energy from the impact.

Fig.1.13. Collapsible joints

Slip joint
Sliding Joint isolates steering wheel feedback due to dynamic front-end
suspension movement. It offers higher torsional rates over traditional slip
joints with improved noise characteristics and durability performance. This
joint can be used in vehicles that require the intermediate shaft to stroke
while maintaining torsional performance.

Fig. 1.14. Slip joint

Universal joint
The steering universal joint coupling, or simply steering u-joint, is a small
but important part of the steering system. In most cars with an
intermediate steering shaft, there are two u-joint couplings. The top u-
joint connects the intermediate shaft to the steering column. The lower u-
joint connects the intermediate shaft to the steering rack; see the
diagram. To accommodate the steering tilt and telescope function, as well
as for crash safety, the steering shaft must rotate at an angle.

The steering shaft u-joint must transfer the steering force from the
steering wheel to the steering rack at an angle, without resistance or play.
A faulty u-joint can cause looseness or seizing felt in the steering wheel. A
vehicle with a bad steering u-joint is unsafe to drive.
 Fig.1.15. Universal joints

The steering u-joint has four needle bearings packed with grease and
sealed. It's a maintenance-free unit. In many cars, it can last for the
lifetime of the vehicle. The most common problem with the steering u-
joint is when the grease in one of the needle bearings dries out or when
moisture causes corrosion. In most cases, this problem happens to the
lower steering shaft u-joint, as it's located inside the engine bay.

What are the symptoms of a bad steering u-joint?

A failed steering u-joint can cause two types of problems: if the u-joint is
seized, the steering may become stiffer or jam at certain angles. There
could also be a popping or clunking noise while turning. If the steering u-
joint is worn out or corroded, it will have some play. When driving, it feels
that the steering is loose and you always have to correct it to keep the
vehicle driving straight.

A worn-out steering u-joint can also cause a rattling noise in the steering
when driving on rough roads. Of course, these symptoms can also be
caused by other problems in the steering system. A failed steering u-joint
or other problem with the steering system make the vehicle UNSAFE. If
you are experiencing these symptoms, have your vehicle checked out as
soon as possible.
1.7. Four- wheel steering
In an active four-wheel steering system, all four wheels turn at the same
time when the driver steers. In most active four-wheel steering systems,
the rear wheels are steered by a computer and actuators. The
rear wheels generally cannot turn as far as the front wheels.
 Fig.1.16. Four-wheel steering arrangement

Opposite direction to front wheels

In an active four-wheel steering system, all four wheels turn at the same
time when the driver steers. In most active four-wheel steering systems,
the rear wheels are steered by a computer and actuators. The rear wheels
generally cannot turn as far as the front wheels. There can be controls to
switch off the rear steer and options to steer only the rear wheels
independently of the front wheels. At low speed (e.g. parking) the rear
wheels turn opposite to the front wheels, reducing the turning radius,
sometimes critical for large trucks, tractors, vehicles with trailers and
passenger cars with a large wheelbase.

Fig. 1.17. Four-wheel steering action

Same direction to front wheels

At higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike (electronically
controlled), so that the vehicle may change position with less yaw and
improved build-up of the lateral acceleration, enhancing straight-line
stability. The "snaking effect" experienced during motorway drives while
towing a travel trailer is thus largely nullified

Twin steering
One major advantage of twin-steer trucks is that they help
distribute weight better over the axles. This allows you to carry
more weight in one trip, which increases efficiency
and productivity without violating traffic laws.

Fig. 1.18. twin steering arrangement

Advantages of 4-wheel steering

The advantages generally associated with the modern use of four-wheel
steering may be summarized as follows.
1. Better Steering Response – Your vehicle will respond faster to
the steering that you perform overall. This allows your steering to be
more precise and controllable on the road.
2. Cornering Stability – When you’re going around a corner in a
vehicle, four-wheel steering will give you control and stability as you
drive. This especially comes in handy if the road is wet.
3. Smaller Radius While Turning – Because you can turn the rear
wheels in the opposite direction of the front wheels, this allows you
to make smaller circular turns at lower speeds.
4. Better on Tougher Terrains – If you live in an area with a lot of
dirt roads or possibly snowy roads in the winter, then you’ll want a
vehicle with four-wheel steering to help you drive better on these
difficult terrains.
5. Straight Line Stability – If you’re driving your vehicle down a
straight road, the four-wheel steering will give you the best stability
you could ever want. This helps when you have potholes and high
winds within the environment.
6. Easy Lane Changing – If you’re traveling fast on the interstate and
you need to change lanes quickly, you can easily do so with a four-
 wheel steering vehicle without having to turn the steering wheel too
much.

1.8. Steering geometry

Steering geometry is the geometric arrangement of the parts of a
steering system, and the value of the lengths and angles within it.

Steering angles
The steering angle is defined as the angle between the front of the
vehicle and the steered wheel direction

Camber angle - Camber is the inward or outward tilt of the wheel at the
top. It indicates the amount which the centre line of the wheel is tilted
from true vertical, measured in degrees. The outward tilt of the wheel at
the top, from vertical, is termed as Positive camber, and the inward tilt of
the wheel is termed as Negative camber. Positive camber locates the
centre of the tyre foot-print closer to the intersection which the steering
axis makes with the road.

Fig.1.19. Wheel Camber

The purposes of camber are:
1. To bring the tyre in contact with the road as nearly as possible
under the point of load and therefore achieve easier steering and
have most of the vehicle weight supported by the inner bearing and
spindle
2. To increase tyre life

The need for camber was originally forced on vehicle designers in order to
relieve stress on the wheel bearings and related parts. Incorrect camber
causes wear to tyres, wheel bearings, king-pins and ball-joints. Unequal
camber will cause the vehicle to pull to one side. If there is a difference in
camber the vehicle will pull to the side with the most positive camber,
providing the road itself is not cambered. Maximum tyre life is obtained
with zero average running camber, as both sides of the tread contact the
road with equal force.

The benefits of properly adjusted camber are:

1. Less steering effort on manual steering system
 2. Reduced tyre wear
3. Reduction of road-shock being transmitted to the operator through
the steering wheel.

Castor angle - Caster is the backward or forward tilt of the king-pin or

steering knuckle centre-line, from the true vertical, measured in degrees.
Caster angle is viewed from the side of the vehicle.

The purpose of caster is to provide directional stability by maintaining the

front wheels in a straight-ahead position or to return to a straight-ahead
position after a turn. The steering ability is achieved as follows:
1. For positive caster; the centre-line on the bottom is projected
forward, thereby establishing a lead point of the vehicle weight
ahead of the tyre-to-road contact point.
2. For negative caster; the centre-line on the bottom is projected
rearward, and the vehicle weight therefore trails the tyre-to-road
contact point.

Fig. 1.20. Caster angles

The effect of excessive negative caster is to cause road wander and loss
of directional stability because the turning forces of the negative caster
might be sufficient to overcome the other inherent directional forces.
When a vehicle has positive caster, the front wheels are actually being
pulled along the road by the vehicle. This provides automatic straight-line
steering and stability. The front wheels roll in a straight-line. Positive
caster also aids steering axis inclination in providing steering wheel return
ability or self-centring. The vehicle must be steered into a turn by turning
the steering wheel, but the steering wheel should return automatically to
the central position if released. Together positive caster and steering axis
inclination achieve this.

Excessive positive caster causes heavy steering at low speeds but

increases vehicle stability at high speeds. The front wheels tend to point
in the direction of travel even if momentarily deflected by a rock or
pothole. This is due to the lifting effect of positive caster which occurs
when the front wheels are turned.
A small amount of negative caster may make a heavy vehicle steer more
easily at low speeds and when parking. However, the vehicle will feel less
stable at high speeds and may even wander. If the steering of a vehicle is
too heavy, the caster may be reduced while vehicles with unduly sensitive
steering may be helped by more positive caster. Caster is not an angle
that affects tyre wear, but it changes slightly with vehicle weight and each
time the suspension oscillates.

King pin inclination

The main functions of Kingpin inclination as follows,

1. It helps in self-centring of wheels after taking a turn.

2. To provide directional stability.
3. It reduces steering effort.

Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) also known as King-Pin Inclination (KPI) is

the in-ward tilt of kingpin or steering knuckle arm at the top. It is a
directional control angle, measured in degrees, and is the amount the
centre line is tilted from the true vertical.

Fig. 1.21. King Pin Inclination

This angle is non-adjustable, and its relationship to camber does not

change except when the spindle or steering knuckle arm becomes bent. It
must be checked during wheel alignment.

One purpose of the kingpin inclination is to reduce the distance between

its centre line and the centre line of the tyre where both lines meet the
road surface, reducing the need for excessive camber. Another purpose is
to distribute the vehicle weight more nearly under the road contact of the
tyre, thereby reducing the distance (called scrub radius) to produce easy
steering.
A vehicle standing on level ground with both cambers being zero and the
front wheels in the central position would have horizontal stub axles. If the
wheels were turned to either side, the ends of the stub axle would try to
move down, but the wheels prevent the ends of the stub axle from getting
any closer to the ground, therefore, the inner ends of the steering
knuckles will move up, raising the front of the vehicle. If the steering
wheel is now released, the weight of the vehicle will force the steering
knuckles back down, rotating the stub axles and the wheels back to the
central position.

Steering axis inclination is the main force that promotes return-ability of

the steering wheel. This is the result of the stub axle being forced to move
to a horizontal arc as it pivots as shown in the diagram above. If the
centre line of the steering axis is kept closer to the footprint of the tyre,
the tyre will not turn when it strikes an average bump or pothole. This
reduces the effect of road shock on the steering system, minimising wear
and damage and resulting in easy steering.

Included angle - One original reason for the use of camber was to
reduce the leverage effect on the stub axle when a tyre struck a bump or
pothole. When this occurred, the forces tended to turn the wheel forcing
the vehicle to swerve and sending a shock to the steering wheel. When
both camber and steering axis inclination are used in combination, the
line through the centreline of the kingpin, and the line through the centre
plane of the tyre, will intersect more closely at the road surface. This
position greatly reduces the effect of leverage. The angle between the
centreline of the kingpin and the centre plane of the tyre is called included
angle.

Fig. 1.22. Included angle

Included angle is a diagnostic angle. Camber is the angle that the centre
plane of the tyre makes with the true vertical, and as the tyre is at right
angles to the stub axle, we can then calculate the angle of the stub axle
to the vertical. By measuring camber, and then steering axis inclination,
and then adding the two angles together, the angle between the steering
axis and the stub axle has been mathematically calculated. This
calculated angle is the one called included angle.

Some manufactures apply this principle to diagnose the bend on the stub
axle. But if the wheel alignment equipment cannot measure included
angles, or the manufacturer has supplied the included angle specifications
only, and not SAI specifications, calculations must be made by the
mechanic. The specifications for steering axis inclination only apply when
the camber is as specified. If the camber is incorrect, the steering axis
inclination will appear to be incorrect even though nothing is bent. When
apparent camber wear occurs on a heavy vehicle, the measurement of
included angle is a necessity.

Toe-in vs Toe-out
Toe, also known as tracking, is the symmetric angle that each wheel
makes with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, as a function of static
geometry, and kinematic and compliant effects. This can be contrasted
with steer, which is the antisymmetric angle, i.e. both wheels point to the
left or right, in parallel (roughly). Negative toe, or toe out, is the front of
the wheel pointing away from the centreline of the vehicle. Positive toe,
or toe in, is the front of the wheel pointing towards the centreline of the
vehicle.

The purpose of toe-in is to compensate for widened tolerances in the

steering linkage, and without it the wheel camber would force the front
wheels into a slippage condition.

Toe-in is to compensate for the natural play in the steering / suspension

system on a non-front wheel drive car - it then allows the wheels to track
parallel.

Toe-out is for a front or four-wheel drive vehicle to counter the effect of

the driving force "pulling" the wheels forward.

Incorrect toe causes the most serious tyre wear. The wear appears as a
furthered edge scuff across the tread of both front tyres.
 Fig.1.23. Toe-in/toe-out action

Turning angle
Turning angle, also called steering angle, is the angle of each front wheel
at full lock. It is the maximum number of degrees, both left and right,
through which the front wheels can be turned from the central position.
Correct adjustment of this angle is important, as the full lock angle of both
front wheels should be the same, and neither tyre should rub on the
chassis or any steering or suspension components. Too large a steering
angle will allow interference; while too small an angle will increase the
turning radius and thus reduce manoeuvrability of the vehicle. Turning
angle should be measured when a wheel alignment is performed or when
a new front axle or spring is fitted. It is adjusted by various types of
steering stops.

Fig. 1.24. Turning angles

Centralised steering
When a steering box is centralised, it has equal number of turns from the
central position to full lock, both left and right. If it is not centralised, the
vehicle will be unable to make a U-turn in the specified radius to the side
with least number of steering wheel turns. This is caused by the steering
box coming to the end of its internal travel before the steering arms touch
the steering stops. If the vehicle is fitted with power steering, another
problem may arise if the steering box is not centralised. The hydraulic
valve operating the power steering may incorrectly sense that the vehicle
is turning a corner, which will result in corresponding hydraulic assistance
causing the vehicle to pull to one side. Consequently, it is important that
the steering box be centralised before a wheel alignment is started.

Oversteer - If the rear wheels have the greater angle, the car overseers,
sometimes turning into a corner more sharply than the driver anticipates,
opposite steering lock is needed to correct the oversteer.

Understeer - Increased slip angles on the front tyres make a car

understeer (or run wide) in a corner. The driver needs to apply extra
steering lock to maintain the intended cornering line.

Axle correction - This section has been included to ensure that heavy
vehicle mechanics are aware of the precautions involved in axle
corrections. Unlike most light vehicles with independent suspension,
which often have adjustable camber and caster, the front I-beam front
axle of a heavy vehicle must be bent if some wheel alignment angles are
to be altered.

Some manufacturers do not agree with axle bending while others prefer to
call the bending of front axles as “axle correction”. However, it seems that
if a wheel alignment shows that a vehicle has either camber or caster that
is definitely the cause of steering or tyre wear problems, very little can be
done except to replace the axle or correct it by bending. If a front axle is
to be bent, it is imperative that the following instructions are observed:
1. The axle must only be bent between the kingpin and the spring,
never between the springs.
2. The axle must only be bent cold
3. Correct equipment must be used
4. Correction must be done” in vehicle” to reduce the risk of over
bending
5. The operation must only be performed by a competent operator.
6. The operation must be done only with the permission of the vehicle
owner after a thorough analysis of wheel alignment measurements,
tyre wear history and vehicle usage.

NOTE:
1. Bending of axle is not recommended as a regular practice and
should only be undertaken in special circumstances. Frequent
bending in both positive and negative directions could lead to loss of
strength and possible fatigue failure of the axle beam.
 2. Never bend the axle beam between the spring seats, as the spring
seats on the axle beam will not be parallel with each other. This will
put an extra stress on the spring shackles, pins and bushings, which
can lead to a shortened service life of these components.
3. Never use heat when performing axle correction, or suspension or
steering components. To prevent heat treatment of the
components, bending must only be done cold but be aware that the
ductility of the material will limit the amount of bending. If the
ductile limit is exceeded, the component may break.

1.9. Center point steering

Turntable or Centre Pivot Steering

In a four-wheel vehicle, the front two wheels are mounted on the axle and
the axle, in turn, is fixed to a turntable having a single pivot. When the
front wheels are turned, the whole front axle is turned about the central
pivot. In this case, also the perpendiculars of all the wheels meet at a
point during any turn, so that the turning is safe and wheels roll freely.

This type of steering system is commonly used in horse-drawn coaches

and trails. This is unsuitable for automobile vehicle because it is unstable
at high speeds. Moreover, a centre pivot steering arrangement requires a
lot of space and because for the whole axle to turn.

Fig. 1.25. Turn-table steering action

1.10. Ackerman Layout

Beam axle steering and Ackerman layout - Steering linkage for
vehicle with rigid Independent front suspension.

In case of conventional rigid axle suspension, the main axle beam ensures
the movement of stub axle in the horizontal plane only, there is no
vertical deflection of the suspension and hence there is no change in the
effective track-rod length. In case of Independent suspension, the two
stub axles can move up or down independent of each other due to which
distance between ball-joint ends of the two track rod arms is continuously
varying. Here three-piece track rod is used, the centre portion being called
relay rod is used, which is connected at one end to the idler arm
supported on body structure and to drop arm of steering gear at the other
end through ball joints.

The typical steering system, in a road or race car, has tie-rod linkages and
steering arms that form an approximate parallelogram, which skews to
one side as the wheels turn. If the steering arms are parallel, then both
wheels are steered to the same angle. If the steering arms are angled,
this is known as Ackerman geometry. The inside wheel is steered to a
greater angle then the outside wheel, allowing the inside wheel to steer a
tighter radius. The steering arm angles as drawn show 100% Ackerman.
Different designs may use more or less percentage pro-Ackerman, anti-
Ackerman, or Ackerman may be adjustable.
When a vehicle is turning, the inner front wheel needs to turn at a
different angle to the outer because they are turning on different radii.
The Ackermann steering mechanism is a geometric arrangement of
linkages in the steering of a vehicle designed to turn the inner and outer
wheels at the appropriate angles. This model is fully parameterized,
allowing customization and component sizing.

1.11. Ackerman layout

The Ackermann principle is based on the two front steered wheels being
pivoted at the ends of the axle beam. For true or pure rolling conditions
when moving on a curved track with a four-wheeled vehicle, lines drawn
through each of the four-wheel axes must intersect at one common centre
of rotation.
 Fig. 1.26. Side-pivot steering with inclined track-rod arms

This centre point is termed as the instantaneous centre, since its actual
position is constantly changing as the front-wheel angular positions alter
to correct the steered vehicle’s path. Since both rear wheels are fixed on
the same axis but the front-wheel axles are independent of each other,
the instantaneous centre must lie somewhere along an imaginary
extended line drawn through the rear axle.

The original Ackermann linkage had parallel set steering arms. Both
steered wheels then swivelled at equal angles, so the intersecting
projection lines did not meet at one point as can be seen from the
diagram given below.

It can be seen that if both front wheels were free to follow their natural
paths, they would converge and eventually cross each other. Since the
vehicle must move along a single mean path, both wheel tracks would be
in continuous conflict with each other and this could only be resolved by
tyre slip and tread scrub.
The modified Ackermann linkage has steering arms that are inclined. This
arrangement makes the inner wheel to swivel about its kingpin slightly
more than the outer wheel. This enables the projected lines drawn
through the stub axles to converge at a single point somewhere along the
rear-axle projection.
 Fig. 1.27. Side-pivot steering with parallel-set track-rod arms

Ackermann linkage geometry.

In both cases it can be seen that, for a given angular movement of the
stub axles, the inner-wheel steering arm and track rod are more effective
than the outer-wheel linkage in turning the steered wheels.

1.12. Toe-out –on turns

Also referred to as “Turning Angle”, Toe out on turns results from the
different angles (arcs) taken by the front wheels when driving through a
corner. When turning a corner, the outside wheel must travel a greater
distance than the inside wheel. The additional toe angle is determined by
the steering arm design. Deviations from the specified value could
indicate possible bent steering linkage. A typical complaint that would be
associated with this condition would be excessive tire squeal or
“scrubbing” on turns.

Fig.1.28. Toe-out on turns action

When a heavy vehicle is moving in a straight line, the front wheels should
be parallel to one another. But if they remain parallel on corners, the tyres
will be forced to slip on the road, resulting in squeal and abnormal tyre
wear. This is the result of the outside wheel travelling further on a curve
than the inside wheel. Therefore, to avoid this undesirable action, the
outside wheel should steer through a smaller angle than the inside wheel
when cornering. This arrangement results in the front wheels toeing out
on turns.

Toe-out on turns is achieved by designing an angle into the steering arms,

which allows each wheel to follow its own turning arc without slipping or
scuffing. The steering arm angle varies with each vehicle and cannot be
adjusted. It must be realised, however, that toe-out on turns can be
perfect at only one angle and tyre wear will still occur.

1.13. Power assisted steering

The purpose of any type of power steering is to:
1. Minimise the operators steering effort
2. Increase steering response
3. Increase steering control

The following factors necessitate power assistance on the steering

system:
1. Vehicle weight; heavier vehicles have increased static friction
between the tyre and road surface. The effort required to steer the
wheels is therefore increased.
2. Increased tyre to road contact surface area; wide low-profile
tyres have increased tyre-to-road surface contact area increasing
the resistance of the tyres when steering. This condition increases
the effort required to steer the vehicle.
3. Increased road-to-tyre grip when parking and cornering;
When the vehicle is moving slowly particularly during parking, there
is increased resistance for tyres to steer because of increased road-
to-tyre grip.

On manual steering systems, the available steering torque is determined

by the gear ratio for the steering box. Increasing the gear ratio increases
the steering torque. The method of increasing the steering torque by
steering box gear-ratio has the disadvantage of increasing the number of
turns that the steering wheel should make an effective turn on road
wheels. The increased turns of the steering wheel make steering unsafe.

Therefore, power steering remains the best alternative for achieving

increased steering torque. All power steering systems utilize hydraulic
energy as a means to boost drivers steering effort. The amount of power
assistance supplied to the steering linkage is normally restricted in order
to allow the operator feel the interaction of the tyre and the road under
various driving conditions.
Generally, more steering effort is required when a vehicle is stopping and
making a turn. Less steering effort is required during vehicles middle
speeds. Steering assistance reduces further as the vehicle increases
speed. It is required that the driver feels the steering wheels in all these
driving conditions. For the driver/operator to have the right feel of the
various driving conditions, the assistance provided must be of the correct
ratio.

Fig.1.29. Power-assisted steering arrangement

Passenger cars are provided with the steering assistance of up to 25 to

30% of the total steering effort, while heavy vehicles are provided with
the assistance of up to 80 to 85% of the total steering effort.

Types of power steering systems

There are two categories of hydraulic power steering systems;
One system still maintains the mechanical linkages and is called Power-
Assisted Steering system, while the other system has completely done
away with mechanical linkages from the steering control valve up to the
steering cylinder and is called Hydrostatic or Full Hydraulic Steering
System.
Basically, all power steering systems use hydraulic components and utilise
oil under pressure to assist in the steering effort and control. The power
source for all power steering systems is the hydraulic pump. The power
steering pump could be any one of the following designs: balanced vane
pump, gerotor or gear pump. On heavy vehicles, the pump is driven by
the engine through a gear.

The type of steering control valve commonly used on heavy vehicles for
all types of power assisted steering systems, whether the valve is
internally or externally mounted, are either of the two or four-way three
position open centre spool valve design. When the steering valve is in
neutral position, the ports to the steering cylinder are open. In this
position the oil from the steering pump enters the inlet port of the valve
and flows out through the outlet port back to the reservoir. The booster
cylinder is normally of the double acting design. To allow the mechanical
steering gear to turn the wheels, the oil from one side of the cylinder must
be released and redirected.

Types of power-assisted steering systems

Power assisted steering systems differ in the location of power-assist
control unit i.e. the steering control valve and the hydraulic cylinder
(steering booster).

Fig. 1.30. Integral power steering system arrangement

1. When the steering control valve and the booster cylinder are
located within the steering gearbox, the power steering system is
called; Integral Power-Assisted steering system.
2. When the control valve is located within the steering linkage, it is
called Semi-integral Power-Assisted steering system. In the semi-
 integral power-assisted steering arrangement, the control valve is
bolted to the steering gearbox, the piston rod for the booster
cylinder is attached to the pitman arm and the cylinder is itself
attached to the vehicle frame. The other end of the pitman arm is
connected to the drag-link.

Fig.1.31. Semi-integral power steering system arrangement

3. When the control valve and booster cylinder are located within the
steering linkage, the system is called Linkage Power-Assisted
steering System.

The main difference between the Linkage power steering system and the
Semi-integral power steering system is that on the linkage type the
steering control valve is either an integral part of the drag-link or the
control valve and booster cylinder are one unit.

Fig. 1.32. Linkage power steering system arrangement

Operating principle of power-assisted steering systems

Whether integral, semi-integral or linkage type power-assisted steering
system, the operation is the same. The hydraulic pump draws oil from the
reservoir. When the vehicle is moving straight ahead, i.e. steering in
neutral, the oil will circulate throughout the steering system returning to
the reservoir. During this operation, there is equal pressure on both sides
of the piston in the power cylinder. Therefore, the piston will not move.

When the steering wheel is turned to take either the left or right turn,
rotation of the steering shaft will move control valve to one end. When the
valve is moved to one end, it restricts oil flow to one chamber of the
cylinder and communicating this chamber to the reservoir while the
opposite chamber widens its communication with the pump, increasing
the hydraulic force. The build-up of hydraulic force in the active side of the
cylinder chamber, will move the piston to the opposite end assisting in the
steering effort. The hydraulic force will assist the manual effort in moving
the steering linkages.

Fig.1.33. Sectional view of control valve in neutral

Lock limiters
Power assist steering boxes used on heavy vehicles (integral type power
assisted steering system equipped with recirculation ball steering gear
box) are fitted with steering lock limiters. The purpose of lock limiters is
to:
1. Prevent excessive strain imposed on steering linkages when the
steering action is approaching the full-lock position.
2. Protect hydraulic components from very high-pressure peaks. High
pressure peaks may damage seals on the piston or control valve.

Lock limiters consist of conical valves with extended stems located in the
sector shaft end cover. The angular movement of the sector shaft
operates each valve as it approaches the steering lock position. Towards
the lock position, the valve stem is pushed to open a passage releasing
the hydraulic pressure in the cylinder chamber. The excess oil is then
permitted to return to the reservoir through the control valve housing.
Therefore, any further rotation of the sector shaft will be achieved
manually without any hydraulic assistance until the maximum lock is
reached.

Full Power Steering System

The full hydraulic steering differs with the power assisted steering system
in that it does not contain the mechanical linkage. Steering power is
achieved fully by hydraulic energy. The hydraulic energy is converted into
mechanical energy by hydraulic cylinders which are attached between the
front and the rear vehicle frames.
Hydraulic Steering (with steering cylinders)
Full hydraulic steering is exclusively used on off highway vehicles or
equipment. It is the most suitable steering system on such machines
because of the following reasons:
1. The steering force can easily be modified to suit both small and
large equipment by simply altering the size of the cylinder and/ or
hydraulic pressure.
2. It has the advantage of unrestricted power routing because
hydraulic energy can be transmitted through flexible hoses.

Although there are different designs of hydraulic steering systems, they

all utilize similar components which include:
1. Reservoir
2. Oil filter
3. Steering pump
4. Steering control valve known as orbitrol valve
5. Pressure regulating valve
6. Steering cylinders
7. Hydraulic hoses and pipe

Fig. 1.34. Pictorial view of a hydraulic steering

Some designs incorporate a pressure relief valve in the pump housing.

Other designs locate the filter in the reservoir. On most earthmoving
equipment the oil for implement control and steering system is stored in
the same reservoir. On some designs, the hydraulic and steering pumps
are arranged in tandem.
The type of directional control valve used in the steering system maybe of
the open or closed centre circuit system. Most steering systems that use
closed centre circuit are equipped with accumulators.

Steering control valve (orbitrol valve)

The steering control valve directs hydraulic fluid to the hydraulic cylinders
according to the operator’s steering effort either left - or right -hand turn.
The steering control valve is an assembly of two sections;

Control Section (Control valve)

The control valve consists of sleeve and spool. Its function is to control the
direction of oil flow from the pump to either side of the steering cylinder.
When steering is in neutral, the control valve directs the oil back to the
reservoir. When the steering wheel is turned to the right or left, the
control valve will direct pump oil through the metering section to the
respective side of the cylinder.

Fig. 1.35. Cut-away view of steering control valve

Metering Section (Gerotor)

The Gerotor forms a pump and metering section of the steering control
valve. Its function is to measure and deliver the amount of oil volume
suitable for the desired steered angle. The metering section (gerotor) is
located at the lower end of the steering control valve and consists of:
i. Gerotor drive; whose function is to connect the motion of the
steering wheel to the rotor of the Gerotor through the control
section.
 ii. Gerotor; is an assembly of the rotor (external gear) meshed with
the stator (internal gear). The two parts form a pump. Some orbitrol
valve assembly has two Gerotor.

During operation, the Gerotor will deliver an amount of oil to the cylinder
in proportion to the applied steering effort turning the road wheels a given
amount and stop until an extra effort is applied. The sleeve is fitted over
the spool. The two are constructed with ports which get aligned when the
steering wheel is turned providing passage for oil to flow from the steering
pump to the Gerotor section. Ports in the steering control valve permit the
oil to pass and fill the pockets formed by the Gerotor gears. Rotation of
the rotor forces the oil trapped in the pockets to flow out to the metering
sleeve and spool assembly where it is transmitted to the respective side
of the cylinder.

Operation (right hand turn)

When the steering wheel is turned to the right, the steering shaft turns
the spool, whose force is transmitted to the pin and to the gerotor drive
which turns the gerotor. This rotating force is also transmitted to the
centering springs. At this moment, the sleeve resists rotation. This
resistance forces the centering springs to bend before the sleeve is
moved. This action creates a difference of a few degrees between the
sleeve and the spool. In this position, holes in the sleeve are brought into
alignment with grooves in the spool.

Oil under pump pressure will then flow through the lower holes in the
sleeve, into the left-hand grooves in the spool, and to the three charging
pockets in the gerotor. The three discharging pockets of the gerotor force
the oil into the body; through the fourth row of holes in the sleeve into the
spool groove, and out of the spool groove through the fifth row of holes in
the sleeve to the steering circuit.
 Fig. 1.36. Schematic view of oil flow in a right-hand turn

Oil returning from the steering circuit enters the steering control valve
through one port in the metering section. It then passes through holes in
the sleeve, into the spool groove, out through the upper hole in the sleeve
to the return port and back to the reservoir.
When the steering effort is relieved, the centering springs move the
sleeve and spool back to port misalignment position. This action stops oil
flow through the control valve. At least three ports of the rotor are filled
with oil at every one time.

Pressure relief valve

Some hydraulic steering systems are installed with a main pressure relief
valve whose purpose is to regulate the pressure in the steering circuit.
Some designs are fitted with an auxiliary pressure relief valve which
controls the high-pressure peaks that develops towards steering lock.
Steering cylinder
The steering cylinder converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy
turning the road wheels. In addition to performing steering function the
steering cylinder resists road shocks achieving smooth steering operation.
The type of steering cylinder suitable for steering systems is the double
acting cylinder. Arrangements that are fitted with a single cylinder located
between the two road wheels (similar arrangement with rack and pinion),
use balanced double acting cylinder.

Arrangements that use two cylinders, one on each wheel, have the four-
cylinder hoses connected in opposite arrangement. This arrangement
achieves steady piston movement because the two cylinders work
together. When steering is in neutral, the oil gets trapped in the hydraulic
lines developing hydraulic lock which is necessary to hold the steering
road wheels in a steered position.
When the engine is not running, meaning that the oil pump is not
operating or has failed, the presence of the Gerotor makes possible the
wheels to turn though with increased steering effort. Rotation of the
steering wheel turns the rotor in the Gerotor generating a vacuum in the
pockets of the rotor. The vacuum draws oil from the reservoir transferring
it to the cylinder while oil from the cylinder returns to the reservoir
through the control valve. The oil is changed over in circulation.

Fig. 1 37. Cross section of hydraulic double acting cylinder

Power steering unit

The power steering unit is an essential component for steering of the
heavy-duty vehicles, which provide:
1. Higher steering power,
2. Reliability,
3. Comfort and
4. Safety.

Steering control valve

The hydraulic steering valve consists of:
1. A fluid control valve section
2. A fluid metering section

These are hydraulically and mechanically inter-connected.

Control valve components

The control valve section contains a mechanically actuated linear spool
which is torsion bar centered. The function of the control valve section is:
1. To direct the fluid to and from the metering section,
2. To and from the cylinder, and
3. To regulate the pressure supplied to the cylinder.
The valve is provided with unique pressure chambers which insure
effective circuit isolation.

Metering section
The metering section consists of a:
1. commutator and
2. bi-directional gerotor element, which contains an orbiting rotor and
a fixed stator.

The commutator rotates at orbit speed with the rotor and channels the
fluid to and from the rotor set and the valve section. The rotor
incorporates unique sealing vanes:
1. between the rotor and stator
2. reduce leakage across the metering section.
3. these are spring and hydraulically forced into sealing contact

The function of the metering section is:

1. to meter the oil to the power cylinder,
2. to maintain the relationship between the hand wheel and the
steered wheels.
An additional function of the metering section is to act as a manually
operated pump providing manual steering in the event of an inoperative
engine-driven pump.

Power steering operation

When the spool is in center or neutral position:
1. The hydraulic oil from the engine-driven pump circulates through
the valve section,
2. Direct back to the reservoir with sufficient pressure only to
overcome friction of valve channels and lines.

There is no circulation of engine-driven pump oil to or from the cylinder.

1. Note the center diagram showing neutral position on which no
directional arrows appear in the metering channels.
2. The oil pressure at the two-cylinder ports is equal and produces
ineffective forces in the cylinder.

The operator must rotate the steering wheel in the direction of the
steering manoeuvre.
1. The initial rotation of the steering wheel rotates the input shaft
which tends to rotate the drive link and rotor set through the torsion
bar centering spring.
 2. Rotation of the rotor set and spool which are coupled by the drive
link is resisted by the cylinder pressure required to overcome the
steering forces.
3. As the input shaft is rotated relative to the spool the centering
spring is torsionally deflected.
4. Axial shift of the spool is inducted by the ball which is captive in the
spool and engaged in the helical groove provided in the input shaft.
5. When the spool is axially displaced within the body fluid channels
are selected connecting the engine driven pump to the intake side
of the rotor set via the commutator.
6. The exhaust side of the rotor set is connected, through the
commutator to one side of the cylinder while the other side of the
cylinder is connected to the reservoir.
7. Further axial displacement of the spool results in increased system
pressure to provide the level of pressure required.
8. A portion or all of the hydraulic fluid at the required pressure from
the engine-driven pump, depending upon the speed of steering, is
directed to the cylinder via the metering section, using cylinder
movement to accomplish the steering manoeuvre.

Manual steering operation

1. In the absence of system pressure, the driver's manual effort
displaces the spool axially.
2. When the spool is displaced within the body, fluid channels are
selected connecting the rotor set, which is now acting as a pump,
via the commutator to one side of the cylinder.
3. The return flow from the other side of the cylinder is channeled
through a recirculation valve so that the oil will flow to the intake
side of the rotor set via the commutator instead of back to the
reservoir.
4. The recirculation valve is a ball check valve in a channel connecting
the return flow chamber to the engine-driven pump pressure inlet
chamber.
5. The recirculation valve is closed during power operation.

Hydrostatic steering (with hydraulic motors)

Different tyre speed produces different steering. As the speed of the tyre
on the right side is greater than the left side, the vehicle steers to the left.
The tyre on the right-side needs traction in the driving direction during
steering process, and the tyres on the left side have a braking effect in
the steering range. Thereby it forms a steering torque which balances the
resistance torque generated between the tire and the ground in constant
speed motion state. In order to analyse the speed, force, and torque of
the driving wheel in the steering process, do the following simplified
steps:
1. The vehicle is traveling on a uniform flat ground
2. The steering process is at constant speed
3. The load of the tyres on both sides of the vehicle is the same
4. Ground pressure evenly distributes in the length of the drive tyres
touching the ground
5. The driving resistance of both sides of the driving wheel is the same

1.10 Operation of components of full power steering system

Components of full power steering system
1. Hydraulic reservoir
2. Hydraulic pump
3. Cylinders
4. motors
5. Filter
6. Steering control valve/Hand Metering Unit
7. Pressure relief valve
8. Steering wheel/STIC control lever
9. Hydraulic lines

Operation of the hydraulic steering system and components

1. Hydraulic reservoir - The purpose of the hydraulic reservoir is
to hold a volume of fluid, transfer heat from the system, allow solid
contaminants to settle and facilitate the release of air and moisture
from the fluid. The hydraulic pump transmits mechanical energy
into hydraulic energy.
2. Hydraulic pump
i. External gear pump – The operating principle of an external
gear pump is that it consists of driving gear and a driven gear
enclosed in a closely fitted housing. The gears rotate in opposite
directions and meshed at a point in the housing between the inlet
and outlet ports. As the two gears rotate, a partial vacuum is
created and draws fluid through an inlet port into chamber ‘A’
(receiving). The fluid in the chamber is trapped between gear
teeth of the two gears and the housing so that it is carried
through two separate paths to chamber ‘B’ (outlet) and the
process continues.
ii. Vane pump - A slotted rotor splined to a drive shaft rotates
between closely fitted side plates that are inside of circular
shaped ring. Polished and hardened vanes slide in and out of the
rotor slots and follow the ring contour by centrifugal force. The
vanes may be spring loaded to maintain a positive load against
 the cam ring. The pumping chambers are formed between
succeeding vanes carrying oil from the inlet to the outlet. A
partial vacuum is created in the inlet as the oil is carried away by
the vanes.
3. Cylinders
Double acting cylinders - Double acting cylinders give hydraulic
force on both sides of the piston. The piston is moved by hydraulic
pressure in either direction. While one end is receiving pressure, the
other end will be returning the oil back to the reservoir. The piston is
fitted with seals on both ends to prevent oil leak from either end.
4. Motors - Hydraulic motors convert fluid pressure into rotary
motion. Pressurized fluid from the hydraulic pump turns the motor
output shaft by pushing on the gears, pistons, or vanes of the
hydraulic motor. Hydraulic motors can be used for direct drive
applications, where sufficient torque capacity is available, or
through gear reductions. Most hydraulic motors must operate under
reversible rotation and braking conditions. Hydraulic motors often
are required to operate at relatively low speed and high pressure
and can experience wide variations in temperature and speed in
normal operation.
5. Filter - Remove from the hydraulic oil
i. Chucks from a disintegrated seal of hose
ii. Dust, dirt and miscellaneous particles like Teflon pipe joint
tape, painting and pieces of disintegrated filter.
iii. Metal particles from wearing or failed components
iv. Rust and scale from replaced pipes and other components
6. Steering control valve/Hand Metering Unit - The steering
wheel operates valves to control flow to the cylinder. The more
torque the driver applies to the steering wheel and column, the
more fluid the valves allow through to the cylinder, and so the more
force is applied to steer the wheels.

One design for measuring the torque applied to the steering wheel
has a torque sensor – a torsion bar at the lower end of the steering
column. As the steering wheel rotates, so does the steering column,
as well as the upper end of the torsion bar. Since the torsion bar is
relatively thin and flexible, and the bottom end usually resists being
rotated, the bar will twist by an amount proportional to the applied
torque. The difference in position between the opposite ends of the
torsion bar controls a valve. The valve allows fluid to flow to the
cylinder which provides steering assistance; the greater the "twist"
of the torsion bar, the greater the force.
 Operating the control valve directs the flow of fluid to one side of
the piston or the other, and controls the amount of flow to the
piston. The control valve is connected to the steering wheel such
that turning the steering wheel operates the control valve. During
straight-ahead driving the steering wheel is centered.

The hand metering unit (HMU) has two main sections: control
section, and pump or metering section. These two sections work
together to send pilot oil to the steering control valve. Oil from the
pilot pump section goes through inlet into the control section of the
HMU. When the steering wheel is turned, the control section sends
the oil to and from the metering section and also to and from the
steering control valve. The metering section is a small hydraulic
pump. It controls (meters) the pilot oil that goes to the steering
control valve. As the steering wheel is turned faster, there is an
increase in the flow of pilot oil to the steering control valve. This
increased flow causes the main valve spool to move farther. As the
spool moves farther, more oil can flow from the steering pump
section to the steering cylinders, and a faster turn is made.
7. Pressure relief valve - A directly-operated relief valve consists of
two operating ports, a ball poppet, and a tension spring. The tension
spring loads the ball poppet against the valve seat, giving the valve
a normally closed operating status. When hydraulic pressure acting
on the ball poppet is sufficient to overcome the spring pressure, the
ball unseats and permits fluid to spill back to the reservoir,
bypassing the circuit, and dropping circuit pressure. When system
pressure returns to normal, spring pressure once again loads the
poppet onto the valve seat. Directly-operated relief valves may be
adjustable. A screw located behind the tension spring permits
adjustment of the valve opening pressure.
8. Steering wheel/STIC control lever - A steering wheel and the
system it connects to primarily controls the direction of a vehicle. It
converts rotational commands of the driver into swivelling
movements of the vehicle's front wheels. Hydraulic joysticks offer
the simplicity of controlling pilot-operated valves directly, and
without electronic controls that can add cost to systems. This makes
them most attractive for smaller machines where the close
proximity of pressurized hydraulic fluid is not objectionable.

The advent of hydraulics allowed controlling much higher levels of

power via valves. A hydraulic joystick connects directly to low-
pressure (pilot) hydraulic valves, allowing an operator to control the
high-pressure "working side" of the hydraulic system. The benefits
 of hydraulic joysticks over mechanical linkage or cable systems
include simpler installation for complex control applications, the
ability to substantially increase power, and minimize maintenance.
As with mechanical controls, another significant advantage is the
ability of the operator to feel any force feedback through the
joystick.
9. Hydraulic lines
Types
i. Flexible hoses: - line connections which are used between
mobile hydraulic devices or in places where there is only
limited space. They are also used to suppress noise and
vibration especially on moving parts.
ii. Pipes: - line connections which are used between stationary
hydraulic components where there is no possibility of vibration
or movements.
iii. Fittings: - These are connectors used to connect hoses and/or
pipes together or to various hydraulic devices/components.

The selection of hoses in a hydraulic circuit is important because the

hoses play a major role in determining how the system performs.
The flow requirements of a conductor determine what the internal
diameter of a hose should be. For instance, a hose that can
withstand the pressure specification but has too small internal
diameter will restrict circuit flow, causing overheating and pressure
losses. The size of any hydraulic hose is determined by its inside
diameter.

1.11 Clutch and brake steering system

Components of clutch and brake steering system
1. Hydraulic reservoir
2. Hydraulic pump
3. Left and right steering levers
4. Left and right steering clutches
5. Service brake pedal
6. sensors

Functions of components of clutch and brake steering system

1. Hydraulic reservoir
i. To store hydraulic oil
ii. To dissipate heat from the oil
iii. To separate air from the oil
iv. To settle out contaminants in the oil
2. Hydraulic pump
 i. To push hydraulic fluid and create flow.
ii. To convert mechanical energy from the prime mover (engine
or electrical) into hydraulic (pressure) energy which is used to
operate the actuator.
3. Left and right steering levers - These are levers which are used by
operators to apply clutches for steering control either on differential
steering or clutch steering on tracked machines.
4. Left and right steering clutches - In clutch-brake differential
steering, power is disconnected to one side or the other with
a clutch, and the unpowered side may also have a brake applied to
tighten the turn. Note that there is no differential gearset in this
design. The tracks on either side of the vehicle will always turn at
the same speed unless one is declutched for steering. This method
is simple to implement but inefficient and only suitable for light
vehicles. Also, when traveling downslope under engine braking,
declutching one side to turn can result in a turn in the other
direction
5. Service brake pedal - In brake-differential steering, power is applied
to both sides through a differential and a brake is applied to one
side or the other. The slowing of one side causes the other side to
speed up, because of the differential, and so the vehicle maintains
a constant speed. A subsequent disadvantage is that changes in
rolling resistance or traction from one side to the other
automatically causes the vehicle to steer unless counteracted by
the driver. Differential steering of this type was used in many half-
track designs to assist with making tight turns.
6. Sensors - An electronically controlled clutch-brake steering control
apparatus provides control signals to electrohydraulic proportional
valves for accurately modulating the control pressures of a set of
steering clutches and brakes. A pair of sensors deliver signals,
which are indicative of track speed, to the control apparatus. The
apparatus acts to adaptively adjust selected ones of the valves to
maintain a desired track speed differential. Thus, the controllability
of the clutch-brake steering system is enhanced to effectively
compete with more expensive and complex systems.

Operation of clutch and brake steering system

The steering system on track-type tractor operates in conjunction with the
final drive. Although these two mechanisms perform different functions
and are separate assemblies, the operation of one affects the other. While
the purpose of the final drive is to reduce the output speed of the
transmission for torque increase, the purpose of the steering mechanism
is to control the action of individual tracks.
There are many design variations for these systems. This section features
the Caterpillar system as an example to explain the basic operating
principles of this design. A brake and a steer clutch are mounted together
on each side of the final drive assembly. The steering brake and clutch
assemblies are designed as modular units and are bolted together.
Depending on the manufacturer and model, the equipment’s brake
assembly is either a band or multi-clutch design.
The operating principle is the same in both cases; the braking action is
just accomplished by using different hardware designs. In operation, the
steering clutch disengages gradually to slow down the track on one side.

When the equipment has to make a hard turn, the steering clutch is
disengaged and the brake is applied, forcing the track to stop turning or
slow down depending on the amount of brake application. Power flows in
through the pinion and bevel gear set to drive a coupling that is
connected to the yoke assembly. The clutch and brake can be controlled
by either a pedal or lever. On some track-type equipment, two steering
pedals or two steering levers may be used to control spring-applied,
hydraulically released clutches. The clutch outer drum also incorporates
the brake drum. To execute a slight turn, the operator partially
disengages the clutch on one track to slow it, causing the equipment to
turn slightly because of the unequal track speeds.

The pedal-steer clutch control system uses the top valve to control the left
side of the equipment and is shown in the hold position. Pressure flows
into both control valves; no pressure is directed to the clutch from the left
control valve in this position. The oil is diverted to the right-side control
valve, where it flows past the spool to the right-side steer clutch,
disengaging it. The right control valve spool is depressed, allowing oil to
flow to the steer clutch. This design allows only one clutch to be
disengaged at a time. The flow of oil to the left steer control valve is sent
to the right-side control valve where it flows through the right control
valve spool to the steering clutch. These control valves are designed so
that each also functions as a pressure reducing valve. This allows the
operator to get feedback from the pedals; when the pressure increases,
the combination of the spring pressure and oil pressure tries to move the
spool to the right against an inner spring.
 Fig.1.38. Clutch and brake components
Instead of using levers, modern equipment usually features fingertip
steering controls that use electro-hydraulics to control the flow of oil to
the steer clutch brake assembly. The assembly is lubricated and oil cooled
with oil that is circulated through an oil cooler with a pump. The steering
clutches are applied by hydraulic pressure, and the brake is applied by
spring pressure and released with hydraulic pressure. When the operator
activates the controls for a hard turn, the steering clutch is fully
disengaged and the brake is applied. The systems are designed to apply
the brakes automatically when hydraulic pressure is lost.

Operation of electronic clutch and brake steering system

1. Forced oil flow lubricates and cools clutch packs to provide
maximum clutch life.
2. Electronic Clutch Pressure Control Provides smoother shifting by
modulating individual clutches.
3. Steering Clutch and Brake Fade resistant and adjustment free.
4. The multi-disc, oil-cooled steering clutches are hydraulically applied
and electronically controlled.
5. The brakes are applied by springs and hydraulically released for
safe and reliable braking performance.

Differential steering system

Differential steering is used on equipment that requires more precise
control of the drive tracks. This system uses a series of planetary gears to
provide torque input to the drive tracks, and a third input from a steering
motor that can increase the speed of each track. When the speed of one
track is increased, the other track slows down proportionally. The term
differential steer comes from the action that takes place when the
equipment is steered; it uses the same principle of operation as a
conventional differential—when one side speeds up, the other slows down
in equal proportion.
Components of Differential steering system
1. Pinion
2. Planetary gear sets
3. Steering motor

Function and operation of components of Differential steering

system

Pinion
Two basic designs of pinion drives are used on off-road equipment. The
first has the drive assembly located in the differential housing while the
second type has the final reduction incorporated into the outer end of the
final drive. The pinion drive is possibly the most common of all the final
drives used on off-road equipment. Most manufacturers use pinion drives
on the majority of small track equipment, such as bulldozers. This drive
utilizes a single gear reduction and is often called a bull-type final drive.
The spur gear and pinion drive design are commonly found on smaller
equipment; it has the advantage of containing all the gears in the
differential transmission case, making it more compact and cost-effective
to service and maintain because only one lubrication system is necessary.
This design is quite popular on small tractors as the power is transmitted
in a straight line to the wheel ends, minimizing cost by requiring fewer
parts. The axle shafts generally have two tapered roller bearings mounted
to the shaft to carry the weight of the machine and absorb end thrust;
they connect to the final drive gears by splines on the axle shaft ends. The
bearings are generally located at either end of the axle shaft facing each
other. Bearing preload can be altered either by shimming or by an
adjusting nut with a locking mechanism to maintain the proper preload
setting.

Planetary gear sets

In simple planetary gears, the torque flows from the axle to the sun gear,
which transfers the torque to the planet gears that are mounted together
on a carrier. Depending on the size of the final drive, there can be up to
four planets mounted on a carrier rotating within a stationary ring gear.
The ring gear is held stationary by either bolts or held on splines. The
principle adheres to one of four planetary gear laws: Whenever the planet
carrier is the output and the ring gear is held, a forward reduction drive
result.

Note: The more planets there are, the higher the capacity of the gear set.
 Fig.1.39. Planetary gearset

The planetary differential steer system uses a drive planetary that sends
torque to a planetary on each end of the assembly. The left planetary set
is called the steering planetary; the set on the right is called the
equalizing planetary. Power to the assembly can be sourced from either
the transmission or a steering motor, which can drive the steering
planetary. When the operator activates the steering controls, the
hydraulic steering motor receives power from the equipment’s closed-loop
hydraulic system.

Steering motor
Steering motors are designed in different forms depending on machine
manufacturer. Steering motors operate just like any other hydraulic
motor. Steering motor output is controlled by a steering control lever,
which determines the direction and speed of the steer motor. During a left
turn, the steering motor rotates the steering planetary ring gear in the
opposite direction of the planetary carrier. Any input from the steer motor
results in a change in speed and direction of the steering planetary ring
gear and causes speed differences between tracks. The steering motor
turns the steering planetary ring gear in the opposite direction, forcing the
steering planets to turn in the same direction as the ring gear.
 Fig.1.40. Steering motor position

A steering control system senses the position of a non-spring centered

steering wheel, vehicle speed, engine speed, steering motor speed,
whether or not the transmission is in gear or in neutral, and whether the
clutch is engaged or disengaged. In order to prevent a self-perpetuating
turn situation, the control system gradually decreases the steering motor
speed if the transmission is in neutral or the clutch is not engaged, and
the steering motor speed divided by the vehicle speed is greater than a
threshold, and the vehicle speed is less than a reference level.

Summary

 Automobiles are controlled by a steering system.

 For ensuring a proper control of the automobile, the driver must be
able to
1. tum in different directions so that it may not go astray.
2. control the speed of the vehicle for moving according to
requirements.
3. slow down or stop when required whether slowly or suddenly.
 A good steering system must perform the following functions
satisfactorily.
1. It provides wheels swinging to the left or right.
2. It provides vehicle turning as per the will of the driver.
3. It provides the directional stability.
4. It helps to control wear and tear of tyres.
5. It helps in achieving the self-rightening effect.
 6. It converts the rotary movement of the steering wheel into an
angular turn of front wheels.
7. It multiples the effort of the driver by leverage to make Wheels
easy to turn.
8. It absorbs a major part of road shocks in such a way from being
transmitted to hands of the driver.
 For ensuring proper, smooth operation and performance of the
steering system, the steering system of any vehicle should satisfy
the following requirements.
1. It multiples the turning efforts applied on the steering wheel by
the driver.
2. The shocks of the road surface absorbed by wheels should not
be transmitted to the driver’s hands.
3. When the driver releases the steering wheel after completing
the turn, the wheel should achieve a straight-ahead position
immediately, called self-rightening effect.
4. It must keep the wheel at all time in rolling motion without
rubbing on the road.
5. This system should associate to control the speed.
6. It must be light and stable.
7. It must easily be operated with less maintenance.
 The layout of the steering system differs with the type of steering
system whether manual, power assisted or full power steering or
Track-type
 The typical heavy vehicle equipped with conventional steering
system consists of: a steering wheel, steering column, steering gear
box, drop arm, a drag link, steering arm, stub axle, track rod and
tie-rods.
 The steering gearbox contains the gears that transmit the driver’s
steering inputs to the steering linkage that turns the wheels, and it
multiplies the driver’s steering changes so that the front wheels
move more than the steering wheel.
 The automotive steering column is a device intended primarily for
connecting the steering wheel to the steering mechanism.
 In an active four-wheel steering system, all four wheels turn at the
same time when the driver steers.
 Steering geometry is the geometric arrangement of the parts of a
steering system, and the value of the lengths and angles within it.
 Toe, also known as tracking, is the symmetric angle that each wheel
makes with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, as a function of
static geometry, and kinematic and compliant effects.
 When a steering box is centralised, it has equal number of turns
from the central position to full lock, both left and right.
 The Ackermann principle is based on the two front steered wheels
being pivoted at the ends of the axle beam.

Reference materials:
 Angelo, S. ‘et al’, (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy
Equipment Systems. New York. USA.
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Scott A H, (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems
Approach (Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty). Pearson Education.
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.
UNIT B13.2: DISASSEMBLING AND
ASSEMBLING STEERING SYSTEMS

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Observe safety regulations / procedures
2. Remove and refit Hydraulic Steering components
3. Disassemble steering components
4. Assemble steering system components

2.1. Safety on Various steering system components: -

1. Use appropriate Personal protective equipment
2. Adhere to set safety procedures
3. Use owner’s workshop manual

2.2. Removing and refitting Hydraulic Steering components

Follow owner’s manual to:
1. Remove steering components
2. Clean all components

2.3. Disassembling steering system components

Disassemble steering components according to owner’s service manual.
Mark all components before disassembly and arrange them in the order of
disassembly.
1. Steering pump
2. Steering control valve
3. Steering cylinder
4. Steering gear box

2.4. Inspecting steering components for damage

Inspect steering components according to owner’s manual for:
1. Damage
2. Wear
3. Crakes
4. Scores
5. Clearances
2.5. Assembling steering system components
Assemble steering components according to owner’s service manual
beginning with the last components to disassemble.
1. Steering pump
2. Steering control valve
3. Steering cylinder
4. Steering gear box

Disassemble worm and roller steering box

1. Prepare tools / equipment

2. Clean steering box externally
3. Mount steering box in a vice
4. Remove nut holding the drop arm to the rocker shaft
5. Mark the drop arm to the rocker shaft
6. Tap the drop arm and remove it from the rocker shaft
7. Remove steering box top cover and adjuster
8. Remove rocker shaft from housing
9. Remove end cover and bearing from housing and with draw the
worm.

Inspections
1. Clean all components
2. Inspect all bearings and seals
3. Check condition of worm and roller
4. Check general condition of the steering box
5. Check splines on rocker shaft and drop arm
6. Check condition of rocker arm shaft bushes

Reassembling procedure
1. Lubricate bearings on the worm
2. Install worm in the housing
3. Fit end cover and adjust bearing preload
4. Install rocker/roller assembly into the housing
5. Fit the cover, adjust end float, either by shims or screw
6. Fit drop arm on rocker shaft observing marks
7. Tighten nut to correct specification
8. Fill oil to correct level.

Critical adjustments
The worm and sector gears have bearings as well as thrust washers or
spacers that are used to adjust internal clearances. The input shaft and
sector gear output shaft also have adjustment plugs, screws or shims for
adjusting worm bearing preload and gear mesh preload. Accurate setting
of these critical adjustments is essential because excessive clearances
can make the steering feel loose, while insufficient clearances may cause
the steering to bind or wear prematurely.

Hydrostatic steering valve service

Definition
This is a hydraulic component that directs fluid flow in hydrostatic steering
system to control heavy duty machine direction using a steering wheel.

Fig.2.1. Exploded view of orbitrol valve

Terms used to call hydrostatic steering:

1. Hydraulic steering,
2. orbitrol steering,
3. orbitrol units,
i. Our Hydraulic hydrostatic steering units are designed for use on
low speed vehicles such as:
a. Forklifts,
b. Tractors,
c. Loaders,
d. Mowers,
e. Fishing boats,
f. Construction equipment,
g. Aircraft ground support vehicles,
h. Mining and earthmoving equipment.
 ii. These hydrostatic steering units allow vehicles to be steered
without mechanical connections.
iii. They have in-built valve options such as:
a. relief valves,
b. check valves,
c. plus, load sensing,
d. Load reaction circuits are available.
e. Thus, making a compact steering unit and reducing the need
for additional hydraulic components in the system.
f. Steering wheels and columns are available for complete bolt
together systems with a range of wheel diameters and shaft
lengths to choose from.

Disassembly procedure
1. Clean the valve using the correct solvent.
2. Mark the housing parts.
3. With valve turned upside down and fixed in a fixture,
4. Using the correct wrench remove the cap screws,
5. Remove the end cap,
6. Remove the gerotor set,
7. Observe all safety procedures.
8. Turn the housing.
9. Using a soft hammer and a punch:
10. Punch out the control sleeve assembly.
i. Remove the centering pin to remove the control spool.
ii. Remove the bearings.

Inspection
1. Clean component parts.
2. Check control sleeve for wear,
3. Check spool valve for wear,
4. Check housing for:
i. Scores
ii. Wear and
5. Cracks.
6. Using compressed air, blow out dirt from oil passage ways.
7. Check gerotor set for wear.

Reassembly procedure
1. Lubricate all component parts using hydraulic oil.
2. Replace all seals and O-rings.
3. Assemble in the reverse order from disassembly.
 NOTE
Observe the marks on the housing for correct reassembly.

Bevel gear:
If you have to dismantle the bevel gear is bolted to the bevel gear shaft.
To replace remove the cover. After the cover is removed take off the
steering clutch arms, trunnions then disconnect the brake linkage, remove
the bevel gear guard [dog house] remove cap screws from the steering
clutch drums, push and prise the drums to the centre of the bulldozer.

1. Loosen steering clutch shaft adjusting nuts

2. Remove cap screw
3. Remove caps and mark them so they return to the original position.
4. Make a sling and remove the assembly.

Fig.2.2. Bevel gears

1. You can wash and clean out the steering clutches and brakes if oil,
grease etc. creeps in.
2. There are two drain plugs under the clutch housings.
3. Wash when machine is cool and not hot. Use non-flammable liquid;
remove small covers from the back of the transmission case directly
behind each clutch.
4. Fill each so each clutch is approximately 4” of fluid.
5. Don’t release the steering clutches but move the machine forward
and back about 25 meters each time say 3 to 4 times.
6. Then drain the fluid and see repeat if it doesn’t clean.
7. Use clean fluid then operate the machine back and forth engaging
the steering and apply release brakes as well. Repeat if dirt drains
etc.
8. Tie the steering clutch lever back and release clutches so fluid can
drain out.
9. Make sure you lubricate release bearing and replace drain plugs
 Summary

 During maintenance, adhere to all set safety procedures during

maintenance
 Disassemble steering components according to owner’s service
manual. Mark all components before disassembly and arrange them
in the order of disassembly.
 Inspect steering components according to owner’s manual for
physical damage
 Assemble steering components according to owner’s service manual
beginning with the last components to disassemble.
 The worm and sector gears have bearings as well as thrust washers
or spacers that are used to adjust internal clearances.
 Our Hydraulic hydrostatic steering units are designed for use on low
speed vehicles
 These hydrostatic steering units allow vehicles to be steered without
mechanical connections.
 Steering wheels and columns are available for complete bolt
together systems with a range of wheel diameters and shaft lengths
to choose from.
 You can wash and clean out the steering clutches and brakes if oil,
grease etc. creeps in.

Reference materials

 Angelo, S. ‘et al’, (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy

Equipment Systems. New York. USA.
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Scott A H, (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems
Approach (Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty). Pearson Education.
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
  Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.3: SERVICING AND REPAIRING

STEERING SYSTEM

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to;

1. Observe safety procedures
2. Perform steering system services

1.1. Safety procedures

1. Select proper tools and equipment
2. Hydraulic pressure testing
3. Cleanliness/contamination control
4. PPE

1.2. Steering system services

1. Filter change
2. Oil change and sampling
3. Rectify leakages
4. Replace damaged parts
5. Secure loose parts and hoses

Reference materials

 Angelo, S. ‘et al’, (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy

Equipment Systems. New York. USA.
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
  Scott A H, (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems
Approach (Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty). Pearson Education.
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.4: DIAGNOSING STEERING SYSTEM

FAULTS

Unit outcomes
At the end of the unit, you will be able to:
1. Testing and adjusting steering system
2. Diagnosing steering faults

1.1. Testing and adjusting steering system

1. Pressure testing
2. Hard steering
3. Complete no steering
4. No steering to one side
5. Steering cycle test – (time taken to steer from lock to lock in
seconds)
6. Diagnosing steering faults

1.2. Power steering diagnosis

 Power steering does not work, steers hard or is slow

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Air in system Bleed system
Check for oil leaks
2 Internal leakage in Components may not be adjusted properly
system Parts may be worn or broken
Check for cause of wear
3 System not properly Time according to recommended
timed
4 Worn or damaged Check and replace bearings in steering
bearing components
5 Insufficiency pressure Check pump and relief valves
Check any contaminations

Table 4.1. steering failure diagnosis

 Table 4.2. Faulty diagnosis

Reference materials

 Angelo, S. ‘et al’, (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy

Equipment Systems. New York. USA.
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
  Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Scott A H, (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems
Approach (Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty). Pearson Education.
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.5: MAINTAINING SUSPENSION

SYSTEM

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Explain operating principles of suspension components
2. Test suspension components
3. Carry out wheel alignment
4. Carry out troubleshooting of faults

Introduction
The suspension is the assembly that links axles to the vehicle frame.
The automobile frame and body are mounted on the front and rear axle
not directly but through some form of springs and shock absorbers. The
suspension assembly dampens road shocks transmitted to the frame by
the wheels. Thus, the suspension system includes springs, shock
absorber and their mountings. The suspension system of a motor
vehicle is divided into the rear-end suspension and front-end
suspension.

5.1. Operating principles of suspension components

Functions of suspension system
1. To reduce the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle
frame.
2. To support the applied load
3. To maintain tyre contact with the road.
4. To provide adequate wheel travel over road irregularities
5. To transmit steering, braking and driving forces
6. To provide steering, braking and driving torque reaction
7. To maintain proper steering geometry.
 8. To resist lateral axle movement when cornering
9. Resist longitudinal axle movement when braking or accelerating

An ideal suspension system would allow the vehicle body to travel along
the road without any of the three basic suspension movements which are:
1. Bounce; (a vertical movement of the complete vehicle)
2. Pitch; (a rocking chair action from front to rear)
3. Roll; (a movement about a longitudinal axis produced by centrifugal
force when cornering)

The tyres deflect and absorb small irregularities of the road but larger
bumps and potholes are absorbed by suspension springs. As the wheels
rise and fall with the road contours, the springs should absorb much of the
movement and the chassis should then move much less than the wheel.

Operating terms include the following: -

1. Suspension travel
2. Spring rate
3. Spring oscillation
4. Spring/un-spring masses

Other suspension terms

1. Sprung mass: every part of the vehicle supported by the
suspension spring.
2. Unsprung mass: vehicle components and parts which are attached
to the axles. Unsprung mass follows the contour of the road during
vehicle movement.

Fig. 5.1. Sprung vs unsprung mass

3. Bounce: the upward motion of a tire, the action which compresses

the spring.
4. Rebound: the downward motion or expansion of the spring that
forces the tire to contact the road surface.
5. Over slung: spring assembly fastened to the top of the axle seat.
 6. Under slung: spring assembly fastened to the bottom of the axle
seat.

Fig. 5.2. overslung vs underslung suspension arrangement

7. Suspension travel: the total vertical movement of the suspension

system.
8. Spring rate: is the deflection of a spring measured one inch
(25.4mm) above and one inch (25.4mm) below the mid-point of the
specified loaded position (load range- which refers to the maximum
load capacity of the spring).

To reduce the spring rate, (thus increasing the load range)

manufacturers make one or more of the following spring design
changes;
i. Increase the number of leaves
ii. Increase the thickness of the leaves
iii. Increase the width of the leaves
iv. Increase the diameter of the coil spring wire
v. Reduce the number of coils
vi. Shorten the overall length of the spring assembly

9. Spring oscillation: refers to a number of bounce and rebound (up

and down) motions of a spring.

5.2. Testing suspension components

1. Steel spring suspension
2. Rubber suspension
3. Hydro-pneumatic suspension
4. Air suspension

The suspension system mainly consists of the following components.

Springs
1. Shock absorber
2. Suspension arms
3. Ball joints
4. Rubber bushings
5. Strut rod (or bars)
 6. Stabilizer bar

Of these components, springs and shock absorbers are used in all

suspension systems while others are found in only some.

Springs
Springs are designed to prevent shocks from the road surface
irregularities and vibration of the wheels from reaching the vehicle body
directly. They also help enhance the tires’ road-holding ability. On heavy
vehicles, springs connect the vehicle body and chassis to the axle. Most
cars are not designed with separate body and chassis assemblies.

Principle action of a suspension spring:

The basic characteristic of a spring is that it is elastic. This springy action
results from special manufacturing procedures and from a property called
“elasticity”, possessed by this material. Elasticity is the ability of a
stressed material to return to its original shape when the force deforming
it is removed.

Springs work on the principle of being deformed and then return to their
original shape. The basic purpose of a spring is to absorb bumps and
irregularities in the road, hence providing a degree of safety for the
payload and comfort for the operator.
A spring that could absorb road shocks rapidly and return to its static
position slowly without over expanding would be ideal and most suitable
for any suspension; but to date such a spring has not been developed, nor
is there a spring that is equally effective under loaded and unloaded
conditions. As a compromise, that is, to have a stiff suspension for the
loaded condition and a soft suspension for the unloaded condition,
numerous types of springs have been designed.

Steel springs are in three designs;

Coil springs, Torsion bar springs and Leaf springs. Coil and torsion bar
springs are suitably used on cars and light on-highway trucks while leaf
springs, whether multi-leaf or single leaf, are commonly used on heavy on
high-way trucks.
 Fig.5.3. Coil spring suspension arrangement

1. Coil springs - Coil springs are made of spring steel rods formed
into spirals. As the sole function of the coil springs is to lighten
shocks, the springs can be made softer to provide a comfortable
ride. Coil springs used on independent front suspension units are
usually designed as McPherson strut. Independent I-beam
suspension on heavy vehicles do not use strut unit in the assembly.
2. Leaf springs - Leaf springs are bent blades of spring steel that can
flex freely. They are stiffer, and provide a rougher ride. However,
Leaf springs are reliable, of simple structure and durable hence
commonly used on light and heavy trucks. As well as supporting
vehicle mass and load, cushion the chassis from road shocks leaf
springs maintain axle spacing and alignment.

Types of leaf springs:

The most common leaf spring designs are:
i. Semi-elliptical (so named because of their shape)
ii. Quarter-elliptical (used in conjunction with an air suspension
spring)
iii. Single-leaf springs or staked single-leaf spring (are tapered springs
which have one, two or three leaves).
iv. Multi-leaf springs: have several single leaves which vary in length
but are of the same width and thickness. The ends may be square,
trimmed to a shape, tapered, or rolled to a spring eye. The second
leaf may be wrapped partly around the main spring eye. Most
leaves are formed (cambered) heat-treated, and then coated for
protection, although the multi-leaf springs for off-highway
equipment and motor vehicles are not cambered.
When the spring is flexed due to changes in the load, even if the length of
the spring changes, the shackle can compensate for the change. A centre
bolt holds the leaves together as a unit and the head of the bolt serves as
a locating dowel to position the spring to the axle spring seat. Rebound
clips or clamps are used to keep the leaves in alignment. The rebound
clips also reduce the rebound.

Multi-leaf springs used on steering axles for heavy vehicles may be

constructed with leaves of unequal distance from the centre bolt to the
spring eye. The purpose of this type of spring design is to achieve smooth
acceleration, maximize efficiency when transmitting brake torque to the
frame during braking, thereby prevent wheel hop. The spring of this
design must be mounted so that the shorter part faces forward.
In the recent past, the single or staked single-leaf springs of the tapered
design have become quite popular on steering, trailer and drive axles.

They are highly acceptable because of their variable spring rate design,
which provides good handling and steering under all loaded and unloaded
conditions. They have proved less subject to breakage and they weigh
less than a multi-leaf spring of the same load range. In addition, their
brake torque and weight transfer are about 40 percent better than that of
a multi-leaf spring. Another way to improve front wheel handling and
steering is with the use of a two-stage spring rate suspension. In this
design, the main and the second leaves are about one-third longer toward
the rear than the third leaf. A second spring slipper bracket is bolted
above, but close to the end of the third leaf.

When the vehicle is under light load, or not loaded, there is a gap between
the inside of slipper bracket and the main leaf, and the sprung weight is
transferred from the frame rail to the spring eye and outside spring slipper
bracket. Nearly all spring deflection is through the main and second
leaves. Under a load, the main leaf comes to rest against the inside
slipper bracket, thereby reducing the overall length of the spring; the
spring weight is now transferred from the frame rail to the spring eye and
the two slipper brackets.

The individual leaves for a multi-leaf assembly are separated by Delrin

liners to alleviate fretting and corrosion and to reduce inter-leaf friction.
When the spring is under low sprung weight only, the ends reflect at a
high rate, and when at or below maximum sprung weight the spring
length increases until it is almost straight. Under this condition the entire
spring deflects, but at a lower spring rate.
 Fig. 5.4. Types of leaf springs

3. Torsion bar springs - Torsion bar suspension uses a long alloy

steel bar as a spring. The spring action is produced by the twisting
effect on the bar. One end of the bar is fixed to the chassis while the
other end is attached to a suspension component which moves up
and down with suspension travel. Torsion bar springs have similar
functions as that for coil springs, which is to lessen road shocks.
They also need axle arms to support the axle. The structure of the
torsion bar spring is simpler than that of the coil springs.

Fig.5.5. Torsion bar springs

Non-steel springs
1. Rubber springs - Rubber springs (or rubber blocks) may be used
as either a helper for the main spring or as a main spring itself.
Rubber springs are designed to stiffen in proportion to an increase
in load. Rubber main springs often have alternate rubber blocks and
steel plates bonded together or may be solid rubber moulded in a
variety of shapes according to the design characteristics of the
suspension.
 Fig.5.6. Rubber springs

Rubber springs have several advantages when used on heavy vehicles

including:
i. Very high roll stiffness
ii. Reduced high frequency vibration caused by the road surface
iii. Cheaper and less complex than other springs
iv. Better quality ride than leaf springs
v. No maintenance is required
vi. Good fail-safe factor as all location is by radius rods
vii. Greater service life than leaf spring
Rubber helper springs are designed so that, as the vehicle load increases,
the springs contact the chassis and stiffen the suspension. This contact
occurs when the vehicle is approximately two thirds loaded.

2. Compressed air springs - Compressed air (air bag) springs are

used in air suspension systems and provide smooth and consistent
ride quality whether the vehicle is empty or fully loaded. Air bags
are flexible and filled with compressed air from the air supply
system of the vehicle. The compressed air in the bag is the actual
springing medium. The volume and pressure of air in each bag is
determined by a levelling valve. Air suspension systems are “soft”
and need shock absorbers and anti-roll bars for vehicle stability and
torque arms for axle location.

Construction:
The basic air suspension system consists of an air compressor and
levelling valves as well as a number of air bags (air springs). The air
supply for the system is provided by a compressor which pressurizes a
reservoir to approximately 1400 kpa. The air is piped in parallel to the
inlet ports of the levelling valves. The outlet ports of the levelling valves
are connected with hoses to the air bags. A safety valve is fitted between
the compressor and reservoir and a non-return valve is fitted to the
reservoir inlet.
The levelling valves work independently and control the volume and
pressure in the air bags, thus maintaining a constant static chassis height,
even with an offset load. The constant static height of the chassis to axle
beam is kept in the mid-stroke position of the air bag and ensures that full
suspension travel is available whether the vehicle is empty or has a full
payload. A delay device is incorporated in the levelling valve to ensure
that air volume and pressure is adjusted only according to load and not
suspension travel.

The levelling valve is bolted to the vehicle frame. The actuating lever arm
is fastened to the axle through an adjustable rod. There is one levelling
valve for each air bag or the two left-and the two right-hand air bags (on
tandem axles) are connected in parallel to one levelling valve.

When two or more axles are used with air suspension system, load-
sharing is achieved by interconnecting all the air bags on one side of the
suspension system. When the load is increased on one axle, the air
pressure rises in that air bag and this increased pressure is transferred to
the other air bags on the same side of the vehicle. This equalizes the load
on the axles. Unless special isolator valves are used, air bags on both
sides of the vehicle must not be interconnected. If they were
interconnected, body roll would be increased and vehicle stability and
handling would suffer. When two front air bags controlled by one levelling
valve, the pressure is transmitted to both through an isolator valve. This
valve allows compressed air to pass to or exhaust from each air bag, but
only permits sufficient flow between the air bags to equalize the static
pressure and ensure roll stiffness.

Types of air springs

There are three designs of air springs used on on-and off-highway trucks.
1. Diaphragm air spring - This type has the air cell or diaphragm
clamped to the top plate. The top plate is bolted to the frame rail
and the piston is bolted to the axle, the spring seat or the spring
saddle.
2. Bellow air spring - This type of air spring has one or two
convolute sections which are either round or oblong. The top and
bottom plates are bonded or clamped to the self-retaining
flexible member. The top plate is fastened to the frame rail, and
the lower plate is fastened to the spring seat or spring saddle.
3. Hydro pneumatic spring - This type consists of a cylinder and
a piston. It uses liquid and gas. The spring action is provided by
the confined gas and the damping action is provided by the liquid
 that is restricted through orifices from flowing from one part of
the assembly to the other. The hydro pneumatic spring is
exclusively used on off-highway dump trucks with tonnage over
35 tonnes. They have an advantage of withstanding more
adverse service conditions than any other types of suspension
springs.

Description of Hydro pneumatic suspension springs:

Hydro pneumatic springs are used on both front and rear axles of the off-
highway dump trucks. Basically, a hydro-pneumatic spring performs the
following functions;
1. Carrying the sprung mass
2. Reduce vehicle oscillation
3. Reduce impact when the truck is loading
4. Act as a kingpin (pivoting the steering action)

In construction, the hydro-pneumatic spring consists of:

1. a stationary cylinder (housing); which is pinned bolted or fastened
through a ball stud to a bracket that is welded to the truck frame
2. a movable piston rod or piston pinned or fastened through a ball
stud to the axle housing or to the front spindle.

About 80% of hydro-pneumatic spring assembly is filled with engine or

hydraulic oil to provide lubrication as well as shock absorber action. The
remaining volume is charged with dry nitrogen gas to provide the spring
action. Wear rings on the top and bottom support and guide the piston rod
or piston on the cylinder wall. Seals and wipers are used to seal these
wear rings.

The bearing retainer with wear rings is bolted to the piston rod or piston.
The later has several orifices and one check valve. The orifices, however,
are not in the same plane. They are arranged in a spiral around the piston
rod or piston to control the flow rate. When the cylinder is installed, filled
with oil, and charged with dry nitrogen to about 200 psi (1378 kpa), the
piston rod or piston extends to a specific distance.

Nitrogen gas is the only gas approved for use in hydro-pneumatic

suspensions because it will not explode when mixed with oil or when
subjected to pressure.
 Fig.5.7. Hydro-pneumatic suspension cylinders

Operation:
During operation, when a tyre rolls over an obstacle, the wheel is forced
upward and its motion is directly or indirectly transmitted to the piston rod
or piston, forcing it up also. At the same time the pressure between the
bearing retainer and cap structure or ball returner increases, and as a
result the oil inside the piston rod or piston is forced through the orifices
and check valve and into the low-pressure area, damping the upward
movement of the tyre.

When the upward force ceases, the gas and oil pressure, along with the
unsprung weight, forces the piston rod or piston downward. This increases
the oil pressure between the piston rod or piston and the cylinder walls; at
the same time the oil and nitrogen pressure above the bearing retainer
decreases. This dampens the extension of the piston rod or piston
because the check valve closes and the oil must pass through several
orifices. As the piston rod or piston further extends, the orifices, one after
the other, close off.

Air suspension
An increasing number of heavy-duty trucks and trailers are equipped with
air spring suspension systems. These suspensions may be fully
pneumatic (all air springs) or combination air/leaf spring suspension. The
air bag or air spring suspension system provides a smooth shock- and
vibration-free ride with a pre-set constant frame height. Using it in
combination with steel leaf springs helps it to overcome some of its
disadvantages.
Air suspensions have been used as the rear suspension on highway
tractors and on trailers for many years, but more recently they have
gained acceptance on the front steer axle of trucks. The key to making air
springs possible on front axles is to dampen the spring oscillations
effectively so that steering control is not compromised. This is achieved
on current systems by combining the air spring with steel or composite
leaf springs and shock absorbers.

Adaptive suspension
The air springs on the suspension system can either take the place of
mechanical leaf-type springs or be used in conjunction with them. Air
springs minimize road shock transfer to the truck frame, the cargo, and
the driver/operator. The air spring suspension system adjusts to load
conditions automatically, providing a low rate suspension with light or no
loads and a high rate suspension with heavier loads. The term adaptive
suspension is often used to describe this feature. The primary
disadvantage of the air springs is a zero ability to dampen suspension
oscillations. For this reason, they use auxiliary dampening mechanisms
such as shock absorbers. In this section, we will take a look at both fully
pneumatic and combination air/leaf spring suspensions. Some features of
air spring suspensions include the following:
1. Front pivotal bushing controls chassis roll and axle alignment while
permitting vertical up or down spring travel.
2. Suspension brackets attach to the frame by welding or bolting.
3. Trailing arms are steel box beams.
4. The axle connection is a seat assembly, which is welded as part of
the beam and U-bolted.
5. The air suspension circuit incorporates a pressure protection valve
so the leaks in the suspension system do not siphon the chassis air
system.

Air circuit

Fig.5.8. Air suspension circuit

Adaptive suspension
The air springs on the suspension system can either take the place of
mechanical leaf-type springs or be used in conjunction with them. Air
springs minimize road shock transfer to the truck frame, the cargo, and
the driver/operator. The air spring suspension system adjusts to load
conditions automatically, providing a low rate suspension with light or no
loads and a high rate suspension with heavier loads. The term adaptive
suspension is often used to describe this feature. The primary
disadvantage of the air springs is a zero ability to dampen suspension
oscillations. For this reason, they use auxiliary dampening mechanisms
such as shock absorbers. In this section, we will take a look at both fully
pneumatic and combination air/leaf spring suspensions. Some features of
air spring suspensions include the following:
1. Front pivotal bushing controls chassis roll and axle alignment while
permitting vertical up or down spring travel.
2. Suspension brackets attach to the frame by welding or bolting.
3. Trailing arms are steel box beams.
4. The axle connection is a seat assembly, which is welded as part of
the beam and U-bolted.
5. The air suspension circuit incorporates a pressure protection valve
so the leaks in the suspension system do not siphon the chassis air
system.

Air suspension components

An advantage of air spring suspensions is their simplicity combined with
the ability to adapt to load and road conditions. The key to the adaptive
capability of an air suspension is the height control valve. The major
components of an air suspension system are:
1. Height control valve
2. Pressure regulator
3. Air lines
4. Air bags or springs
5. Shock absorbers

Height Control Valve

An air spring suspension system is managed by a simple lever-actuated
valve known as a height control valve (also known as a levelling
valve). The height control valve automatically maintains chassis ride
height. The height control valve is usually mounted at the rear of the truck
frame, but other arrangements also are used. The valve has a lever rigidly
connected to the rear axle assembly by means of a linkage rod. This
height control lever controls air into and out of the air springs. When the
axle moves upward, as when passing over a road bump, the lever is
forced upward. The reverse would occur if the axle dropped into a pothole.

Moving the height control lever charges and discharges air to the air
springs. To prevent rapid cycling, a delay mechanism is built into most
height control valves.
In a neutral position, the lever is parallel to the ground, and that means
the air suspension should be properly inflated to level the vehicle. No air
can pass through the valve. When the lever is moved off its horizontal
position, it meters or exhausts air from the air bags it supplies, depending
on whether it is moved up or down. However, when the vehicle is being
driven, a hydraulic delay feature dampens random inputs from typical
road shock (bumps and potholes) to keep the valve from rapid cycling
between opening and closing. This is known as a delay feature.

Fig.5.9. Height control valve location

Regulator
The air used in most air suspensions on trucks and trailers is regulated to
a value lower than chassis system pressure. This means that the first
device in a suspension circuit is a pressure regulator. Different values are
used that vary according to OEM and application, but 90 psi (620 kPa) is
typical. Most regulators are combined with a pressure protection check
valve used to prevent the suspension system from siphoning chassis air in
the event of a serious leak.

Air Springs
The air springs or air bags used in air suspension systems are of either the
reversible sleeve type or the convoluted type. The most common type of
air spring in use today on trucks and trailers is the reversible sleeve type.
 Fig.5.10. Air springs

The major components of air springs are:

1. Stud. Used to attach the spring to the suspension; usually
manufactured as a part of the bead assembly.
2. Combo Stud. Serves the dual purpose of mounting the spring to the
suspension and providing a threaded air port to which an air line
can be coupled.
3. Bead Plate. Usually crimped onto the bellows during manufacture; it
enables pressure testing following assembly.
4. Bellows or Bag. The rubber inflatable spring member that is
charged with compressed air.
Usually manufactured from at least four plies (layers) of material: an
inner layer, two or four plies of cord-reinforced fabric, and an outer
cover. The rubber construction withstands temperatures down to
−65°F (−53°C).
5. Bumper or Jounce Block. Prevents pedestal to frame plate contact
in the event of sudden air pressure loss or severe jounce. Supports
the frame when the air springs are fully exhausted.
6. Pedestal or Piston. Used only on the reversible sleeve air springs;
usually made of aluminium, but steel, fiberglass, or hard rubber
also can be used. The pedestal provides a mount for the air spring
in the form of tapped holes or studs.
7. Piston Bolt. Attaches the piston to the bellows assembly. In some
cases, it may be extended to serve as a means of attaching the
spring to the suspension.
8. Blind Nut. A permanent part of the bead plate assembly; it provides
an alternate mounting system to the stud.
9. Air Fitting. Provides an air port to charge the spring.
10. Girdle Hoop. A ring between the convolutions of the
convoluted type spring; used to provide lateral stability.
Electronically controlled air suspension
To meet the requirements of higher performance of air suspensions in a
cost favourable way and to take full benefit of the potential of air
suspensions, an electronically controlled air suspension system (ECAS) for
trucks and buses has been developed and introduced into the market.

The functions of the entire system, its components as well as the

advantages of the ECAS are described in comparison to the conventionally
controlled air suspension systems. Moreover, the system is extended to a
semi-active suspension control, i. e. the integration of the damping control
into the air suspension control. The result is a further improvement of the
ride properties.

Fig.5.11. Electronic air suspension circuit

Technical features and components

1. Provides electronic control of air suspension systems
2. Optimizes the vehicle’s chassis height on air-suspended axles
3. Offers quick & easy height adjustment via dashboard switch or
remote-control unit
4. Ensures automatic return-to-ride height after drive-off
5. Worldwide application support for both 24V and 12V systems

Electronic control unit

1. Monitors and evaluates incoming signals from sensors
2. Initiates corresponding actions by the solenoid valve
 3. Allows for customized parametrization of functions
4. Software design enables modular system upgrades
5. Enables access to internally compiled operating data
6. Housing design enables stacking with Solenoid Valve

Remote control unit

1. Wired high-end RCU attached to cabin
2. Dedicated for ECAS functionality on trucks
3. Standardized interface with LIN protocol
4. Protected against environmental influences through IP64 protection

Solenoid valve
1. Activated by the ECU to control bellow pressure precisely
2. Composite body design for durability and low weight
3. Durable design allows for a specified one million activations
4. Comes with three fixation points to support stacking

Pressure sensor
1. Measures bellow pressure on air suspended axle
2. Piezoresistive measurement principle enables high measuring
sensitivity
3. Operates within a pressure range of 0bar to 16bar
4. Designed to perform within a temperature window of -40°C to 100°C

Height sensor
1. High linearity leading to very high measurement precision
2. Converts measurement results into electric signals to transmit to
ECU
3. Supports flexible positioning inside the vehicle

Axle load monitoring

1. Detects axle load of the vehicle’s air suspended axles
2. Enables display of axle load information on the dashboard
3. Allows for warning of the driver in case of overload

Traction help
1. Detects imminent traction-loss
2. Temporary load transfer through maximized utilization of
permissible axle loads
3. Available as automatic feature
4. Enables switch from 6x4 to 6x2 axle configuration

Heeling
 1. Provides the ability to raise the rear of the tractor chassis above ride
height
2. Allows for quick and easy unloading of liquid goods
Different driving levels
1. Different levels of vehicle height adjustable through lifting and
lowering
2. Flexible pre-set done according to specific OEM requirements
3. Manually adjustable via dashboard switch during driving
4. Adjusts vehicle height automatically depending on speed

Quick drop and hook

1. Provides rapid and seamless raising and lowering of the tractor
chassis to ease trailer coupling and uncoupling process
2. Offers easy manual operation via dashboard switch or RCU
3. Alleviates load from the landing legs by the push of a button instead
of the labour-intensive manual crank
4. Automatic return-to-ride height after manual adjustment of chassis
height

Memory levels for loading/unloading

1. Adapts vehicle height at loading ramp to different ramp heights
2. Option to save and reproduce up to 4 levels of recurring loading
ramps

Lift axle control

1. Load-dependent lifting and lowering of the non-driven rear axle of a
6x2 truck
2. Available as automatic feature or to be requested via dashboard
switch or RCU

Shock absorber
Description
A shock absorber is designed to damp oscillations quickly in order to
improve riding comfort. When a wheel strikes a bump or drops into a
pothole, the suspension spring will be deflected from its normal position
and will rebound or bounce. This can result in the vehicle, spring and
wheel assemblies bouncing until the spring settles down. To prevent this
undesirable rebound or bounce, shock absorbers are fitted between the
chassis and the suspension. The shock absorber (also called spring
damper) controls the rate at which the spring compresses or stretches on
bump or rebound therefore, limits the oscillation of the spring. Without
damping, the natural oscillation of the spring could result in unsafe and
intolerable ride quality, poor vehicle handling and damage to the load.
Springs gain energy when compressed or extended and this energy must
be dissipated before the spring can return to its normal state. Without the
damping of a shock absorber, this energy is dissipated by spring
oscillation; with shock absorber damping, this energy is converted into
heat. This energy conversion is achieved inside the shock absorber by oil
being squeezed through a series of orifices or valves.

The valve design determines the control which the shock absorber has
over the spring; hence determining ride quality and vehicle handling.
There are two groups of valves; bump and rebound. Each group
normally has at least three stages of operation thus; slow, medium and
fast. This relates to the vertical speed of suspension travel. These stages
are progressive with no switching on or off at each stage. Each group of
valves has a code which is the determining factor in how the shock
absorber behaves at various vertical suspension travel speeds and is a
measure of the size of the hole through which the oil is squeezed.

Principle of operation:
Telescopic shock absorber employed in Automobiles use a special fluid as
working medium for shock dampening. In this type of shock absorber, the
damping effect is generated by the flow resistance caused by the fluid
being forced to pass through an orifice (small hole). The fluid is moved by
the absorber piston.

Fig.5.12. Shock absorber designs

Types of shock absorber

Shock absorbers are classified according to their:
1. Operation
2. Construction
3. Working medium

1. Classification by operation:
i. Single-action shock absorber
 Damping occurs only when the shock absorber is
extended
 No damping force is generated when it is compressed.
ii. Multiple-action shock absorber - Damping occurs both
when the shock absorber is extended and when it is
compressed. Currently, most shock absorbers used on cars
are of this type.

2. Classification by construction:
i. Twin-tube shock absorber - The cylinder is divided by
working chamber (inner cylinder) and a reservoir chamber
(outer cylinder)
ii. Mono-tube shock absorber - This is a shock absorber
with only a single cylinder.

3. Classification by working medium:

i. Hydraulic shock absorber - This is an ordinary shock
absorber, which uses only a fluid (shock absorber fluid), as a
working medium.
ii. Gas-filled shock absorber - This is a hydraulic absorber,
which is charged with gas. The principle gas used is
nitrogen, which is kept under either low pressure 3-6kgf/cm 2
or high pressure 20-30kgf/cm2.

Anti-roll bars
Ant-roll bars include; stabilizer bar, sway bars and anti-sway bars.
The purpose of anti-roll bars is to prevent too great a difference in spring
travel. The chassis, body and load of a vehicle tend to lean (roll) out when
cornering due to centrifugal force and an anti-roll bar is fitted to reduce
this effect. Anti-roll bars are designed to twist when the vehicle leans out
during a turn.

The bar affects only the roll of a vehicle and has no effects on the springs
when the complete axle moves vertically. However, if one wheel hits a
bump, deflecting the suspension at that side, the bar is twisted, increasing
the stiffness of the spring on that side.
 Fig.5.13. Anti-rolls bars
Torque arms
When torque arms are used, they locate the axle in the longitudinal
direction. When a Panhard rod is used, it locates the axle housing in the
transverse direction. Torque arms may also be used to prevent leaf spring
distortion and axle hop when accelerating and braking.

Fig.5.14. Torque arms

Axle beams
An axle beam is the component joining together the wheels on each side
of a vehicle. It allows the road wheels to revolve while transmitting the
weight of vehicle and its load to those wheels. Axle beams may be square,
round or rectangular and are classified as “live” or “dead”. A live axle is
a type of beam axle in which the shaft (or, commonly, shafts connected to
move as a single unit) also transmits power to the wheels; a beam axle
that does not also transmit power is sometimes called a dead axle. Both
can carry the load of the vehicle and supply braking and steering if
needed.
 Fig.5.15. dead vs Live front-end axle beams

Ball joints
Description
A ball joint is a metal ball stud mounted in a socket. Ball joints connect the
steering knuckle to the two control arms. Apart from providing pivot for
the steering knuckles when the wheels are turned, ball joints bear vertical
as well as lateral loads. A tapered stud of the ball joint fits into the tapered
hole in the steering knuckle and is secured with a castle nut.

Fig.5.16. Ball joint

Ball joints are either pre-lubricated and sealed, or designed to be

lubricated on service.
For the lubricated type, the grease in the joint should be replaced at
interval using molybdenum disulphide lithium-soap based grease. The
pre-lubricated type uses resin seats. In this type replacement of grease is
unnecessary.

Bumpers
The springs sometimes contract and expand more than permitted and can
cause damage to other components when the wheel goes over a large
bump or hole. The spring bumpers protect the frame, axles, shock
absorber, etc., when the springs compress and expand more than
permitted.

Fig.5.17. Bumpers

Suspension Types and Characteristics

Suspension can be broadly categorized into two types according to their
construction.
1. Rigid axle suspension in which the right and left wheels are
connected by a single axle.
2. Independent suspension in which the left and right wheels move
independent of each other.
Rigid Axle Suspension
In vehicles having a rigid axle suspension system, the right and left
wheels are connected by a single axle which itself is fitted to the body and
the frame via springs (leaf spring or coil springs). Due to its great
strength and simple construction, the rigid axle suspension system is
widely used with the front and rear wheels of medium and heavy vehicles.

Fig.5.18. Rigid suspension

Independent Suspension
In vehicles having and independent suspension system, the right and left
wheels are not connected directly by an axle. The suspension is fitted to
the body and the frame in such a way that both wheels can move
independently without affecting each other.
The independent suspension system is commonly used with the front
wheels of passenger cars and small trucks and, more recently, with the
rear wheels of passenger cars as well.

Fig.5.19. Independent suspension

Front End Suspension

The front-end suspension is more complicated than the rear end
suspension, because the front wheels not only move up and down with
respect to the vehicle frame, but also swing at various angles to the
vehicle frame for steering. In order to permit the front wheels to swing to
one side or the other for steering, each wheel is supported on a spindle,
which is part of a steering, knuckle. The steering knuckle is then
supported through ball joints, by upper and lower control arms, which are
attached to the vehicle frame.

Fig.5.20. Rigid vs Independent front-end suspension

Carrying out wheel alignment

Ride height can also affect caster. A deflated air spring or defective ride
height sensor can increase caster readings by up to a degree or more.
Jacking up the front of a vehicle or dropping the nose will have the
opposite effect and reduce caster readings. This may contribute to a
steering problem, such as instability or poor steering return. That’s why
ride height and the condition of the air suspension system should always
be measured prior to checking wheel alignment.
Wheel alignment
Under normal conditions, it is not necessary to check the wheel alignment
at every service interval, although it must be checked during the pre-
delivery inspection. Wheel alignment does need to be checked when a
fault occurs, which will normally be evident due to abnormal tyre wear.
There are numerous components and systems that can affect wheel
alignment. If a component is physically worn, then adjusting the wheel
alignment will not solve the problem. The components that suffer from
wear and can affect the wheel alignment are:
1. Tie-rod ends
2. Steering linkage
3. Wheel bearings
4. Suspension components.

Other factors that can affect wheel alignment are:

1. Tyre pressure
2. Vehicle ground clearance
3. Tyre run out
4. Difference between left and right wheelbase
5. Wheel alignment being carried out on uneven ground.

Most wheel alignment data supplied by the manufacturer is given with the
chassis to ground clearance at a specified height. This height is usually
with the vehicle unloaded, although some manufacturers prefer the
vehicle to be weighted with the equivalent of four passengers to settle the
suspension. The reason for this is that loading the
vehicle will affect both the camber and caster angles. There are other
checks that can be carried out during road tests to determine steering and
wheel alignment faults. These include checking that the vehicle travels
straight ahead without pulling to the left or right, and also that the same
is true while braking. Any abnormal noise from the steering and
suspension components, and unusual movement of the steering wheel,
may also signify a fault. If any of the above problems occur, then wheel
alignment must be checked, together with any suspected faulty
components.
Wheel alignment is checked using special calibrated equipment. Before
the vehicle wheel alignment is checked, it must be placed on a level
surface and turn plates should be positioned under the front wheels. The
equipment is attached to the vehicle’s wheels by the technician and the
measuring heads are then centred. When the equipment is switched on,
the laser projects a line on the opposite head and measuring scale. By
reading off the measuring scale on each measuring head the technician is
able to determine if the wheel alignment is correct. If adjustment to the
wheel alignment is required, the technician will adjust the suspension or
steering to set the wheel to the correct manufacturer’s setting.
The readings are then checked again when all settings have been
adjusted. The steering and suspension settings that can be checked by
the equipment are:
1. Wheel toe (toe-in or toe-out)
2. Wheel camber (negative and positive)
3. Wheel caster (positive and negative)
4. Wheel set back (alignment of wheel axle).

Activities

Recommended wheel alignment method

Troubleshooting suspension faults on:
1. Steel spring suspension
2. Rubber suspension
3. Hydro-pneumatic suspension

Note. Observe all safety procedures.

When inspecting the suspension system, check for:
1. Shifted axle and for broken centre bolt.
2. Broken spring leaves.
3. Loose, worn, or broken shackles.
4. Worn spring ends and slipper brackets
5. Loose U-bolts/mounting bolts
6. Missing or loose rebound spring clips
7. Extent (lack) of lubrication
8. Worn or loose torque arms
9. Oil leaks, damaged rods, deteriorated bushings, external dents,
cracked pins, or bushing saddles – in shock absorbers
10. Deteriorated rubber bushings

Leaf spring suspension service

The initial steps are the same in servicing a front or rear leaf spring
suspension. These are:
1. Block the front or rear wheels, depending on which suspension you
are working on.
2. Raise the vehicle frame with a jack or hoist, just enough to remove
the force from the spring
3. Block the frame securely in this position
Removing leaf springs
1. Match – mark all parts and components to ensure proper positioning
and location when reassembling.
2. Remove the U-bolt nuts, the U- bolts bumper and spacer.
3. Swing the shock absorber bracket out of the way or disconnect it
from the shock absorber.
4. Slide the caster wedge and/or the axle spacer and shock absorber
bracket from between the axle and spring.
5. Remove the fixed – pin – locking device and push the fixed pin from
the front bracket and spring bushing.
6. As the assembly require either:
i. Remove the rebound pin or bolt or
ii. Remove the insulator cap and the top and bottom insulator or
iii. Remove the nuts and bolts from the shackle retainer pin.
7. Force the pin from the rear spring bracket, and the shackle bore and
pin from the shackle and spring eye bushing.
8. Raise the frame or tilt the spring so that the spring eye clears the
bracket or the centre bolt clears the dowel hole in the axle seat.
9. Remove the spring.

Fig.5.21. Leaf spring arrangement

Inspection
1. Use a suitable cleaning solution to clean all parts.
2. Dry all parts with compressed air.
3. Inspect
i. Pins, cap screws, U-bolts, bushings, and shackles for excessive
wear, distortion, and cracks. And check threads for any
damage.
ii. Spring brackets for looseness, wear, cracks and twists and
bends

Disassembling leaf springs procedure

 1. Clamp leaf spring assembling in a press or vice.
2. Unscrew and remove centre bolt
3. Remove the rebound nuts, bolts and spacers. Slowly undo the press
and remove the spring leaves.

Spring service
1. Inspect the springs for broken or fatigued leaves
2. Check the condition of the centre bolt
3. Measure the bushing wear
4. Lubricate the leaves
5. Replace the spring:
i. Eye bushing(s)
ii. Centre bolt
iii. The spring rebound clips and bolts
iv. Rubber bushings

Reassembling procedure
1. Reassemble in the reverse order of disassembly.
2. Note safety procedure at all stages

Bushing replacement
1. To replace a worn bushing while the spring is assembled and
fastened to the axle
2. Raise the vehicle frame and support it on stands
3. Use the installation tool to remove bushings and
4. Replace with new one
5. Lower the vehicle

Rubber spring suspension

Inspection
1. Measure the load cushion height to determine their energy
2. Check them for external damage, deterioration
3. Check drive pin nuts for looseness
4. Check the bushings for damage or deterioration.

Air suspension
Inspection
1. Check air spring general condition
2. Check for any sign of puncture, cut or blown out
3. Check the air hoses for breakages or damage
4. Check fittings for cracks or damage
5. Check the connecting rod links between the air ride levelling valve
and axle
Replacing air bags
1. Chock vehicle wheels
2. Drain air from the system
3. Disconnect pipe lines
4. Unscrew the air spring securing bolts
5. Raise vehicle frame
6. Remove air spring and replace it with new one

NB: Assemble in reverse order of removal.

Hydropneumatic spring
1. Check for external damage
2. Check for leakages of air
3. Check condition of ball stud pins and bushings for wear.

Service
1. Refer to service manual when checking and charging cylinder with
Nitrogen gas.
2. Top up cylinder with oil using a special pressure gun.

Replacing hydropneumatic cylinder

1. Raise and block the main tank frame
2. Replace the nitrogen pressure from both cylinders
3. Attach a sling and hoist to the cylinder
4. Remove first the top mounting device and then the lower one
5. Then lift the cylinder from the axle

NOTE.
Installation is precisely the reverse procedure
After installation;
1. Fill the cylinder to the recommended oil level
2. Charge both cylinders with nitrogen as per service manual

Shock absorbers

NOTE:
Most types of suspensions need a device, the shock absorber, to reduce
suspension spring oscillation.
 Activities
Shock absorber service
1. Shock absorber serviced consists of regular checks and of replacing
worn or damaged components
i. Check for fluid leaks
ii. Check for deteriorated or worn rubber bushings, grommets,
broken mounting
iii. Check reservoir tube or shield for external damage
iv. Check absorber alignment.
2. Check the operation of shock absorber:
i. Remove the shock absorber from vehicle
ii. Position it upright while one end rest on the surface
iii. Compress the shock absorber within 6mmm of the end of its
stroke.
iv. Turn the rod about ¼ of a turn
v. Extend it to within 6mm of full extension and rotate it again.
vi. If there is excessive resistance to rotation in either position,
 The piston rod is bent or the piston or pressure tube is
damaged

Common air suspension problems

Air bag or air strut failure is usually caused by wet rust, due to old age, or
moisture within the air system that damages it from the inside. Air ride
suspension parts may fail because rubber dries out. Punctures to the air
bag may be caused from debris on the road. With custom applications,
improper installation may cause the air bags to rub against the vehicle's
frame or other surrounding parts, damaging it. The over-extension of an
air spring which is not sufficiently constrained by other suspension
components, such as a shock absorber, may also lead to the premature
failure of an air spring through the tearing of the flexible layers. Failure of
an air spring may also result in complete immobilization of the vehicle,
since the vehicle will rub against the ground or be too high to move.
However, most modern automotive systems have overcome many of
these problems.

Air line failure is a failure of the tubing which connects the air bags or
struts to the rest of the air system, and is typically DOT-approved nylon
air brake line. This usually occurs when the air lines, which must be routed
to the air bags through the chassis of the vehicle, rub against a sharp
edge of a chassis member or a moving suspension component, causing a
hole to form. This mode of failure will typically take some time to occur
after the initial installation of the system, as the integrity of a section of
air line is compromised to the point of failure due to the rubbing and
resultant abrasion of the material. An air line failure may also occur if a
piece of road debris hits an air line and punctures or tears it, although this
is unlikely to occur in normal road use. It does occur in harsh off-road
conditions but it still not common if correctly installed.
Air fitting failure usually occurs when they are first fitted or very rarely in
use. Cheap low-quality components tend to be very unreliable. Air fittings
are used to connect components such as bags, valves, and solenoids to
the air line that transfers the air. They are screwed into the component
and for the most part push-in or push-to-fit DOT line is then inserted into
the fitting.

Compressor failure is primarily due to leaking air springs or air struts. The
compressor will burn out trying to maintain the correct air pressure in a
leaking air system. Compressor burnout may also be caused by moisture
from within the air system coming into contact with its electronic parts.
This is far more likely to occur with low specification compressors with
insufficient duty cycle which are often purchased due to low cost. For
redundancy in the system two compressors are often a better option.
In Dryer failure the dryer, which functions to remove moisture from the air
system, eventually becomes saturated and unable to perform that
function. This causes moisture to build up in the system and can result in
damaged air springs and/or a burned-out compressor.

ECAS problems
The ECAS computer can, using pre-programmed criteria to detect a fault,
disable the system into "Hard Fault Mode" which lowers the vehicle to the
suspension bump-stops, leaving it usable with radically reduced
performance until repaired.
Many enthusiasts use diagnostic devices such as laptop and hand
computers running specially developed software to clear spurious faults
and avoid the need for repair. Some manipulate the sensors to set the
vehicle to a particular ride height at all times by adjusting the lever ratio
on the height-sensing devices, or a supplementary ECU to "fool" the
system. Leaks in the system, often due to main seal wear caused by
excessive duty cycle, can cause premature compressor failure.

Use on coaches and buses

The current market of buses has suspension system consisting of either
mechanical or air suspension system. Compared to its counterpart, air
suspension system has significant benefits. Vehicle height can be
maintained at a particular value irrespective of its load by varying the
pressure. Standard coaches also have a system called ferry lift. This
allows the air suspension to be raised above the normal ride height level
to aid loading and unloading the coach on and off ferries due to their
steep ramps and risk of grounding out, but can also be used on rough
ground or on steep crests. Although the ferry lift may be installed on some
buses, the Kneel Down facility is more common on public transport buses.
This helps reduce the step height for easy ingress of passengers. The
Kneel Down facility is also used when using the built-in wheelchair ramps.

Diagnose air suspension

Air springs and electronic ride controls provide a cushy, boulevard ride,
but the ride doesn’t last forever. All air suspensions share a common
vulnerability: air leaks. And when a system can no longer hold air, it goes
flat.

Air Ride Problems

Air suspension problems fall into one of three categories:

Electrical – Problems with the height sensors, air spring solenoids, module
control circuit, compressor relay, compressor or vent solenoid. These can
be isolated by using the system’s self-diagnostic procedures (if available)
and various volt/ohm checks. Service consists of replacing the faulty
component or wiring, or readjusting the height sensors.

Air supply – Leaky or obstructed air lines, faulty compressor or spring

solenoids. Diagnosis is made via the self-test and visual inspection. A bad
compressor or solenoid must be replaced, but damaged air lines can be
repaired by splicing.
One of the leading causes of compressor failure is air leaks (usually in the
air springs or lines). If the compressor is constantly running, it’s going to
work itself to an early death. If you’re replacing a compressor, the dryer
should also be changed to protect the new unit from moisture.
Air springs – Leaking, damaged, deflated or unfolded springs. Damaged
springs must be replaced as an individual assembly (replacement in pairs
is not necessary with air springs). If unfolded, the spring must be carefully
inspected for cuts or cracks before it is re-inflated.

Replace the Dryer

It is very important to ensure that the source of air for the compressor is
clean and as dry as possible. When air is compressed, the water vapor
contained in the air is condensed into a liquid. If there is no means of
removing the water from the system, it will find its way to all parts of the
system, causing corrosion damage or freezing.
Most systems have a dryer that is connected to the compressor outlet to
absorb the water entering the system. The dryer contains a moisture-
absorbing desiccant such as silica gel. The desiccant can hold a given
amount of water and once it is saturated, it will allow water to pass into
the system.

The dryers that are installed on most systems do not have an indicator
that will show when it is saturated and no longer able to absorb water. An
additional dryer with a moisture indicator can be added to the original
equipment dryer. It can be installed in the supply line and placed in a
position where a periodic check can be made.
 Table 5.1. Suspension troubleshooting guide

Summary

 The suspension is the assembly that links axles to the vehicle frame.
 The automobile frame and body are mounted on the front and rear
axle not directly but through some form of springs and shock
absorbers.
 The suspension assembly dampens road shocks transmitted to the
frame by the wheels.
 The suspension system of a motor vehicle is divided into the rear-
end suspension and front-end suspension.
 An ideal suspension system would allow the vehicle body to travel
along the road without any of the three basic suspension
movements.
 Suspension operating terms include the following: -
1. Suspension travel
2. Spring rate
3. Spring oscillation
4. Spring/un-spring masses
 The most common leaf spring designs are:
– Semi-elliptical
– Quarter-elliptical
– Single-leaf
– Multi-leaf springs
 Non-steel springs are;
1. Rubber springs
2. Compressed air springs
3. Hydro pneumatic suspension springs
 To meet the requirements of higher performance of air suspensions
in a cost favourable way and to take full benefit of the potential of
air suspensions, an electronically controlled air suspension system
(ECAS) for trucks and buses has been developed and introduced into
the market.
 A shock absorber is designed to damp oscillations quickly in order to
improve riding comfort.
 Ant-roll bars include; stabilizer bar, sway bars and anti-sway bars.
 When torque arms are used, they locate the axle in the longitudinal
direction.
 An axle beam is the component joining together the wheels on each
side of a vehicle.
 A ball joint is a metal ball stud mounted in a socket.
 The springs sometimes contract and expand more than permitted
and can cause damage to other components when the wheel goes
over a large bump or hole.
 In vehicles having a rigid axle suspension system, the right and left
wheels are connected by a single axle which itself is fitted to the
body and the frame via springs (leaf spring or coil springs).
 In vehicles having and independent suspension system, the right
and left wheels are not connected directly by an axle.
 The front-end suspension is more complicated than the rear end
suspension, because the front wheels not only move up and down
with respect to the vehicle frame, but also swing at various angles
to the vehicle frame for steering.
  Under normal conditions, it is not necessary to check the wheel
alignment at every service interval, although it must be checked
during the pre-delivery inspection.

Reference materials

 Angelo, S. ‘et al’, (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy

Equipment Systems. New York. USA.
 Denton, T. (2012). Automobile Electrical and Electronics Systems.
4th Ed. Routledge
 Denton, T. (2017). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis. 4th Ed.
Routledge
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Scott A H, (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems
Approach (Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty). Pearson Education.
 Sean, B. (2013). Medium/Heavy Duty Truck Engines, Fuel &
Computerized Management Systems. 4th Ed. Delmar: Cengage
Learning
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.6: IDENTIFYING TYPES OF

MACHINE FRAMES AND CHASSIS

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. State the purpose of heavy equipment frame
2. Identify types of heavy equipment frames
 3. Locate types of heavy equipment frames

Introduction
The frame is not totally rigid structure since it is designed to combine both
strength and flexibility. It is important that all loads and stress are
transmitted correctly into the frame and at the same time, the frame must
be able to flex slightly.
This flexibility is necessary as it provides for a more even spread of forces
from “hang-on” components such as spring brackets.

6.1. Purpose of heavy equipment frame

1. Support machine gross weight
2. Provision for system mounting
3. Give rigidity to the unit
4. Flexibility to withstand severe load impact

The frame supported by the suspension is the main part of any motor
vehicle structure. It bears:
1. The engine and its accessories
2. The transmission
3. The cab
4. The body and
5. The working attachments as well as the payload.

The frame should be able to absorb the full engine torque, the braking
effort from the suspension and the shock load, strain and stress. It must
be sturdy but flexible enough to absorb the stress, strain and shock
vibrations that roll like waves throughout the structure.

The frame is a large bracket which connects the various components of

the vehicle and must have enough:
1. Strength to support vehicle gross weight under all conditions
2. Rigidity for correct suspension operations
3. Flexibility to withstand severe road impact

Load bearing - The truck frame is designed for both strength and
deflection. To ensure that the vehicle is adequate for the intended
operation and that the installation does not adversely affect chassis
durability, some understanding of the terms related to frame design is
required.

Basic terminology:
 1. Section modulus: is an indication of the frame strength made on
the basis of the height, width, thickness and shape of the frame side
rails. Frames with deeper or wider flanges have increased section
modulus.
2. Yield strength: is a measure of the steel strength used in the
frame. The yield strength is the maximum load measured in pounds
per square inch (psi) or kilopascals (kpa) that may be placed on a
material and the material will still return to its original shape.
3. Resisting bending moment: The resisting bending moment
(RBM) is calculated by multiplying the section modulus by the yield
strength. Stronger frames have higher RBMs. The RBM is the most
accurate indication of a frame’s strength.
4. Applied moment: The applied moment is a measurement of a
specific load placed in a certain location on the frame. The applied
moment is based on a stationary vehicle.
5. Bending moment: The term bending moment means that a load
applied to the frame will be distributed across a given section of the
frame. This load tends to distort the frame at the point of heaviest
load concentration.
6. Area and safety factor: The frame area is the total cross section
of the frame rail in square inches. The safety factor is the amount of
load that can be safely absorbed by the truck frame members. The
safety factor is the reaction of the applied moment to the RBN.
When the applied moment and the RBM are the same, the frame
has a safety factor of 1.

6.2. Types of heavy equipment frames

1. Articulating load frame - In an articulated dump truck, on the other
hand, the cab attaches to the tipping body at a point of articulation
directly behind the cab. This design gives articulated dump trucks
greater flexibility, allowing them to pivot at the articulation point.
2. Track-type tractor frame - The mainframe core, which forms the
rigid inner body, is cut from steel plate and structural shaped, so
that it easily resists high impact shock loads and torsional forces
normally incurred by the dozer. The main structural skeleton,
formed through the welding of steel plates to machined casting, is
comprised of two boxed-in rail sections connected to the main
casing.
3. Logging tractor frame
i. Chassisless Tractor - As the name implies, these tractors do
not need any type of chassis frame. The normal of a tractor
chassis frame is done by the Engine block itself. These
machines are tough in nature to fulfil the requirements. The
 front part of the engine block is fastened or attached to the
front cross member while the engine block at rear side is
attached to the transmission box. The front axle in front side
is fixed.
ii. Tractor with Chassis Frame - The extra load is carried by the
tractor chassis mechanics in this case. The engines in these
vehicles are light in weight and cannot take extra load to act
as chassis alternative. In this case, it is necessary to provide a
chassis on which engine is mounted.
4. Dump truck frame - All dump trucks have a rigidly welded frame
structure. To dump the load rearward the dump box is raised by two
three-stage hydraulic cylinders, and some specially designed units
can dump the load to one side.
6.3. Locating types of heavy equipment frames
1. Channels - This is mostly used sections as it has more strength for a
specific load. Here, two long members are fixed to the front end
while the rear sides are attached to the clutch housing. This clutch
housing is an important part of transmission box. The major
components are listed below:
i. Gear Box interface
ii. Fixing the Bolts
iii. Clutch Housing
iv. Engine Mounting
v. Chassis Long Members
vi. Front Cross Member
2. I-Beam - is the quintessential beam profile. The design is super
strong in the vertical direction, yet has a uniform and equal
response to other forces. It has the best strength to weight ratio
(vertical) making it a great DIY beam profile — for Cranes, and for
the main beams of big and/or long trailers. Also, it’s open section
makes it fairly easy to protect.
3. Cross Members - Cross-members are designed to connect the frame
rails. They provide rigidity and strength, along with sufficient
flexibility to withstand the twisting and bending stresses
encountered when operating on uneven terrain. Stamped C-section
is a standard type of cross-member. Conventional highway
applications use a plate-type cross-member in the first and second
positions behind the cab. Stamped C-section cross-members have
keystone-shaped gussets for attaching the cross-members to the
frame. This de- sign resists weaving or out-of-square (diamonding)
frames. Gussets are welded or bolted to the cross- member and
then bolted to the frame rail web. Exceptions to this method of
 frame rail web attachment may occur at the rearmost cross-
member.
4. Box Frame - "Boxed" frames contain chassis rails that are closed,
either by somehow welding them up or by using premanufactured
metal tubing. C-shape. By far the most common, the C-channel rail
has been used on nearly every type of vehicle at one time or
another.
5. Rigid frame - In a rigid dump truck, the cab and dump body both sit
on the same fixed chassis

Summary

 The frame is not totally rigid structure since it is designed to

combine both strength and flexibility.
 It is important that all loads and stress are transmitted correctly into
the frame and at the same time, the frame must be able to flex
slightly.
 Purpose of heavy equipment frame
– Support machine gross weight
– Provision for system mounting
– Give rigidity to the unit
– Flexibility to withstand severe load impact
 The frame supported by the suspension is the main part of any
motor vehicle structure. It bears:
– The engine and its accessories
– The transmission
– The cab
– The body
 The frame should be able to absorb the full engine torque, the
braking effort from the suspension and the shock load, strain and
stress.
 Types of heavy equipment frames are:
– Articulating load frame
– Track-type tractor frame
– Logging tractor frame
– Chassisless Tractor
– Tractor with Chassis Frame
– Dump truck frame
 Channels - This is mostly used sections as it has more strength for a
specific load.
 Reference materials

 Angelo, S. ‘et al’, (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy

Equipment Systems. New York. USA.
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Scott A H, (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems
Approach (Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty). Pearson Education.
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.7 ALIGNING AND MAINTAINING

THE FRAME

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Observe safety procedures
2. Identify forces acting on the frame
3. Identify types of frame damage
4. Apply frame alignment methods

7.1. Safety procedures during frame alignment

1. Equipment safety
2. Tools safety
3. Human safety

Safety precautions
1. Ensure you have proper PPE,
2. Clean work place and machine before you commence work,
 3. Place firefighting equipment in place,
4. Clear the exit route,
5. Park machine on a level ground and chock wheels,
6. Remove battery negative [ground] cable,
7. Use stands when supporting vehicle frame,
8. Use the right tools for the job,
9. Be conversant with all safety rules and regulations,
10. Be conversant with workshop, operators and maintenance
manuals,
11. Carryout pre-inspection checks of entire machine before you
commence work.

7.2. Forces acting on the frame

– Vertical forces
– Torsional forces
– Axial and lateral forces
– Warpage

The forces applied to a frame

1. Stiffness - The frame of a heavy commercial vehicle must have
four general stiffness modes to resist loading acting on it. These are:
i. Vertical stiffness
ii. Torsional stiffness
iii. Axial and lateral stiffness
iv. Warp stiffness
2. Vertical stiffness - The frame resists vertical bending through the
main side rails. As the primary load input is vertical, due to payload,
the side rails are designed first to resist this load and consequently
side rails are designed as longitudinal beams. An I-beam would
perform this task more efficiently than a channel-shaped beam.
3. Torsional stiffness - The torsional aspects of a frame design are
quite complex and involve considerable theory and computer
analysis. Torsional deflection is a complete twist of the frame itself
and not of individual components. It is resisted by the longitudinal
side rails as well as the lateral stiffness of the side rails and cross
members together.
4. Axial and lateral stiffness - Axial and lateral bending cause
parallelogramming and bending of the complete frame to one side.
This is resisted by combined stiffness of the side rails and cross
members. Parallelogramming deflection is caused by unbalanced
longitudinal loadings. The tendency of multiple rear axles to resist
any change in vehicle direction must be overcome by the front
steering axle. These combined forces tend to cause the front of the
 vehicle frame to steer around the corner while causing the rear half
of the frame to steer straight ahead. Unequal braking forces,
transmitted through the suspension may also cause
parallelogramming.
5. Warp stiffness - Warping or twisting of individual frame members
is due to mainly to cantilevered mounting of chassis components
such as engine, fuel and water tanks, batteries, air brake reservoirs,
tool boxes, spare tyre carriers and suspension brackets. The
stiffness to resist warping is built into the frame by the proper
location of cross members. A greater problem in the attachment is
the associated vibration, which can cause premature metal fatigue
structural components.

7.3. Types of frame damage

– Cracks
– Stiffness
– Misalignment
– General damage

Frame damage
– Exceeding the gross vehicle weight rating
– Uneven load distribution
– Improper fifth wheel settings
– Using the vehicle for purposes for which it was not originally
designed
– The use of special equipment for which the frame was not designed
– Improper modification of the frame

7.4. Frame damage categories

– Diamond - Frame misalignment resulting from a heavy impact on
the corner of either side rail of the frame that is sufficient to push
the side rail back. ... An example of this type of damage is if the rear
end of a car is out of dimensional tolerance as the result of a front-
end impact.
– Twist - A twisted frame causes similar damage as a sagging frame.
However, it is harder to spot. If your car feels unstable at high
speeds or experiences difficulty in turns, this may indicate that your
vehicle has a twisted frame. To find the source of damage, you will
need a thorough inspection.
– Side-sway - Sway damage occurs when something hits any corner of
your vehicle. This type of damage is more noticeable since the car
will significantly lean in one direction. You will have difficulty
keeping the car driving straight and may feel vibrations while
 driving. Sway damage not only compromises the vehicle’s
alignment but can also lead to transmission issues and even a full
breakdown if not dealt with in time.
– Sag and bow - You may notice gaps in the body of your car if your
frame is sagging. When parts of the frame are uneven, the vehicle
tends to lean towards and create these gaps. Sagging causes stress
to tires and coils, and without frame repair, they will wear out faster.

Frame alignment
1. A heavy commercial vehicle may have handling and steering
problems as well as excessive tyre wear.
2. Normally a wheel alignment will be performed but sometimes, even
though the wheel alignment is performed correctly, the problem still
remains.
3. The frame must be checked for trueness to locate the cause.
4. If the frame is not true, the suspension units will not be in the
correct position relative to each and to the centreline of the vehicle.
5. If the frame is found to be out of true, the problem must be
corrected before carrying out another wheel alignment.

Pre-alignment inspection
Before performing a frame alignment, the following must be inspected
and if necessary, corrected to prevent false results from being obtained.
1. Tyre inflation
2. Tyre and rim to be identified
3. Wheel alignment
4. Visual inspection for frame damage
5. Visual inspection of axle housings
6. Wheel-bearing adjustment
7. Vehicle to be in the straight-ahead position
8. Ride height.

Interaxle alignment
1. If there is any misalignment between multiple rear axles, the vehicle
will not steer straight and, for this reason alone, the complete axle
group should be checked for alignment.
2. Interaxle alignment must also be checked after axle housing or
suspension component replacement.
3. A suggested procedure is as follows:
i. Perform a pre-alignment inspection identical to that for frame
alignment.
ii. Select reference points each side of the frame, or clamp a
straightedge across the frame.
 iii. On both sides of the vehicle, measure the distance between
the two straightedges as shown on the figure 1;
a) B1 – C = X1,
b) B - C = X,
c) B1 – D1 =Y1
d) B – D = Y

or measure the distance between the two axles on each end

of the axles.
The distances should be equal, if there is a difference, and
then the frame is deformed and requires attention.
iv. Measure the angle (Ø) between the channel and cross
member or straightedge; this should be 900.

Fig.6.1. Frame alignment points

Heat-treated frame caution label

Fig. 7.2. Frame heat treatment caution plate

1. Although chassis frames are very strong, care must be taken when
lifting or moving them, to avoid anything that may scratch, cut, or
damage an exposed frame assembly.
 2. Cushion all chain hoists or cable slings with a section of heavy hose.
3. If the frame rail is raised with a jack, place a block of wood between
the jack and the frame rail.

Drilled hole placement

1. The extreme front and extreme rear of a frame rail is subjected to
less stress during normal operation than the sections in between.
2. A notable exception would be the stress to which the rear of the
frame rails is subjected when a fully loaded dump box is raised on a
dump truck.

Caution
1. Previously when reassembling chassis components previously
assembled with Huck fasteners, it is often unrealistic to install new
Huck fasteners because of accessibility.
2. If you are replacing Huck fasteners with bolts, ensure that their
hardness is consistent with the original fasteners.
– This will usually, but not always, be equivalent to an SAE
grade 8 fastener.

Fishplate and reinforcement guidelines

 When any type of frame reinforcement is added, straight cut
fishplates, L-sections, and C-channels should be avoided because
this creates a sudden increase in section modulus.
– This sudden increase in section modulus can cause frame
failures immediately adjacent to the reinforced section.

Caution
• Additional reinforcement of the chassis frame to support additional
loading or to concentrate a load, should not be made until it has
been fully verified that all other vehicle components, such as the
brake system, steering system, suspension system can properly and
safely carry and support the increased loading.

 Frame straightening should be performed only by a qualified frame

alignment facility.
– Because impact damaged frames are corrected by specialty
technicians, this type of frame servicing is not covered in this
book.

Frame welding repairs

Practical MiG welding - chassis welding
Cutting away the rust
 1. The rust from the lower suspension mounting, the side and bottom
of the chassis should be removed to leave the metal in good
condition.
2. Use a metal cutting disc on an angle grinder to roughly remove the
rusty metal, and then use a grinding disc for removing the rusty
parts from flanges. Try to maintain the original construction as far
as possible.
3. The shiny metal at the edges should be prepared by lightly grinding
off the rust and paint. It's really important to weld to clean, shiny
metal - this is electric welding after all so there needs to be a good
electrical contact between the torch and the metal you are welding.

Positioning
Clamp the sill into position as that dictates the shape of the repair section
needed to be made. The photograph below shows a square being used to
position the new sill at a right angle to the top of the chassis.

Making a template
Cardboard pizza boxes are an ideal source of material for making
templates.
Card behaves in a very similar way to sheet steel - it is very difficult to
bend into a compound curve. The advantage over steel is it is very easy to
cut, so if you get it wrong you can quickly make another template.

Creating the repair section

Use a 2mm steel for the chassis repair (the original thickness). Draw
around the template, and then cut the steel using an angle grinder cutting
disc. There are a variety of ways to make the bends. First is a 120cm
metal bender, but also a vice can be used. The photograph shows a
further technique: a 13mm thick steel work bench used to clamp the steel
to the bench and make a neat bend by hammering the steel over the
edge of the bench.

Tack welding the repair section

The repair section was tacked in place at 50mm intervals. That was
enough to hold the repair section in the correct position and allowed to
remove the sill so a decent access to weld the repair panel into place can
be found.

Seam welding
 1. Any chassis part should be fully seam welded. Butt joint the repair
panel as an overlap joint would trap water and rust.
2. Distortion isn't really an issue in a thick folded panel like this one, so
the seam weld could be made quickly.
Later:
1. The lower part of the chassis and the suspension mounting has been
positioned using a really simple chassis jig.
2. Jigs are essential for positioning suspension mountings. Once
welded some suspension mountings on a vehicle without a jig, and
while everything was pretty close the vehicle sagged to one side.
Use a jig to re-drill the holes and make the car perfect.

Caution
1. A hardened steel frame weld that fails by cracking cleanly through
the center of the weld profile often does so because the incorrect
filler wire (electrode) has been used.
2. A weld that fails by cracking clean to the sides of the weld profile
often does so due to crystallization caused by overheating.
– Crystallization usually means that the welding procedure has
been performed too rapidly.

Repairs
1. When cutting a frame, use a pencil or soapstone to make all lines,
points, or other marks.
2. Try to avoid the use of a scriber or tool that will scratch the surface
of the frame rail.
3. Use a machinist’s square to project all points from the webs to the
upper flanges and to measure inboard from the outside face of the
frame rails. Cobalt high-speed drills are superior to conventional
high-speed drills for drilling hardened frame rails.
4. Drills should be sharpened to give 150 0 included angle with 70–150
lip clearance.

Drilling
 A drill usually drills to a fractional oversize. The best method of
drilling a frame rail is to use this method:
– Drill pilot hole.
– Drill to 1/8-inch under the nominal required hole size.
– Taper ream to the exact nominal required hole size.

Summary

 Forces acting on the frame are:

 – Vertical forces
– Torsional forces
– Axial and lateral forces
– Warpage
 The forces applied to a frame
– Stiffness
– Vertical stiffness
– Torsional stiffness
– Axial and lateral stiffness
– Warp stiffness
 Types of frame damage:
– Cracks
– Stiffness
– Misalignment
– General damage
 Frame damage include:
– Exceeding the gross vehicle weight rating
– Uneven load distribution
– Improper fifth wheel settings
– Using the vehicle for purposes for which it was not originally
designed
– The use of special equipment for which the frame was not
designed
– Improper modification of the frame
 Frame damage categories include:
– Diamond
– Twist
– Side-sway
– Sag and bow
 Before performing a frame alignment, the following must be
inspected and if necessary, corrected to prevent false results from
being obtained.

Reference materials

 Angelo, S. ‘et al’, (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy

Equipment Systems. New York. USA.
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
  Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Scott A H, (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems
Approach (Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty). Pearson Education.
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.8 IDENTIFYING UNDERCARRIAGE

COMPONENTS

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Describe types of undercarriage
2. Identify components of undercarriage
3. Explain functions of undercarriage components

8.1. Types of undercarriage

In the construction equipment industry, the term undercarriage is
commonly used as a collective term for the lower travelling units. We
have two main types of travelling units, the wheeled type and the tracked
type.

Tracked type Wheeled type

The main advantage of the tracked The main advantage of the

type excavator is that the machine wheeled type excavator is that it
is very stable and has the ability to
enables easy and smooth travelling
operate in soft or muddy ground on solid ground. The machine can
conditions. Climbing up hills wouldcover a relatively large area and
be difficult for the wheeled type can, without any major problems,
excavator but for the tracked type,travel on public roads. It might not
it’s no problem. always be appreciated by other
road users, but it works.
Table 8.1. Tracked vs wheeled undercarriage

Ground pressure
1. The reason why the tracked type excavator can operate in difficult
conditions and the wheeled type excavator has problems is the
ground pressure of the machines. The ground pressure puts the
weight of the machine in relation to the area that makes contact
with the ground. If you look at the wheeled type excavator you can
see that the contact area is relatively small.
2. That means that we have high ground pressure, or in other words: a
lot of weight on a small area, which leads to the wheels sinking into
the ground when the conditions are soft or muddy.
3. If you look at the tracked type excavator you can see immediately
that the contact area is much larger.
4. The larger contact area distributes the weight of the machine which
is why we have a lower ground pressure.
5. This lower ground pressure prevents the excavator from sinking in
soft or muddy conditions. Keep in mind that this does not mean that
the tracked type cannot sink at all.

Types of track-type undercarriage

There are two designs of track-type undercarriages – the tractor and the
crawler types.

The greatest difference between these two desings is in the functions of

the undercarriages. The carrier undercarriage on the crawler design is
only to support and propel the machine and to provide stable footing,
whereas the tractor-type undercarriage is also designed for pulling power
and maneuverability.

Crawler carrier undercarriages

Basically, two kinds of tract-type undercarriages are used on crawler
carriers: the tractor type and the crawler carrier type. Tractor
undercarriages are commonly used on small and midrange excavators,
cranes, shovels, etc., and are nearly identical in design to the tractor.
There are three differences, however:
 1. The side frames are bolted (at the front and rear) to mounting
brackets or cross beams, which, in turn, are bolted to the lower
carrier body (car frame, turntable);
2. The drive sprocket shaft is supported by inside and outside
bearings, the housings of which are bolted to the frame side rails;
3. And the front idlers and track rollers use bushings exclusively,
whereas the carrier rollers may use tapered roller bearings to
support the roller body.

Crawler carrier Tractor-type

Table 8.2. Crawler vs tractor

8.2. Components of undercarriage

1. Rear sprocket guard
2. Track chain
3. Sprocket
4. Carrier rollers
5. Track rollers – single and double flanged
6. Idler
7. Track roller frame
8. Track adjuster – mechanical/hydraulic
9. Equalizer bar
10. Links
11. Pins/bushing
12. Master pin
13. Master link
14. Track shoe
15. Track roller bogies (elevated sprocket)
16. Rock ejector

8.3. Functions of undercarriage components

1. Track roller frames
 i. The track roller frames must support the tractor and provide the
support surfaces for the front idler, track and carrier rollers, track
adjustment and recoil mechanism, stabilizer bar or spring and
track guards.
ii. It provides the mountings or pivot points which keep the track
roller frames in alignment with the tractor.
iii. Most track roller frames are fabricated from special steel into
sections, and then welded into a rigid frame.
iv. Depending on the tractor design, the tract roller frames are
secured at the rear by a pivot shaft and by the sprocket shaft out
board bearing, or the outside pivot point is attached to an
independent shaft that is fastened in front of the sprocket to the
tractor frame.
v. A stabilizer (equalizer) bar or multi-leaf spring is pivot fastened to
the tractor frame.

NOTE:
Some loader tractors do not have oscillating tract roller frames; instead,
the front of the tract roller frame is bolted to the tractor frame. Such a
mounting gives the tractor loader greater stability.

2. Front idler and yoke

The front idlers are either of a prefabricated welded structure or of a one-
piece steel casting.

The purpose of the front idler and yoke is:

i. To align the tract chain as the chain changes direction.
ii. To provide, in conjunction with the recoil and adjusting mechanism,
a protecting device and track adjustment.
iii. To provide a good self- alignment feature.

The average flange and thread angle surface is tapered about 40◦ since
any belt will run toward the greater diameter. Therefore, track chain
aligns with the front idler when the tractor moves in the straight – ahead
or reverse direction, and does not come into contact with the inside or
outside idler flanges. The centre of the idler is machined to accommodate
the seals and the bearings.
i. The bearings may be of the roller, tapered roller or bushing design.
ii. The seals used may be of the duo – cone, metal con floating seal or
bellows mechanical seal design.

The idler shaft is fastened through a bolt or pin to the left and right- hand
idler bracket (block). The guide plates and shims allow a lateral
adjustment of the front idler.
3. Drive sprockets
i. The purpose of the drive sprockets is to transmit rotary motion to
the track chains by pulling the chains in clockwise or counter clock
wise rotation on the sprockets, rolling the tractor on the track links
in a forward or reverse direction.

NOTE:
Only alternate teeth engage with the track bushings, and since the
sprockets are of the hunting tooth design (an uneven number of teeth), a
particular sprocket tooth engages with a track bushing on every second
sprocket revolution. Only after several track revolutions will the same
bushings and teeth again engage.
i. The sprockets are one- piece steel cast and may be splined (tapered
or straight splines) to the sprocket or planetary carrier shaft.
ii. On the other hand, the sprocket hub may be splined to the sprocket
or planetary shaft, in which case either a one-piece sprocket ring is
bolted to the sprocket hub or individual sprocket segments are
bolted to it.

Sprocket arrangement

Table 8.3. Sprocket positions

4. Track-adjusting and recoil mechanism

These components are bolted to each track frame and coupled to the
front idler yoke. Although they are individual parts, they actually work
together as a unit.
i. The purpose of track adjuster is to adjust the track chain so that a
specific tension between the drive sprocket and front idler can be
maintained when worn track bushings and pins or worn sprocket
teeth reduce the tension.
ii. The purpose of the recoil mechanism is to act as the counter force
to the track-adjusting mechanism.
 a. It allows the front idler to move toward the sprocket if a large
object should lodge between the sprocket teeth and bushings
or between the track chain and front idler.
b. In such an instance, excessive strain is placed on the track
pins, bushings, front idler and drive sprocket shafts. When
this occurs, a spring of one type or another compress,
reducing the strain on the components. The same action also
takes place when the front idler is accidently forced rear
ward.
c. The force is absorbed by the spring (recoil mechanism),
thereby protecting the idler and yoke against serious
damage.

Four types of recoil mechanisms and adjustments are used;

A. Coil spring recoil mechanism and mechanical track adjustment

Fig. 8.1. Coil spring recoil mechanism and mechanical track

adjuster

1. A coil spring recoil mechanism having a screw track-adjusting

mechanism.
2. The two recoil springs are installed under a predetermined force
(energy) in the recoil housing which is bolted or welded to each
track frame.
3. In this design, the spring housing cover confines the springs and
seals the housing.
4. The adjusting screw socket rests in the crosshead.
5. One end is sealed with an O-ring to the housing cover, and the
other is screwed into the front idler yoke.
 6. A seal placed between the yoke and locking device protects the
threads.
7. The locking device is fastened to the yoke with two cap screws in
the recoil mechanism, the spring housing is sealed and partly filled
with oil but on some designs the track-adjusting screw socket
rests directly on the spring washer.

Operation and adjustment

If, for one reason or another, the front idler is forced to the right, the yoke,
the adjusting screw, and the cross head are also forced to the right
against the spring washer and the springs are further compressed, thus
removing the tension from the track chain. As the force from the front
idler is removed, the coil springs expand and the washer comes to rest
against the spring housing cover, positioning the front idler to its static
position.

Adjusting the track tension

1. Remove the two cap screws.
2. Using a wrench, turn the adjusting screw clock wise to tighten the
track chain and counter clockwise to loosen it.
3. Then turn the lock plate tight against the seal and reinstall the two
cap screws.

B. Coil spring recoil mechanism and hydraulic track adjustment

Fig. 8.2. Coil spring recoil mechanism and hydraulic track adjuster

1. A coil spring recoil mechanism having a hydraulic (grease) track

adjustment mechanism has a coil spring located between the
spring adapter that rests against the housing of the pivot shaft and
the track adjuster housing that rests against two track frame rail
lugs.
2. The piston spacer and one end of the track adjusting cylinder are
located within the track adjuster housing. The other end of the
cylinder is fastened through a returner ring to the cylinder retainer.
 3. The returner is bolted to the track adjuster head, and the other end
of the head rests in the bore of the front idler yoke.
4. Inside the track adjuster cylinder is the track adjuster piston which
has two fibre wear rings and one cup seal. Depending on the
manufacturer, the mechanism may have a conventional grease
fitting screwed into a combination ball check valve and a vent
fitting that is screwed into the cylinder retainer, or may have a
special filler relief valve having two ball check valves and a special
relief valve screwed into the retainer.
5. When the filler valve and relief valve are tightened, their tapered
ends rests against the tapered seats, thereby sealing (confining)
the grease within the cylinder.

Operation
To remove the track tension:
1. Turn the relief valve one complete turn counter clockwise.
 This will allow the grease (which may be under high pressure)
to flow into the vertical slot into the unthreaded area, and out
of the vent hole.
2. To tighten the track chain, tighten the relief valve, fasten a grease
gun to the filter valve, and then pump grease into the fitting.
i. The grease flows past the first and second check valves to the
front of the track piston seal.
ii. As pressure rises, the track adjusting head, the cylinder
retainer, and the track adjusting cylinder are forced to the right,
moving the front idler and tightening the track chain.

C. Staked cone spring plates and hydraulic adjuster

Fig.8.3. Staked cone spring plates and hydraulic adjuster

 1. A recoil mechanism using staked cone spring plates consists of
fifty-five (55) cone spring plates, staked in sets of five (5).
2. These cones are positioned between the inner and outer spacers,
with the cone faces opposite each other.
3. They are situated within the track spring housing under a
predetermined energy.
4. A hydraulic track adjuster mechanism, which is similar in design to
the one previously described, is bolted to one end of the front idler
yoke.
5. The retainer bolt on the other end is pinned to the track frame.

D. Nitrogen gas recoil mechanism and adjuster

1. One end of the recoil cylinder is pinned to the track frame bracket.
2. The nitrogen-charging valve is screwed to the right-hand side of the
cylinder.
3. The cylinder contains the piston with its seals, the backup washers,
and the bushing (piston bearing) which divides the cylinder into two
parts.
4. The piston rod is supported and sealed by the rod guide which, in
turn, is sealed to the cylinder through an O-ring.
5. The grease fitting and bleed valve is screwed into the rod guide.

Fig.8.4. Nitrogen gas recoil mechanism and adjuster

Operation
1. Assume the recoil cylinder is a rebuilt one and the right-hand side is
charged with nitrogen to a pressure of 1500 psi (10,335 kpa).
2. The piston and piston rod would be resting against the piston rod
guide.
3. To retract the piston and rod and bring it to the required installation
length, grease is pumped through the grease fitting into the area in
 front of the piston until the piston rod has retracted to the specified
distance.
4. The recoil cylinder is then installed, and fasted to the front idler and
track frame bracket.

5. Track rollers
The purpose of the track rollers is to transfer the tractor or carrier weight
evenly unto the track links, to reduce rolling friction, and to guide the
track chain.
i. Two types of track rollers are used:
a. The single flange and
b. The double flange.
ii. The track roller halves are steel forged, welded, machined to the
required internal dimensions, and then heat-treated.

NOTE:
The flanges are manufactured to an angle of approximately 4° to assist in
guiding the track links onto the track roller tread surface.
i. Bushings or tapered roller bearings support the track roller housing
on the track roller shaft.
ii. Some track rollers use locating dowels to position the track roller
shaft and prevent it from rotating should the roller body mounting
cap screws become loose.
iii. Most track rollers use oil as a lubricant and for this reason the track
roller shaft must have one or two reservoirs.
iv. The track roller shaft must be centre-drilled and must have several
partly cross-drilled passages to provide lubricant to the seal and or
the bushings and thereby prolong the shaft, bushing, and seal life.

Fig. 8.5. Track roller

6. Carrier rollers
1. The function of the track carrier rollers is to support and guide the
track chain.
 2. Although they are basically similar in design to the track rollers,
most carrier rollers have the flanges in the centre and the tread
surfaces on the outside.
3. In most cases, only one end of the roller shaft is fastened to the
specially designed carrier roller brackets, therefore, only one roller
shaft seal is required.

Fig. 8.6. Carrier roller

7. Track chains
1. The purpose of the track chain is to transform drive sprocket
rotation into linear motion and thereby roll the tractor or carrier in a
forward or reverse direction.
2. It also serves as the mounting pad for the track shoes.
3. The track chain is a combination of individual left- and right-hand
links joined through the track pins and bushings to form a chain.
4. The track chain ends are joined through a master pin (master link
and bushing) to become an endless chain.

Fig. 8.7. Track chains

Types of track chains
1. The oldest track chain design is the open type, also called the flush
type. In this design the bushing is flush with the narrow ends of the
track links.
2. The second design is the interlocking type. Here the bushing
extends past the ends surfaces of the track links and the extending
ends fit loosely in the counter bore of the wider track link ends.
  The purpose of this design is to increase the pin and bushing
wear area and also to cover the joint areas and so prevent
contaminants from lodging between the joints, pins and
bushings.
3. The third type of track chain design is the interlocking seal type.
Different kinds of seals are used. They come in various shapes, may
be of synthetic rubber, or may be cone disk seal washers.
 In any case, their function is to prevent contaminants from
lodging between the track pin and bushing.

Chain link
1. The overall design of all track chains is the same notwithstanding
the varying sizes of the tractors and carriers and the relatively
larger or smaller track pins and bushings or the lighter or heavier
construction of the track links.
2. Track pitch, which is the distance measured between the centre of
one-track pin and the centre of the adjacent pin, is the most
important factor in the track chain design.
3. Furthermore, the track pitch and sprocket pitch must match to
ensure smooth track rotation, as well as to reduce wear on the pins
and bushings and sprocket teeth. Since wear accelerates when the
pitches do not match.
1. The track links are forged with a massive strut and heavy body
to increase strength and minimize fatigue, and then hardened to
increase resistance to wear.

Fig. 8.8. Track link

8. Track shoes.
The purpose of the track shoes is to support the tractor or carrier weight
and to provide floatation and /or traction. In addition, they are designed to
provide protection to the track chain and thereby reduce wear. This is
achieved:

 By slightly curving the front of the shoe downward and the rear of
the shoe upward (when the track chain is straight, the adjacent
 track shoe overlaps at the front and the shoe at the rear under
laps).
 By positioning the governor bar as for forward as possible over the
link pin bores.
 To reduce turning resistance of loader tractors and carriers and
thereby prolong the undercarriage life, a double or triple grouser
(also called multi-grouser), with or without the centre relief hole, is
used.

Shoe Description
MODERATE SERVICE  Work best in low to medium abrasion conditions
SHOES (SINGLE- and low to moderate impact conditions
GROUSER SHOES)  All-purpose shoes recommended for any general
application
 Provide good penetration and traction while
resisting wear and bending
CENTER HOLE SHOES  Work best in applications where packing causes
(MODERATE AND the track to tighten, accelerating pin and bushing
EXTREME SERVICE wear
SHOES)  Recommended for applications where large
amounts of debris tend to pack in the track
 Reduce extrudable packing between the shoe and
the bushing due to sprockets that punch out dirt
and debris
 Also available for Double-Grouser and Chopper
Shoes
MULTI-GROUSER  Work best in applications that require less
SHOES penetration and traction
 Recommended for applications that require better
turning capability and less ground disturbance
 Feature two or three short grousers instead of one
tall grouser, low usage on medium-size track-type
tractors
EXTREME SERVICE  Work best in moderate to high impact conditions
SHOE (SINGLE-  Recommended for applications where the links
GROUSER SHOES) outlast the shoes
 Have more hardened wear material than
moderate service shoes
SELF-CLEANING, LOW  Work best in soft underfoot conditions. Should not
GROUND PRESSURE be used in highly abrasive or high-impact
SHOES conditions
 Recommended for applications where flotation is
 a problem (LGP only)
 Separate from one another as they move around
the sprocket and idler, allowing dirt and debris to
fall out
CHOPPER SHOES  Work best in applications where debris tends to
stick in the shoes
 Recommended for landfills, transfer stations and
demolition applications
 Feature a full-length grouser to resist bending,
diagonal side grousers for increased chopping
ability, and a large trapezoidal center hole for
increased material extrusion
Table 8.4. Track shoe designs
Grouser designs
1. Dozers

i. Single Grouser: manufactured for rugged operations. Its

extra-thick grouser offers excellent resistance.
ii. Double/Triple Grouser: this type of shoe provides lower
traction due to low grousers. Operates efficiently on soft
ground and during cargo handling in ships. Low in turning
resistance, high in manoeuvrability.
iii. Heavy Duty Shoe: The grouser and plate portions of this
shoe are thicker and stronger, which provides a higher bending
and wear resistance. It is suitable for mid-size and large dozers
that are used in abrasive, high impact applications.
iv. Swamp: this shoe is designed with an arc-style penetration,
creating buoyancy in swamp applications. Suitable for use in
small and mid-size bulldozers.

2. Excavators

i. Triple Grouser: strong, sturdy shoe for low penetration.

Equipped with three grousers of equal height. Operates
efficiently on soft ground and during cargo handling in ships.
Low in turning resistance – high in manoeuvrability.
ii. Double/Single Grouser: these types of shoe have taller
grouser bar and are designed for increased penetration.
Suitable for use in adverse conditions.
iii. Heavy Duty Shoe: The grouser and plate portions of this
shoe are thicker and stronger, which provides a higher bending
and wear resistance. Suitable for abrasive and high impact
applications.
iv. Roadliner/City Shoe: with low noise and low vibrations, this
shoe is designed to operate easily and smoothly on the asphalt
and other paved or cement surfaces.
9. Track roller, idler, and sprocket guards
i. The purpose of the track roller guards is to prevent particles from
lodging between the track rollers and track chain, and to protect the
track rollers from impact.
ii. The front idler and sprocket guards protect the sprockets and idlers
by preventing large particles from falling onto the track chain.
 The guards are either of the prefabricated welded design or cast of
steel, and are bolted to the track roller frame.

10. Crawler carrier undercarriage

Basically, two kinds of track-type undercarriages are used on crawler
carriers.
i. The tractor type and
ii. The crawler types

Crawler carrier undercarriage design

1. The overall design of the crawler carrier undercarriage is similar to
the tractor undercarriage, although the design of the components
differs.
2. This is because the main purpose of the carrier undercarriage is to
support the carrier weight and to provide a stable. Secure footing to
enable the superstructure to perform to capacity.

Belt rollers and idler tumblers

The belt rollers, carrier rollers and idler tumbler bodies are supported on
their respective shafts by bushings.

1. Drive tumbler - The tumbler and drive sprocket (when a chain

drive is used) or the gear (when a final drive transmission is used),
are splined to the final drive shaft.
2. Track belt and shoes - The crawler belt (track belt) is composed
of individual crawler shoes (treads) or pads cast from steel with
reinforced ribs, drive lugs, and link pin eyes.
3. Track chain and belt action - As the tractor moves, the track
links or shoes located between the center line of the drive sprocket
and the front idler remain atationary. When both drive sprockets or
tumblers are driven in a clockwise rotation, the track links or shoes
which are in the sprocket or tumbler rotate with the sprocket.

Summary
 In the construction equipment industry, the term undercarriage is
commonly used as a collective term for the lower travelling units.
 We have two main types of travelling units, the wheeled type and
the tracked type.
 There are two designs of track-type undercarriages – the tractor and
the crawler types.
 Basically, two kinds of tract-type undercarriages are used on crawler
carriers: the tractor type and the crawler carrier type.
 Components of the undercarriage are:
1. Rear sprocket guard
2. Track chain
3. Sprocket
4. Carrier rollers
5. Track rollers – single and double flanged
6. Idler
7. Track roller frame
8. Track adjuster – mechanical/hydraulic
9. Equalizer bar
10. Links
11. Pins/bushing
12. Master pin
13. Master link
14. Track shoe
15. Track roller bogies (elevated sprocket)
16. Rock ejector
 Track-adjusting and recoil mechanism are bolted to each track
frame and coupled to the front idler yoke.
 The purpose of track adjuster is to adjust the track chain so that a
specific tension between the drive sprocket and front idler can be
maintained when worn track bushings and pins or worn sprocket
teeth reduce the tension.
 The purpose of the recoil mechanism is to act as the counter force
to the track-adjusting mechanism.
 Four types of recoil mechanisms and adjustments are used;
– Coil spring recoil mechanism and mechanical track adjustment
– Coil spring recoil mechanism and hydraulic track adjustment
– Staked cone spring plates and hydraulic adjuster
– Nitrogen gas recoil mechanism and adjuster
 Crawler carrier undercarriage design
1. The overall design of the crawler carrier undercarriage is similar
to the tractor undercarriage, although the design of the
components differs.
 2. This is because the main purpose of the carrier undercarriage is
to support the carrier weight and to provide a stable.

Reference materials

 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy

Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins

UNIT B13.9 DISASSEMBLING AND

ASSEMBLING UNDERCARRIAGE COMPONENTS

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Observe safety procedures
2. Explain the construction and operation of undercarriage
components
3. Maintain undercarriage

9.1. Safety procedures

Before you start working on the undercarriage, first, park the machine on
level surface, stop engine and isolate the battery negative terminal and;

1. Use correct safety attire

2. Maintain good house keeping
3. Use correct tools and equipments
4. Demonstrate good working habits

9.2. Operation of undercarriage components

The principle of the undercarriage assembly
Here you see the assembly from the side. How does it make the machine
move? Well, the concept is pretty much the same as with a bicycle. By
peddling, the cyclist generates energy. This energy rotates the front gear
of the bike. Since the front gear is connected by a chain with the rear
gear, and the rear gear is linked with the rear wheel, the rear wheel
rotates and makes the bike move. This is the basic principle of the tracked
undercarriage assembly. The “front gear” of the undercarriage assembly
is the sprocket. The engine power is transmitted to the sprocket and
makes the sprocket turn. Since the sprocket teeth interlock with the track
chain assembly, the chain starts to move and so does the machine. In this
case, the chain is not linked to wheels like it is for the bicycle. The chain
itself has contact with the ground and makes the machine move. So, the
undercarriage drive mechanism is quite similar to that of a bicycle.

Front and back of the machine

To determine the direction of the machine’s movement, you have to look
at the undercarriage assembly. The idler, or front idler as the name
indicates, is always located at the front.

9.3. Maintaining undercarriage

Some maintenance of track and track frames are performed at the jobsite
by the field maintenance crew. This maintenance consists of track
adjustment, lubrication based on hours as required by the manufacturer,
and inspection of the track and track frame components.

Inspection
When performing routine maintenance, inspect the complete track and
undercarriage for signs of abnormal wear, leaking rollers or idlers, and
misaligned, loose, or missing parts. Should you find any loose track shoes,
you should check the torque on all the shoe bolts. Any bolts not meeting
specifications should be retightened to the prescribed torque.

If the track appears to be out of alignment, report this to your supervisor

who shall determine what action is required. Leaking roller and idler seals
should be replaced as soon as possible to prevent any further damage to
the equipment.

Shop Repairs
Repairs made to tracks and track frames in the maintenance shop are
usually limited to replacing roller or idler seals and bearings or repairing a
hydraulic track adjuster. On occasion, you may find a roller or track that is
badly worn and requires replacement.
 NOTE
NEVER replace components of the track or track frame without consulting
the wear limitation charts in the manufacturer's service manual.

Track removal
Steps for the removal of the track are as follows:

Fig. 9.1. Removing tracks

1. Release track tension - Either by manually backing off the track

adjuster or loosening the vent screw on the hydraulic track adjuster.

2. Remove the master pin - The master pin can be identified by a

locking device or hole drilled in its end that distinguishes it from the other
pins in the chain.

i. Move the tractor backward slowly or, on some models, forward to

bring the master pin just below the level of the drawbar.
ii. Place a block under the grouser on a shoe that allows the master pin
to be centered on the front idler.
iii. With the master pin centered on the front idler, remove any locking
device. If the master pin had a locking device, the pin can be
removed by using a sledge hammer and a soft metal drift pin.
Should the pin be drilled, a portable press must be used to remove
the pin.
iv. Do not lose the bushings, which may drop out with the pin.

3. Remove the track from the carrier rollers and idler - Slowly move
the tractor forward or backward away from the loose ends of the track.
Make sure no one is in the way of the tractor or the loose end of the track
when it falls off the sprocket or front idler.

4. Move the tractor off the track - Place a plank at the rear of the
track. The plank should be about the same thickness as the track, yet
narrow enough to fit between the track frame and guards, and long
enough so that the entire tractor can rest on the plank.
 NOTE

After removing the tracks, always see that the tractor is securely blocked
while repairs are being performed. Anytime a track is removed,
thoroughly inspect the track frame components for excessive wear and
misalignment. Removal, disassembly, and replacement vary by model and
manufacturer. Consult the manufacturer's service manual for exact
procedures.

Fig. 9.2. Pulling track over sprocket

Replacing tracks - To replace the tracks, back the tractor off the plank
and onto the new tracks so the drive sprocket properly meshes with the
track rail. Continue backing until the tractor is just ahead of the rear end
of the track. Then place a bar in the track and help the track climb over
the sprocket, carrier rollers, and idler as the tractor is driven forward.
When the track comes together, install the master pin and any locking
device. Once the track is together, adjust the track tension using the
manufacturer's recommended procedures.

B. Replacing track rollers

1. Remove the track roller guards.
2. Steam-clean the undercarriage.
3. Drive the tractor onto level ground.
4. Remove the track chain tension.
5. Raise and block the tractor on stands. If the tractor is too heavy
drive the tractor until the front roller and rear shoe run over the
specially designed wedge
6. To remove the track roller, place short pieces of 2X4", or 2X6"
wood between the track links and with the additional blocking
material to support the rollers.
 7. Loosen and remove the cap screws and the shaft brackets, or shaft
returners, and roll the rollers from the wood onto the ground.

Track roller reinstallation procedure is precisely the reverse of the

removal.

CAUTION:
Take care not to damage the roller flanges or to endanger your fingers as
you push/ lift the roller into position. Align the shaft retainer, and the roller
shaft, then install the cap screws and tighten them to the recommended
torque.

C. Track carrier roller service

1. Disassembly
i. Thoroughly clean the track carrier roller extension.
ii. Remove the inner retainer cap screws and screw the pusher cap
screws into the threaded holes of the retainer, or use a hydraulic
puller arrangement to pull the bearing retainer, seal retainer, and
seal from the shaft and body.
iii. Remove the seal assembly from the seal retainer and remove the
seal ring from the inner bearing retainer. When employing the
puller screw method, use a soft face hammer and tap on the
retainer to ease removal.
iv. Remove the outer bearing retainer cap screws, the retainer, and
shims.

2. Inspection

If the roller body flange tread surfaces are worn, the bearing cups are
loose in their bores, or the weld is cracked, the roller body must be
replaced or rebuilt.
i. Check the shaft for warpage and cracks, and for wear at the seat
of the bearing cones.
ii. Check mechanical seal sealing surfaces for nicks, scratches, and
burrs.
iii. Check the seal spring assembly: - bellow for cracks, spring for
strength, and guide dowels for damage.

3. Reassembly

Clean all parts thoroughly, especially the roller body.

 i. Install the seal assembly following the procedure recommended
in the service manual.
ii. Press the bearings onto the shaft (you may heat them to
facilitate installation) until they are seated firmly against the
shaft shoulder.
iii. Lubricate the bearings.
iv. Install shaft into the roller body.
v. Place the same number of shims as removed onto the inner and
outer retainer.
vi. Install the retainers one at a time, to the body.
vii. Tighten the inner bearing retainer cap screws to the specified
torque and then torque the outer cap screws while rotating the
shaft.
viii. Check the preload by checking the rotating torque of the shaft.
ix. Remove the outer retainer.
x. Stand the roller on its shaft.
xi. Grease the roller until lubricant is forced from between the upper
tapered roller bearings.
xii. Reinstall the retainer.

D. Track roller service

The procedure for serving a track roller having roller bearings or tapered
roller bearings parallels that previously outlined for the track carrier roller.

1. Disassembly
i. Remove the shaft plug.
ii. Remove the left- and right-hand retainer (lock) rings.
iii. Using two pry bars, pry the collar straight from the shaft ends.
iv. Lift the metal floating ring seal and the toric seal rings from the
collar and bushing assembly.
v. Remove the cap screws which secure the bushing assembly
(iron bushing) to the roller body.
vi. Place the roller assembly onto the press bed so that the roller is
supported by its flange.
vii. Press on the shaft to force the bushing assembly from the roller
body.
viii. Repeat this procedure for the other side.
2. Inspection
i. Clean the shaft, the two bushing assemblies and the two rollers.
ii. Inspect and measure the shaft for wear and to determine if it is
bent or damaged.
3. Bearing replacement
If only the bearings are to be replaced,
i. Position one bushing assembly face down, onto the press bed so
that the bushing supports the assembly.
ii. Place an adapter onto the bearing and press out the bearing.
iii. With the hacksaw, saw off the locating pins and with a file smooth
the bushing surface.
iv. Clean the bushing, and align the bearing holes with the bushing
holes.
v. Press the bearing into the bushing so that the bearing flange rests
firmly against the bushing.
vi. Install two pins into the holes to secure the bearing to the bushing
housing.
vii. Check for nicks and burrs at the seal counter bore surface.
viii. Remove any that are present with a scraper or emery cloth.
ix. Clean all components and dry them with compressed air.

4. Reassembly
i. Install the O-ring seal to each bushing assembly (without
twisting or rolling them).
ii. Using the specified lubricant or an anti-seize compound,
lubricate the inner bore of the track roller and the outer surface
of the bushing assembly.
iii. Position the roller onto the press bed.
iv. Align the bushing assembly by using the special assembly tool,
or by inserting three guide pins into the bushing holes and into
the holes of the roller body.
v. Press the bushing assembly into the roller body until it rests
firmly against the roller body shoulder.
vi. Install and tighten the cap screws to the specified torque.
vii. Turn the track roller over 180°, lubricate the bearing and shaft.
viii. Insert the shaft into the roller body – do the same for the other
bearing assembly.
ix. Install and torque the cap screws to the specified torque.
x. Measure the shaft end play.
xi. Clean the metal floating ring seals using the recommended
cleaning fluid or alcohol, and examine the sealing surfaces.
xii. Install the new toric seals, but make sure the sealing rings are
not twisted and that they rest firmly in the relief of the seal
ring.
xiii. Using fingers, install the assembly by pressing on the outer side
of toric seal ring to force it into the bushing assembly counter
bore.
 xiv. Repeat these steps to position the other half of the floating ring
seal into the counter bore of the collar.
xv. Before placing the collar onto the collar, again clean both
sealing surfaces with a lint-free cloth and alcohol to remove any
minute particles or finger prints.
xvi. Discharge one drop of oil onto the cloth and lubricate both
sealing surfaces.
xvii. Place the collar onto the shaft and position the lock ring.
xviii. Repeat these steps precisely to install the other floating ring
seal

NOTE:
Do not use any kind of lubricant on toric seal rings.

E. Lubrication

The final step before installing the track roller is to lubricate the track
roller.
1. Screw the special nozzle into the shaft end.
2. Position the roller shaft horizontally, i.e. the flat side or the pin
groove in the shaft facing upward so that the shaft holes align
with the reservoir holes.
3. Pump oil into the roller until air flows out from around the threads
of the nozzle.
4. Remove the nozzle and install the plug to the specified torque.

F. TRACK CHAIN SERVICE

This service may be classified into four groups:

1. Track shoe replacement.
2. Track chain replacement.
3. Turning pins and bushings or replacing them and
4. Track link replacement.

G. Turning track pins and bushings

1. This entails removing the track chain from the tractor, pressing
out the pins and bushings, rotating them 180 0 and reinserting
them.
2. Turning the pins and bushings should be done before they
reach the maximum service limit since it can extend the track
 chain life by approximately the mileage already achieved by
the tractor up to this point in its use.

1. Procedure
i. Clean the track.
ii. Remove the track shoes (on some tracks you need only to
remove the bolts and nuts from the links on one side of the track
chain).
iii. Simultaneously press out one pin and one bushing from one side
of the track link, and then press out the bushing from each of
the other links.
iv. Clean all pins and bushings in solvent, once they are removed.
v. Inspect the links, pins, bushings, seals and spacers for wear.
vi. Reassemble and press the pins and bushings into the links.
vii. Reinstall the track shoes.

H. Track link replacement

1. Drive the tractor forward to bring the broken link or section to
the top.
2. Release the track tension and remove the track shoes from the
damaged track links. Then remove the track shoes on each side
of the last damaged link.
3. Span a chain and cinch across the damaged section to hold the
track together while the repair is being made.

If the track is broken, it must be removed in order to be repaired.

I. Drive sprocket service

Drive sprocket service may be divided into four topics: -

1. Replacing the one-piece drive sprocket, or switching it to the
opposite final drive.
2. Replacing or switching the one-piece sprocket.
3. Replacing the individual sprocket segments or alternating one set
from one side to the other sprocket hub.
4. Rebuilding (rewelding) the drive sprocket teeth.

J. Replacing the sprocket

1. Split the track.
2. Depending on design, remove the side frame and disassemble
part of the final drive.
3. When sprocket segments are used (bolted to the sprocket hub),
replace them or switch them without splitting the track.
 4. However, to replace the sprocket hub, the track must be split
and the final drive must be partly disassembled.

K. Replacing sprocket segments

1. Remove the final drive guard and steam-clean the sprocket.
2. Drive the machine in a forward or reverse direction until one
sprocket segment is free from the track chain.
3. Loosen and remove the nuts, the segment and the bolts.
4. Clean the hub surfaces and bolt threads.
5. Lubricate them with the recommended anti-seize compound.
6. Position the bolts in the sprocket hub and the segments on the
bolts.
7. Install and tighten the nuts to the specified torque.
8. Start the engine and drive the tractor forward to position the
next sprocket segment.
9. Repeat these steps until all segments are replaced or switched.
10. Reinstall the sprocket guard.

L. Replacing a one piece or a ring sprocket

When a one piece or ring drive sprocket is used and the inside frame is
either rigidly fastened to the tractor frame or pivot fastened to an
individual shaft in front of the drive sprocket, replacing the drive sprocket
is a relatively simple and quite procedure.

1. Procedure
i. Split the track.
ii. Remove the lock from the sprocket from the sprocket nut.
iii. Remove the nut.

2. Inspection
i. Clean the splines.
ii. Check the splines on the final drive shaft for wear.

3. Reassembly
i. Lubricate the splines.
ii. Place the sprocket onto them, and drive it or press it into
position.
iii. Install the sheet metal washer and then the nut.
iv. Hold the sprocket by applying the brakes or by wedging a block
between a sprocket tooth and the side frame.
v. Tighten nut to the specified torque using a socket torque
multiplier and torque wrench.
 vi. Lock the nut by bending the washer against one flat of the nut.

Reassemble in precisely the reverse order of disassembly.

M. Track roller frame service

When the roller frame is broken: either,

1. The pivot bearings are worn,
2. The pivot shaft or dead axle is bent, or
3. The roller frame is out of alignment.

All of which cause accelerated wear to the rotating components, the roller
frame must be removed and serviced.

Summary

 Before you start working on the undercarriage, first, park the

machine on level surface, stop engine and isolate the battery
negative terminal and and observe safety
 Since the sprocket teeth interlock with the track chain assembly, the
chain starts to move and so does the machine.
 The idler, or front idler as the name indicates, is always located at
the front.
 Maintenance consists of track adjustment, lubrication based on
hours as required by the manufacturer, and inspection of the track
and track frame components.
 When performing routine maintenance, inspect the complete track
and undercarriage for signs of abnormal wear, leaking rollers or
idlers, and misaligned, loose, or missing parts.
 Repairs made to tracks and track frames in the maintenance shop
are usually limited to replacing roller or idler seals and bearings or
repairing a hydraulic track adjuster.
 Never replace components of the track or track frame without
consulting the wear limitation charts in the manufacturer's service
manual.
 Take care not to damage the roller flanges or to endanger your
fingers as you push/ lift the roller into position.
 Align the shaft retainer, and the roller shaft, then install the cap
screws and tighten them to the recommended torque.

Reference materials
  Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Singapore
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins

UNIT B13:10 MAINTAINING UNDERCARRIAGE

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Troubleshoot undercarriage faults
2. Test undercarriage
3. Use measuring tools and procedures

Maintenance
To reduce undercarriage wear, the weight of the tractor and attachments
must be evenly distributed onto the track rollers and track chains.
Maintenance should include:

1. Keeping the undercarriage clean.

2. Maintaining correct track chain tension.
3. Regularly lubricating the track rollers, idlers and final drive.
4. Making regular visual checks for loose or missing parts.
5. Visual checks to determine misalignment, and where necessary
making minor repairs such as replacing or rotating track rollers,
replacing track shoes, and turning pins and bushings.

10.1. Troubleshooting undercarriage faults

Causes of undercarriage components and wear can be classified into four
groups:
1. Undercarriage components not suited to the operating condition
2. Component misalignment due to severe operating conditions
3. Poor maintenance
4. Tractor constantly operated at high speed
 Table 10.1. Undercarriage faulty Diagnosis

10.2. Testing undercarriage

1. Adjust front idler to compensate for wear
2. Track recoil and track-adjusting mechanism
3. Test the adjustment in reference to data base

Track Adjustment

If the tracks are adjusted too tightly, there will be too much friction
between the pins and bushings when the track links swivel as they travel
around the sprocket and front idler. This friction causes the pins,
bushings, links, sprocket, and idler to wear rapidly. Friction in a tight track
also robs the tractor of needed horsepower.

Tracks that are too loose fail to stay aligned and tend to come off when
the tractor is turned. As a result, the idler flanges, roller flanges, and the
sides of the sprocket teeth wear down. A loose track will whip at high
tractor ground speed, damaging the carrier rollers and their supports. If
loose enough, the drive sprockets will jump teeth (slide over track
bushings) when the tractor moves in reverse. Should this happen, the
sprocket and bushings will wear rapidly.

One method for determining proper track tension is placing a straightedge

over the front carrier roller and idler with all the slack removed from the
rest of the track. Using a ruler, measure from the top of the track shoe to
the bottom edge of the straightedge. For the correct measurement, refer
to the manufacturer's manual.

Fig. 10.1. Checking track adjustment

If it becomes necessary to adjust the track in the field, the following

method can be used. Remove all slack from the track. With all slack
removed, release the pressure until the front idler moves back 1/2 inch.
This will provide the required slack in the track until the tractor can be
readjusted to the manufacturer's specifications.

NOTE

Always check the manufacturer's maintenance manual for the proper

procedures when adjusting tracks.

Lubrication
The track pins and bushing are hardened and require no lubrication. Many
rollers and idlers are equipped with lifetime seals that are factory
lubricated and sealed. However, track rollers, carrier rollers, and idlers
equipped with grease fittings must be lubricated on a scheduled basis that
is set by the manufacturer.

NOTE
ONLY use a hand-operated grease gun on these fittings and pump only
until resistance is felt. Further pumping will damage the seals.

Adjusting track tension

Regardless of the measuring method used, the tracks must be adjusted at

the working site. Before starting measurements and adjustments, the
tractor must be driven in a forward direction and a track pin must be in
the centre of the carrier roller. There must be no master pin between the
carrier roller and the front idler (or drive sprocket) during the measuring
and adjustment.

1. Procedure
i. Drive the tractor a short distance in a forward direction, then
stop engine.
ii. Tighten the track chain, but stop doing so as soon as the packed
build-up starts to squeeze from between the track bushing and
sprocket teeth (or you should stop as the track chain is almost
straight between the carrier roller and front idler).
iii. Measure from the front idler yoke to any fixed point on the track
roller frame.
iv. Reduce the track tension by bleeding grease into the cylinder for
a nitrogen recoil mechanism, or by using the track adjusting
screw.
v. Force the front idler rear ward by placing a track pin (or any
large pin) between one sprocket tooth and the track link.
vi. Drive the tractor in a reverse direction until the track pin is on
top.
vii. Drive the tractor forward to remove the inserted pin.
viii. Tighten the track until the front idler has moved forward
12.7mm less than the distance measured when the track chain
was tightly adjusted.

10.3. Using measuring tools and procedures

1. Measuring track pin (track pitch)
2. Checking bushing wear
3. Measure track link height
4. Checking track link wear
5. Checking grouser wear
6. Checking idler tread and flange wear
7. Method of determining roller wear
8. Measuring bent track frame
9. Checking track frame level
10. Methods of checking track frame toe in/toe out
 Summary

 To reduce undercarriage wear, the weight of the tractor and

attachments must be evenly distributed onto the track rollers and
track chains.
 Maintenance should include:
1. Keeping the undercarriage clean.
2. Maintaining correct track chain tension.
3. Regularly lubricating the track rollers, idlers and final drive.
4. Making regular visual checks for loose or missing parts.
5. Visual checks to determine misalignment, and where necessary
making minor repairs such as replacing or rotating track rollers,
replacing track shoes, and turning pins and bushings.
 The causes of undercarriage wear can be classified into four groups:
1. Undercarriage components not suited to the operating condition
2. Component misalignment due to severe operating conditions
3. Poor maintenance
4. Tractor constantly operated at high speed
 If the tracks are adjusted too tightly, there will be too much friction
between the pins and bushings when the track links swivel as they
travel around the sprocket and front idler.
 Tracks that are too loose fail to stay aligned and tend to come off
when the tractor is turned.
 One method for determining proper track tension is placing a
straightedge over the front carrier roller and idler with all the slack
removed from the rest of the track.
 Always check the manufacturer's maintenance manual for the
proper procedures when adjusting tracks.
 The track pins and bushing are hardened and requires no
lubrication.
 Regardless of the measuring method used, the tracks must be
adjusted at the working site.

Reference materials

 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Singapore
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
UNIT 13.11: DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING
TRACKED STEERING MACHINE SYSTEM

Unit outcomes
At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Identify components of the tracked steering system.

2. Explain the operation of tracked steering components

11.1. Components of the tracked steering system

1. Steering levers
2. Steering pump
3. Steering control valve
4. Restrictor valve
5. Sequence valve
6. Pressure regulator valve
7. Steering clutches
8. Accumulator
9. Hydraulic hoses
10. Oil cooler

11.2. Operation of tracked steering system

1. Steering levers
2. Steering pump
3. Steering control valve
4. Restrictor valve
5. Sequence valve
6. Pressure regulator valve
7. Steering clutches
8. Accumulator
9. Hydraulic hoses
10. Oil cooler

UNIT 13.12: DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING

TRACKED STEERING MACHINE SYSTEM

Unit outcomes
At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Use correct safety attire

 2. Maintain good house keeping
3. Use correct tools and equipments
4. Demonstrate good working habits

Before you start working on the undercarriage components, first, select

apripriate machine workshop service manual.

12.1. Disassembling steering components

1. Steering levers
2. Steering pump
3. Steering control valve
4. Restrictor valve
5. Sequence valve
6. Pressure regulator valve
7. Steering clutches
8. Accumulator
9. Steering wheel

12.2. Inspecting steering components for

1. Wear
2. Damage
3. Cracks
4. Leaks

12.3. Assembling steering components

1. Assembling components in the reverse order of disassembly
2. Replace replaceable components
3. Repair components according to manufacturer’s recommendation
4. Sign maintenance report

Reference materials

 Erich J. Schulz, (1983), Diesel Equipment II. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Singapore
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.
UNIT 13.13 DISCUSSING WHEELS AND TYRES

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

1. Identify components of wheels

2. Identify types of tyres
3. Explain different types of tyre terminology

13.1. Purpose of tyres

1. The automobile wheels support the total weight; the tyres must be
large and strong enough to support the vehicle on the road.
2. Resist the strains created during turning, automobile control,
acceleration and braking occur through the tyres and their contact
on the road surface. The traction, the force required to make the
tyre slip on the contact patch, is the same on the wheel in all
directions whether it is accelerating, cornering, braking, or any
combination of these.
3. Transmit the driving torque for propelling and breaking torque for
retarding.
4. The tyre must absorb, by deflecting, part of the shock from road
irregularities.

13.2. Identifying components of wheels

1. Structure - Wheels must be rigid enough to retain their shape
under all operating conditions. When subjected to abnormal impact,
they should preferably buckle and must not collapse. The
dimensional tolerances of the wheel should be accurate enough for
carrying out wheel alignment and balancing.
2. Weight - Wheels must be light so that the unsprung weight is
reduced. Light wheels and tyres also follow the road surface contour
more accurately so that wheel bounce is minimized, resulting in
improved road contact and reduced tyre wear.
3. Tyre attachment - Since the wheel-tyre combination is responsible
for the transmission of traction to the road or for steering reaction,
the tyre must be suitably located and rigidly secured on the wheel.
Additionally, the design of wheel should be such that the tyre can be
fitted easily.
4. Wheel mounting - The wheel attachment must be designed
properly for locating, securing, and supporting the wheel. Also, the
wheel should be easily fitted or removed from its axle-hub.
5. Cost - Wheels should be made out of cheaper materials that can
easily be fabricated, cast, or forged, with the minimum machining. It
should also have better finish and appearance and should not easily
deteriorate with age and weathering.
i. Types of rims
ii. Well base
iii. Split rim (divided rim)
iv. Detachable flange type two-piece, three-piece
1. Pressed-steel-disc wheels - These wheels use a formed disc
pressed into a rolled-section well-base rim and held in position by
spot welding. The formed disc contacts the rim in a number of
equal-spaced arcs. The disc has a number of equal-spaced shallow
elongated slots immediately under the base of the rim well, which
improves brake cooling and decreases the transfer of heat from the
brake-drum to the tyre due to passage of air through the slots.

The well in the base of the rim is sufficiently deep to hold the beads
of the tyre for mounting or demounting. The portion of the rim
where the tyre sits have 5 degrees taper due to which, as the tyre is
inflated, the beads are forced up the taper providing a wedge fit,
and a good seal is obtained with tubeless tyres.

Fig. 13.1. Pressed-steel-disc wheel rims

2. Car well-base rims - Wheel rims are designed to minimize

dislodging of the tyre, when subjected to heavy cornering. Originally
the rim was tapered from the rim flange to the edge of the well so
that the pressure acting over a short length of the bead would force
back the tyre bead into the well. This can happen due to the
interaction of the cornering side-force acting on the wheel and the
reaction of the tyre and the road. This is prevented in the flat-ledge
rim profile due to the provision of a parallel flat ledge between the
outer taper adjacent to the flange and the edge of the well. In a
 close-fitting tyre bead this can happen only due to the pressure
acting all the way round the bead.
3. Van 5 degrees seat-angle well-base rim - These rims have high
wall flanges, which protect the tyre beads and walls from damage
due to external interference. Generally, both tubed and tubeless
tyres are fitted on these rims. However large stiff tyres cannot be
mounted over these flanges, and hence these rims are only used for
vans and small commercial vehicles.
4. U-Type drop-centre 15O taper rim - Tubeless tyres and large
section tyres with relatively flexible beads are used for vans, buses,
and medium sized trucks. These tyres use a single-piece well-base
wheel rim, having relatively shallow flanges at the edge of 15 O taper
bead-seats. This profile of the rim provides a good joint and sound
seal between the tyre bead and the rim taper.
5. Detachable-rim wheels - Large tyres for commercial vehicles use
more plies in the casing and are therefore relatively bulkier in the
bead region. The rims for these tyres have one removable side-
flange, which allows the wheel tyres to slide into position, and then
the flange can be replaced and locked in place.
6. Semi-drop-centre two-piece rim - This type of rim has inner and
outer tapered tyre-bead-seating surfaces separated by a shallow
central or near central well. The inner flange can be removed for
fitting a tyre. In this design, the well depth only permits the tyre
beads to pass over the top of the outer bead-seat taper. The outer
flange is detachable and is sprung into a continuous groove formed
along the outer edge of the rim base so that it is retained in its
working position. This rim forms an intermediate class between the
well-base and wide-base rims. It accommodates heavier beads,
which are too rigid for fitting on the full well-base type. This rim is
used on light trucks.
7. Wide-base two-piece rim - This rim is made up of one fixed
flange integral with the rim base and one split detachable flange.
The rim uses 5O taper seats for tyre beads, the one on the
detachable flange side being integral with the flange. The outer
detachable flange is sprung into a continuous groove formed along
the outer edge of the rim base to retain the flange in its working
position. During inflation of the tyre the bead sits over the
detachable-flange taper, holding it is position. This rim is used
mainly on medium-size commercial vehicles.
8. Wide-base three-piece rim - This type of rim contains one fixed
flange integral with the rim base, one detachable endless flange,
and a separate flange-retaining split lock-ring. The rim uses 5 O taper
seats for tyre-bead location, the one on the detachable-flange side
 usually being on an extension of the spring lock-ring. During
inflation of the tyre the bead sits over the extension of the spring
lock-ring, holding it in position. This rim is used on large commercial
vehicles.
9. Divided flat-base rim - This type of rim is integral with the wheel
itself. For fitting or removal of the tyre the two halves of the wheel
are divided by dismantling the outer ring of bolts, which hold the
wheel halves together. These rims are used primarily for large
military trucks.

Fig.13.2. Detachable rims designs

10. Cast and forged alloy wheels - These wheels are

manufactured as a single-piece rim and disc. Magnesium and
aluminium alloys are most commonly used for reduction in weight.
Magnesium alloy produces a saving of weight of 30% over
aluminium alloys and 50% over steel for similar strength.
Magnesium alloys exhibit very good fatigue properties and excellent
resilience, due to which they are capable of resisting vibration and
shock loading better than both aluminium alloy and steel. However,
they are highly susceptible to corrosion and therefore must be
provided with a protective surface coating. Although aluminium
alloys have relatively less fatigue properties but their corrosion
characteristic is also less and they can be readily cast or forged. The
section thickness for the rim and disc are required to be greater
with light alloys than with steel.

NOTE

1. Most light alloys are better conductors of heat than steel, so that
they transfer any heat generated by the tyre or brake more quickly
to the wheel-disc for dissipation to the air stream.
2. Light-alloy wheels are more expensive to manufacture than
pressed-steel wheels.
3. Aluminium-alloy wheels are cheaper than magnesium alloy wheels.
 4. Light-alloy wheels are used for better appearance and lighter
weight.
5. Usually an aluminium alloy is preferred for passenger cars and
trucks, and a magnesium alloy for sports and racing cars.

The wheel-rim profile used for both light alloy wheels and steel rims is
similar.

Wheel mountings

Car wheels

Passenger vehicle wheel fixtures diagrams

Fig.13.3. Passenger vehicle wheel fixtures

1. Conical-nut mounting - Car steel wheels are generally aligned

with conical-taper nuts those fit into the wheel-disc countersink stud
holes. The wheel is centralized to the hub axis due to the taper,
which also provides a wedge action to the nuts when they are
tightened. The wheel then properly located, secured, and held by
the stud and nut.
2. Spigot mounting with conical set-bolt - The disc is secured to
the hub by the conical-shaped set-bolts, which also transmit both
the driving and braking torques. This method is suitable with both
steel and light-alloy wheels and is commonly used on small and
medium sized cars.
3. Shouldered-nut mounting - The light-alloy car wheels with the
softer metal may distort or tear away at the stud holes when the
nuts are tightened, so that these holes are slowly enlarged. To
maintain a concentricity of the wheel, the conical end of the nut is
extended with a parallel shoulder or sleeve portion, which is a close
fit with the stud hole. The wheel is then located, secured and
supported by the nut.
 4. Sleeved-integral-nut mounting - A further improvement in car
wheels is achieved by incorporating a separate sleeve, which has a
conical-and-parallel profile. This sleeve rotates freely relative to the
hexagon nut and prevents tearing between the alloy wheel and the
stud nut during tightening.

Commercial-vehicle wheels

1. Conical taper-nut mounting - Commercial-vehicle steel wheels

are attached to the axle-hub flange by using conical-taper nuts
fitting into countersink stud holes. In case of twin wheels, the wheel
stud-hole flange next to the drum is located by a loose conical-
taper-shaped washer placed over the stud or by an integral
spherical-shaped seat on the stud. The wheel is located, secured,
and supported by the nut.
2. Continental (din) standard wheel mounting - The wheel can
also be mounted to the hub by plain nuts with split spherical-faced
washers. These washers fit into spherical countersinks formed in the
wheel stud holes. The spherical seats centralize the stud holes, -and
the washers and the nuts mainly take the relative motion. The
wheel load is supported by the centre-bore of the wheel flange. In
case of twin wheels, a spherical washer or seat supports the inner-
wheel flange.

Fig. 13.4. Commercial vehicle wheel fixtures

3. Spigot mounting - With spigot-mounting, the centre-bore has a

close-tolerance fit on the hub spigot for locating and supporting the
load. The wheel nuts use an integral flat-face washer, which holds
the wheel securely to the brake-drum, whereas the stud takes the
acceleration and braking torques. The same mounting layout also
holds good for twin rear wheel arrangements, the support in this
case being between the centre-bore, the wheel stud-hole flange and
 the hub spigot. This type of wheel mounting is mostly used for large
trucks.

13.3. Identifying types of tyres

A tyre is made from rubberized fabric piles over a rubber liner and the
edges of the piles are wrapped around a wire bead, which holds the tyre
to the wheel rim. The fabric piles are covered with a rubber compound
tread and a different rubber compound for the side walls. The tyre is cured
in a mould to vulcanize the parts into a single unit and form the tread
design.

Major components
The carcass, beads, side walls, and tread are the major components of a
tyre cover.

Fig.13.5. Sectional view of a tyre

1. Carcass. This is a horseshoe-shaped inner lining of the tyre and is

made up of a number of layers of textile cord piles. The carcass
forms the backbone of the tyre construction and the tread, bead,
and walls all are moulded on to these cord piles.
2. Bead. This forms the inner edge of the tyre, and locates and
centralizes the cover on to the wheel rim. It has the rigidity and
strength required to support the carcass. To achieve this endless
wire core is moulded circumferentially trough the bead.
 3. Side Wall. This constitutes the outside rubber covering of the
carcass between the bead and the tyre tread. The amount of
protection provided to the carcass and the stiffness of the tyre
during deflection depends on the thickness of side wall.
4. Tread - This forms the part of the tyre, which contacts the road surface
when the wheel rolls. It is a rubber compound and its pattern design
considerably influence the tyre’s gripping, road-holding ability and working
life.

Cross (bias) - and radial-ply tyre features - Many textile cords are
crisscrossed and embedded to provide strength to the cross-ply tyre in the
rubber. These cords are arranged in layers, usually referred to as plies,
which perform two jobs.

1. Firstly, they have to make the walls strong enough to contain the
air pressure and yet leave them as supple as possible for deflection.
2. Secondly, they have to support the tread.

These two requirements conflict each other because to obtain sufficient

bracing of the tread, the ply must be reasonably stiff, which then means
that the walls has to be rigid.

Radial plies perform only one job that is to make the wall of the tyre
strong enough to contain the air pressure. They do not support the tread.
So, they do not require to be crisscrossed, instead are laid readily
following the natural profile of the tyre. This provides a simple but strong
wall, which is desirable. To support the tread, a layer of rayon or steel
cords forming a belt is placed underneath it. The sole purpose of this belt
is to brace the whole of the tread firmly flat down and open on to the
road. The greatest difference in tyres lies in the cord material and the way
it is put into the tyre.

The cross-bias cord angle runs from 30O to 40O. This provides a cross-
cord side wall, which gives required strength to transfer acceleration and
braking torque. The tyres have gone from four-ply to two-ply construction.
The strength of the ply is the result of the weight of the cord rather than
the number of plies. Two-ply tyres are as strong as four ply tyres, because
the tyre cord denier is larger than used in four ply tyres. Two-ply tyres run
cooler, are more flexible to absorb shock from road irregularities, and
apply greater self-aligning torque to the steering system after a turn.

Bias-ply allows the tyre to squirm as it moves through the tyre foot print
or contact patch. The tread is pushed together as it goes into the foot
print. This stores energy in the rubber. As it comes out of the root print,
the tyre rapidly expands and goes beyond the neutral point into a
stretched position. Closing and opening of the tread as it moves through
the contact patches is one of the major causes of normal tyre wear.

In belted tyres the tread stability and reduction of squirm results in up

to 100% improvement in tyre running compared to bias-ply tyres. By
holding the tread shape, belted tyres run cooler, improve fuel
consumption, improve traction, and double blow-out resistance when
compared to bias-ply tyres. Belted tyres do not flex as easily as bias-cord
tyres, so that more road shock is transfer into the wheels and suspension
system in this tyre, and hence the wheel spindles, knuckles, and
suspension system are required to be stronger.

Radial-ply belted tyres have been built having radial ply cord angles
run from 88O to 900 and the belt cords run from 120 to 200. The radial cord
provides a soft side wall, which produces a softer ride than belted bias
tyres. The belt (steel wires, Fiberglass, or rayon) around the radial cords
holds the tread shape through the contact patch or foot prints. Radial
belted tyres, as a result of a lower slip angle, provide more cornering
power and less wear than bias belted tyres. These tyres produce a harsh
ride at low speed, require a high steering effort, especially when parking
and are expensive.

The steel-belted radial tyre has less tread flexing so it rolls easier,
thereby improving fuel consumption. With the radial belted tyres, loss of
tyre-to-road adhesion occurs suddenly, with little warming, especially on
wet surfaces.

Tyre tread
In a pneumatic tyre a cushion of air trapped between the well of the wheel
rim and the toroid-shaped casing known as the carcass supports the
wheel load. The tread, a thick layer of rubber compound, is wrapped
around the outside of the tyre carcass to protect the carcass from damage
due to tyre impact with the irregular contour of the ground and the
abrasive wear as the tyre rolls along the road. During rotation of the
wheel the tread provides driving, braking, cornering and steering grip
between the tyre and ground. Tread grip may be defined as the ability of
a rolling tyre to continuously develop an interaction between the
individual tread elements and the ground. Tyre grip must be available
under a variety of road conditions such as smooth or rough hard roads,
dry or wet surfaces, muddy tracks, fresh snow or hard packed snow and
ice, and sandy or soft soil terrain. The main function of a tyre tread
pattern is:
 i. To provide a path for drainage of water trapped between the tyre
contact patch and the road, and
ii. To provide tread to ground bite when the wheel is subjected to both
longitudinal and lateral forces under various driving conditions.

Tread bite
Bite is obtained through a tread pattern, which divides the tread into
many separate elements, and each element has a reasonably sharp well-
defined edge. As the wheel rotates these tread edges engage with the
ground providing tyre to ground interlock and also develop frictional
forces during transmission of tractive or braking forces. Following are the
major features of tread pattern that control the effectiveness of the tyre in
wet weather:
1. Drainage grooves or channels.
2. Load carrying ribs.
3. Load bearing blocks.
4. Multiple micro slits or sipes.

Tread drainage grooves

If water is trapped between the tread ribs or blocks, the tread elements
life become separated from the ground, so that the effective area of the
contact patch reduces, so also the tyre’s ability to grip the ground. A
number of circumferential grooves placed across the tread width facilitate
the removal of water films from the tyre to ground interface. These
grooves help the leading elements of the tread to push water through the
enclosed channels formed between the road and the underside of the
grooves. Water therefore emerges in form of jets from the trailing side of
the contact patch. The total cross-sectional area of tyre should be
sufficient to channel all the water immediately ahead of the leading edge
of the contact patch away.
Lateral grooves are used to join together the individual circumferential
grooves so that a direct side exist can be provided for the outer
circumferential grooves. Normally many grooves are preferred to a few
large ones. This arrangement speeds up the water removal process under
the contact patch.

Tread ribs
Circumferential ribs provide a supportive wearing surface for the tyre and
also become the walls for the drainage grooves. Lateral ribs provide the
optimum bite for tractive and braking forces whereas circumferential ribs
control cornering and steering stability. For both longitudinal and lateral
directional stability, ribs may be arranged diagonally. Also, it may be in
the zigzag circumferential form to improve the wiping effect across the
tread surface under wet conditions. It is desirable to have the tread
pattern with many narrow ribs than a few wide ones for better road grip.

Tread blocks
The consequences of both longitudinal and lateral drainage channels,
used for effective drainage of water at speed, is that the grooves encircle
portions of the tread forming isolated island blocks. These blocks provide
a sharp wiping and biting edge where the interface of the tread and
ground meet. To improve their biting effectiveness for tractive, braking,
steering and cornering forces, these forces are required to be resolved
into diagonal resultants and to achieve this the blocks are sometimes
arranged in an oblique formation. A limitation to the block pattern concept
is due to inadequate support around the blocks, which causes the rubber
blocks to bend and distort under severe operating conditions. Bar shaped
tread blocks, arranged in a herringbone fashion, have proved to be
effective on rugged ground.

Square or rhombus-shaped blocks provide a tank track unrolling action so

that movement in the tread contact area greatly reduces. This pattern
helps to avoid the break-up on the top layer of sand or soil so that the tyre
is prevented from digging into the ground. Since the individual blocks
bend to certain extent when subjected to ground reaction forces, they
suffer from toe to heel rolling action causing blunting of the leading edge
and trailing edge feathering. To maintain the wiping action of the tread
block element on wet surfaces, wear should from toe to heel. If wear
occurs from heel to toe i.e. in the reverse order, the effectiveness of the
tread pattern severely reduces since the tread blocks then allow for the
formation of a hydrodynamic water wedge, which tries to lift the tread
blocks off the ground at speed.

Tread slits or sips

Micro slits or sipes are incisions made at the surface of the tyre tread,
extending down to the full depth of the tread grooves. They reassemble a
knife cut, mostly of a zigzag fashion, normally terminating within the tread
elements.

Sometimes one end of the knife cut intersects the side wall of a drainage
groove. In some designs the tread patterns use the sipes arranged at a
similar angle to each other, where the zigzag shape provides a large
number of edges pointing in various direction. Other designs set sipes at
different angles to each other so that these sipes are effective for the
wheel pointing in whichever way and for the ground reaction forces
operating in whatever direction. Sipes or slits are almost closed in their
free state, but as they enter into the contact patch area the ribs or blocks
distort and open up. In this open position, the sipe lips scoop up small
quantities of water that still exist underneath the tread. This wiping action
produces some biting edge reaction with the ground. If the sipes are
smaller in size and more in number, they are more effective for road
griping. The sipes with normal spacing on a tyre tread are ineffective on a
pebbled road surface as several pebbles exist between the pitch of the
sipes, collecting water between these rounded stones, so that only a few
of the stones are subjected to the wiping edge action of the opened lips.
Therefore, to improve the wiping process there should be many more
wiping slits, which is very difficult to manufacturing with the present
techniques.
1. Construction
2. Cross ply (bias-ply)
3. Radial ply
4. Tubeless tyre

The tubeless tyre constitutes an outer cover and instead of the inner tube
an unstretched rubber lining is bonded to the inside of the cover wall. The
rubber lining continues under the beads dredges of the cover to join up
with the outer side-wall rubber. The bead portion of the tyre makes an
effective air-tight seal between the tyre and the rim. The taper rim seats
on each side of the well base and adjacent to the rim flanges, and assists
initial sealing between the bead and the wheel rim during inflation of the
tyre. Car and commercial vehicle rims have taper angles of 5 O and 15O
respectively.

In this layout, the tyre valve is generally positioned in a hole formed in the
well base of the rim. Car valves are sealed by rubber grommets, whereas
commercial vehicle valves have -all-metal threaded system and is secured
to the rim by nuts.

Truck tyres
Truck tyres designed for steered axles normally use circumferential zigzag
ribs and grooves so that very good lateral reaction on curved tracks is
available. On the other hand, the drive axle tyre is designed so that tread
blocks have adequate grooving for optimum traction grip under both dry
and wet conditions. Some of these tyres also incorporate provision for
insertion of metal studs for severe winter hard packed snow and ice
conditions.

Off on road vehicles

Of on road vehicle tyres normally use a much simpler bold block treads
with a relatively large surrounding groove. This arrangement permits each
individual block to react independently with the ground causing biting and
exerting traction on soil, which may be hard on the surface but soft
underneath without break-up of the top layer, so that the tyre is
prevented from digging in. The tread pattern blocks are also designed
sufficiently small to operate on hard road surface without causing
excessive ride harshness at moderate speeds. Truck and Tractor off Road
and Cross-country Tyres. Truck or tractor tyres for off road operation
generally use slightly curved rectangular blocks separated with wide
grooves, which provide a strong flexible casing as well as present a
deliberately penetrating grip. Cross-country tyres, for operating on soft
soil, have diagonal bars either merging into a common central rib or
arranged with separate overlapping diagonal bars to provide exceptionally
good traction on muddy soil, snow and soft ice.

13.4. Merits of tubeless over tubed tyres

Following are the benefits of using tubeless tyres over tubed tyres.

1. Air retention - In the tubeless tyre, the inner lining does not
stretch unlike ordinary inner tubes, and the cover wall itself resists
air passage, therefore air loss is very much slower. The tyre bead
and the rim also provide seal between them so that no leakage of
air around the tyre rim is allowed.
2. Safety - The tubed tyres can suddenly puncture without warning.
With a tubeless tyre, if a tyre is ruptured a slow loss of air takes
place giving enough time to take care of the problem.
3. Ride comfort - The tubeless tyre is lighter than the inner tube and
tyre, giving less unsprung-mass reaction on the vehicle’s suspension
system, which reduces wheel bounce.
4. Tyre cooling - When there is no inner tube, the heat generated in
the compressed air is dissipated to atmosphere directly through the
metal rim. The inner tube being relatively poor conductor of heat, a
greater temperature builds up in tubed tyres.
5. Wheel assembly balance - A commercial-vehicle tubeless tyre
does not incorporate a tube flap, loose flange, and lock-ring. In this
case the tyre bead fits concentric to the taper wheel rim. This layout
provides a better-balanced assembly.
6. Assembly of tyre to wheel - There is no chance of the inner tube
being nipped or punctured during assembly as only the cover has to
be fitted over the wheel rim. Also, there is no danger of loose
components flying off during inflation of tubeless tyre due to
distortion or carelessness.
Pneumatic tyre
1. Supports the vehicle load,
2. Cushions the wheel against small road shocks,
3. Transmits driving and braking forces between the wheel and the
road surface, and (of) converts steering effort into directional
movement.

Tyres may be broadly divided into tubed and tubeless constructions, and
cross-ply and radial-ply constructions.

Inner tubes
The inner tube of a tyre is a flexible tube container, which when inflated
with compressed air expands until it bursts unless the expansion is
restrained by the tyre, acting as a casing.

The inner tube then takes the shape of the tyre cover, which protect it and
contains this trapped pressurized air over long periods.

The tube is manufactured from extruded rubber sheets, which are shaped
on a former and cured (vulcanized) in a steam-heated mould to the cover
shape. The tube is constructed to about 10% undersize. To provide an
outlet or inlet to the tube interior, a valve stem is sealed to the inside
circumference during vulcanization.

Fig. 13.6. Commercial-vehicle wheel and tyre construction

Tyre valves - A tyre contains the air under pressure, which supports the
vehicle load. The tyre valve permits air under pressure into the tyre
chamber (formed between the casing and the rim) when required, and
releases this air for adjustment of pressure or when removal of the tyre is
necessary. The valve stem easily accepts a high-pressure air-line adaptor
or a pressure-testing gauge.
Valve operation
The valve assembly has a core-pin, which is fixed to a valve seat. This pin
passes through an internally parallel sleeve and the outside of the sleeve
is attached to a tapered seal. When the core assembly is screwed into the
core housing, the tapered seal prevents any air leakage between the core
housing and the valve sleeve. The return-spring normally holds the valve
in the closed position, so that compressed air pumped into the tyre is
trapped.

For inflation of the tyre, a compressed-air supply pipeline attached to a

valve adaptor is fitted over the valve stem so that the core pin is pushed
down. Air from the higher-pressure supply is then forced through the
valve annular core space into the tyre. When desired pressure is reached,
the adaptor is removed, which releases the core-pin so that the valve is
closed. When the tyre pressure is high, the core-pin is depressed slightly
to release the excess air from the tyre. The outer cap keeps the valve out
of grit and acts as a secondary seal for the valve assembly.

Vehicle tubeless tyre incorporates a snap-in valve, which is basically a

rubber moulding bonded to the metal stem casing. A recess or groove is
formed at the large-diameter base of the rubber moulding, so that when
the valve is pulled through the valve hole in the wheel rim, the pliable
rubber base snaps into position.

Fig. 13.7. Air valve

Commercial-vehicle tubeless-tyre valve stem is all metal. The stem is

attached to the wheel rim by an extended thread formed at the base and
secured by a nut. For air-tight sealing either an O-ring or a flat and
flanged rubber washer is used. Commercial-vehicle tubed tyre uses a
thread-adaptor tube moulded to a circular rubber patch which is turn is
vulcanized to the inner tube. The valve-stem casing is then screwed on to
the tube adaptor. These valve stems may have a single, double, or triple
bend to suitably accommodate different rim profiles and single and twin
wheel combinations.
13.5. Types of tyre terminology
Tyre identification and load rating
The load range/ply rating branded on a tyre's sidewall identifies how much
load the tyre is designed to carry at its industry specified pressure.
Passenger tyres feature named load ranges while light truck tyres use
load ranges that ascend in alphabetical order (letters further along in the
alphabet identify stronger tyres that can withstand higher inflation
pressures and carry heavier loads). Before load ranges were adopted, ply
ratings and/or the actual number of casing plies were used to identify the
relative strength with higher numeric ratings or plies identifying tyres
featuring stronger, heavier duty constructions.

Today's load range/ply ratings do not count the actual number of body ply
layers used to make up the tyre's internal structure, but indicate an
equivalent strength compared to early bias ply tires. Most radial
passenger tyres have one or two body plies, and light truck tyres, even
those with heavy-duty ratings (10-, 12- or 14-ply rated), actually have only
two or three fabric plies, or one steel body ply.

In all cases, when changing tyre sizes or converting from one type of size
to another, it is important to confirm that the Load Index in the tire's
service description of the new tyre is equal to or greater than the Load
Index of the original tyre and/or that the new tyre's rated load capacity is
sufficient to carry the vehicle's gross axle weight ratings.

Passenger tyres
Since most P-metric passenger tyres are manufactured in the standard
load range, they will have nothing branded on their sidewalls or may be
branded standard load and identified by an SL in their descriptions, as in
P235/75R-15 SL.

Extra load - P-metric tyres will be branded extra load, and identified by
an XL in their descriptions, as in P235/75R-15 XL.

Light load - P-metric tyres will be branded light load, and identified by an
LL in their descriptions, as in P285/35R-19 LL.

Note: Only P-metric sized tyres with 45-series aspect ratios or lower may
be manufactured in a light load configuration. Light load tyres are
designed to carry less weight than standard load tyres and have been
developed for specific applications — typically when relatively large tyre
sizes are used as Original Equipment (O.E.) on relatively small cars or for
Track and Competition DOT tires used for racing applications.
 P-Metric Passenger Vehicle Tyres
Maximum Load
Load Ranges Abbreviated
Pressure
Light Load LL 35 psi (240 kPa) *
Standard Load Nothing or SL 35 psi (240 kPa) *
Extra Load XL 41 psi (280 kPa) *
*In an effort to internationally harmonize load ratings and
ranges, recently introduced and future LL, SL and XL P-
metric sizes will use ISO/Euro-metric maximum load
pressures of 36 or 42 psi
Table 13.1. P-metric passenger vehicle tyres

Standard - Euro-metric tyres will have nothing branded on their

sidewalls, while extra load/reinforced Euro-metric tyres will be branded
as such and identified by an XL or RF in their descriptions, as in
305/50R20 XL or 305/50R20 RF.

Euro-Mc Passenger Vehicle Tyres

class="head">Load Maximum Load
Abbreviated
Ranges Pressure
Nothing or
Standard Load 36 psi (250 kPa)
SL
Reinforced or Extra
RF or XL 42 psi (290 kPa)
Load**
**Reinforced and extra load nomenclature may be used
interchangeably to designate heavy-duty tyres
Table 13.2. Euro MC passenger vehicle tyres

Light truck tyres

Since light truck tyres are often available in multiple load ranges, the
appropriate load range is identified immediately following the size's rim
diameter in Tyre Rack's descriptions.

LT-metric, LT-flotation and LT-numeric tyres are branded with their

load range (load range E or LRE) or their ply rating (10 ply rated) on their
sidewalls and list their appropriate load range letter in their descriptions
as LT245/75R-16 E, 7.50R-15 D or 31x10.50R-15 C. LT-sized tyres
featuring section widths of 305mm/12.50" or wider have their maximum
loads and cold tyre pressures rated at reduced maximum load pressures.

LT-Metric, LT-Flotation and LT-Numeric Light Truck

 Tyres
Load Maximum Load
Ply Rating Abbreviated
Range Pressure
B 4 B 35 psi (240 kPa) ***
C 6 C 50 psi (350 kPa) ***
D 8 D 65 psi (450 kPa) ***
E 10 E 80 psi (550 kPa) ***
F 12 F 95 psi (650 kPa) ***
***Selected large LT sizes are designed with reduced
maximum load pressures
Table 13.3.LT ratings

Table 13.4. Euro metric commercial vehicle tyres

Euro-metric commercial vehicle/van tyre dimensions end in a C

(signifying commercial), such as 225/75R16C. Differences in load
capacities and maximum pressure are identified by their load index and
the maximum load/pressure for single/dual applications branded on their
sidewall. The example provided above is for single/dual applications of a
225/75R16C size tyre.

Special trailer service tyres

Special trailer service tyres are often available in multiple load ranges.
The appropriate load range is identified immediately following the size's
rim diameter in Tire Rack's descriptions.

ST-metric sized special trailer service tyres will be branded with their
load range (load range D or LRD) on their sidewalls and list their
appropriate load range letter in their descriptions as ST205/75R15 LRD.

ST-Metric Trailer Service Tyres

Load Range Ply Rating Markings Maximum Load Pressure
B 4 B 35 psi (240 kPa)
C 6 C 50 psi (350 kPa)
D 8 D 65 psi (450 kPa)
E 10 E 80 psi (550 kPa)
 Table 13.5. ST metric trailer service tyres

Tyre profile and aspect ratio

A tyre carcass profile considerably influences its rolling and handling
characteristics. The tyre’s cross-sectional configuration determines its
suitability for better performance under various applications. The aspect
ratio of tyre may be defined as the ratio of the tyre cross-sectional height
(the distance between the tip of the tread to the bead seat) to that of the
section width (the outermost distance between the tyre walls). This ratio
is constant for a particular tyre and is used for predicting the suitability of
a tyre for an application.

Fig.13.8 Tyre profiles with different aspect ratios

A tyre with a large or small aspect ratio is known respectively as a high or

low aspect ratio profile tyre. Until about 1934 aspect ratios of 100% were
used. With a better understanding and improvement in tyre construction
lower aspect ratio tyres become available. Due to lowering the aspect
ratio the tyre side wall height is reduced so that the vertical and lateral
stiffness of the tyre increases, thereby establishing a shorter and wider
contact patch. A short and wider contact patch:

1. Increases the load carrying capability of the tyre;

2. Generates larger cornering forces so that vehicles are able to travel
faster on bends;
3. Decreases the pneumatic trail so that the self-aligning torque
correspondingly reduces and becomes more consistent; and
4. Under certain driving conditions, reduces the slip angles generated
by the tyre when subjected to side forces.

Consequently, the tread distortion reduces and as a result scuffing and

wear decrease. Water drainage at speed becomes difficult with wider tyre
contact patches, particularly in the mid tread region. Therefore, it is more
critical to design the tread pattern with low profile tyre on wet” roads, in
case the tyre holding is to match with the higher aspect ratio tyres. The
increase is vertical and lateral stiffness’s causes the following,

1. Due to an increase in vertical stiffness and a reduction in tyre

deflection, less energy is dissipated by the tyre casing thereby
reducing the resistance. This also causes the tyre to run
continuously at high speeds at lower temperatures, which increases
the tyre’s life.
2. The increased lateral stiffness of a low profile tyre increases the
sensitivity to camber variations and quicken the response to
steering changes.
3. The increased vertical stiffness of the tyre reduces static deflection
of the tyre under load, due to which more road vibrations are
transmitted through the tyre.

This provides a harsher ride reducing ride comfort unless the body is
further isolated from the suspension. The availability of lower aspect ratio
tyres over the years was as follows: 1950s — 95%, 1962-88%, 1965-80%
and about 1968-70%. Since then for special applications even lower
aspect ratios of 65%, 60%, 55% and even 50% have become available.

Tyre sizes and designations

Aspect Ratio - Is the ratio of the height of the tyre's cross-section to its
width. The two-digit number after the slash mark in a tyre size is
the aspect ratio. For example, in a size P215/65 R15 tyre, the 65 means
that the height is equal to 65% of the tyre's width.

Low Profile - A description of tyres that are quite ‘thin’ in comparison to

the radius of the wheel. Low profile tyres have a shorter sidewall or
a lower aspect ratio than normal tyres. They also have larger tread
blocks, a stiffer, wider apex and can be made from specialized
compounds. Generally, a tyre with a 50 aspect or less is considered to
be low profile.

High Profile - High profile tyres have a longer contact path between the
road and your vehicle frame.

Sectional Height - The measurement of the tyre from side to side. The
measurement is the tyre's section height, and also referred to as the tire's
series, profile or aspect ratio. The higher the number, the taller the
sidewall; the lower the number, the lower the sidewall. We know that this
tire size's section width is 225mm and that its section height is 50%
of 225mm
Sectional Width - Found where the sidewall and tread meet. A tyre's
section width, also known as cross section width, is the measurement
of the tyre's linear width from sidewall to sidewall.

Size - Used to identify a specific tyre. It includes width, construction type,

aspect ratio and rim size. This relates to the tyre nominal section width
and wheel-rim diameter, which are indicated by the first and second
numbers respectively. The section of radial-ply and bias-belted tyres is
always quoted in millimeters, and of cross-ply tyres in inches. The rim
diameter is in inches for all types of tyre. For example, “5.40-12″ indicates
a nominal section width of approximately 5.4 inches and a rim diameter of
12 inches. Likewise, “155 SR-14″ indicates a nominal section width of 155
mm and a rim diameter of 14 inches.

Speed Rating - This relates to the maximum speed at which a vehicle

should be driven, that is the maximum speed of which the vehicle is
capable, not the speed at which it is normally driven. Speed rating is
indicated by a code letter.

CROSS-PLY
RIM DIAMETER NORMAL S H
(UNMARKED)
10 degrees Upto 120 km/h Upto 150 Over 150 km/h
km/h
12 degrees Upto 135 km/h Upto 160 Over 160 km/h
km/h
13 degrees and Upto 150 km/h Upto 175 Over 175 km/h
above km/h
RADIAL-PLY
RIM DIAMETER SR HR VR
All sizes Upto 180 km/h Upto 210 Over 210 km/h
km/h
Table 13.6. Ply ratings

Maximum Inflation Pressure - There is a tire pressure marking on the

sidewall of your tires, but this isn't the optimum air pressure for your tires,
it's the maximum. The words 'Max. Press. 35 PSI,' for example, indicates
the maximum pounds per square inch pressure needed for your tire to
support the weight of its maximum load-carrying capacity.

Load Carrying Capacity - Motor vehicles, including trucks and light

commercial vehicles, are designed with a specific maximum carrying
capacity known as the vehicle's Gross Vehicle Mass or
GVM. ... Carrying capacity includes the weight of the driver,
passengers, accessories, fuel, tools and equipment, and the vehicle body.

DOT Markings - Each tyre has an imprinted DOT code on the sidewall.
DOT stands for the Department of Transportation and the code is made of
numbers and letters - they indicate the place and date of the tyre’s
manufacture. The DOT number has four digits. The first two digits indicate
the calendar week in which the tyre was produced, for example 32. The
year of production comes next. So, 3214 indicates a tyre from the 32th
week of 2014.

Carcass - Layers of rubber-coated fabric plies which have the cords

running radially from bead to bead. These provide the tyre with strength
in the sidewall area.

Load index - This is a code that ranges from 0 to 279 that quantifies the
maximum weight a tyre can bear at the speed indicated by the speed
symbol. The tyre's load index relates to its maximum carrying capacity
(in kg). The load rating of the tyre is found on the sidewall, just to the
right of the diameter. For example, a tyre with a load index of 91 can
carry 615kg of weight.

Summary

 The automobile wheels perform the following functions;

– Support the total weight of the vehicle,
– Resist the strains created during turning, automobile control,
acceleration and braking occur through the tyres and their
contact on the road surface.
– Transmit the driving torque for propelling and breaking torque for
retarding.
– Absorb, by deflecting, part of the shock from road irregularities.
 A tyre is made from rubberized fabric piles over a rubber liner and
the edges of the piles are wrapped around a wire bead, which holds
the tyre to the wheel rim.
 Major components of the tyre include; -the carcass, beads, side
walls, and tread are the major components of a tyre cover.
 Cross (bias) - and radial-ply tyre features - Many textile cords are
crisscrossed and embedded to provide strength to the cross-ply tyre
in the rubber.
 Radial plies perform only one job that is to make the wall of the tyre
strong enough to contain the air pressure. They do not support the
tread.
 The cross-bias cord angle runs from 30O to 40O. This provides a
cross-cord side wall, which gives required strength to transfer
acceleration and braking torque.
 Bias-ply allows the tyre to squirm as it moves through the tyre foot
print or contact patch.
 In belted tyres the tread stability and reduction of squirm results in
up to 100% improvement in tyre running compared to bias-ply
tyres.
 Radial-ply belted tyres have been built having radial ply cord angles
run from 88O to 900 and the belt cords run from 120 to 200.
 The steel-belted radial tyre has less tread flexing so it rolls easier,
thereby improving fuel consumption.
 In a pneumatic tyre a cushion of air trapped between the well of the
wheel rim and the toroid-shaped casing known as the carcass
supports the wheel load.
 Bite is obtained through a tread pattern, which divides the tread
into many separate elements, and each element has a reasonably
sharp well-defined edge.
 If water is trapped between the tread ribs or blocks, the tread
elements life become separated from the ground, so that the
effective area of the contact patch reduces, so also the tyre’s ability
to grip the ground.
 Circumferential ribs provide a supportive wearing surface for the
tyre and also become the walls for the drainage grooves.
 The consequences of both longitudinal and lateral drainage
channels, used for effective drainage of water at speed, is that the
grooves encircle portions of the tread forming isolated island blocks.
 Micro slits or sipes are incisions made at the surface of the tyre
tread, extending down to the full depth of the tread grooves.
 The tubeless tyre constitutes an outer cover and instead of the inner
tube an unstretched rubber lining is bonded to the inside of the
cover wall.
 Truck tyres designed for steered axles normally use circumferential
zigzag ribs and grooves so that very good lateral reaction on curved
tracks is available.
 Of on road vehicle tyres normally use a much simpler bold block
treads with a relatively large surrounding groove.
 Tyres may be broadly divided into tubed and tubeless constructions,
and cross-ply and radial-ply constructions.
  The inner tube of a tyre is a flexible tube container, which when
inflated with compressed air expands until it bursts unless the
expansion is restrained by the tyre, acting as a casing.
 The tyre valve permits air under pressure into the tyre chamber
when required, and releases this air for adjustment of pressure or
when removal of the tyre is necessary.
 The load range/ply rating branded on a tyre's sidewall identifies how
much load the tyre is designed to carry at its industry specified
pressure.

Reference materials

 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy

Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.14 DISASSEMBLING AND

ASSEMBLING WHEELS

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to;

1. Adhere to safety procedures pertaining to the task
2. Remove wheel from machine
3. Install wheel back to the machine
4. Use tools and equipment for tyre repairing
5. Disassemble a wheel assembly
6. Assemble a wheel assembly
14.1. Safety procedures pertaining to the task
1. Correct dismantling procedure
2. Observe safety
3. Correct tyre deflating procedure
4. Use of proper tools and equipment
i. Bead breaker
ii. Tyre handler
iii. Inflation cage
iv. Inflation gauge
v. Tyre levers

14.2. Removing wheel from machine

1. Packing of machine correctly
2. Observing Safety
3. Proper tools and equipment
4. Proper jacking procedure
5. Remove the wheel from to the machine

14.3. Using tools and equipment for tyre repairing

Proper tools and equipment
1. Bead breaker
2. Tyre handler
3. Inflation cage
4. Inflation gauge
5. Tyre levers

14.4. Disassemble a wheel assembly

i. Tyre completely deflated
ii. Proper PPE
iii. Proper tools and equipment
 Bead breaker
 Tyre levers
iv. Safety to be observed

14.5. Using tools and equipment for tyre repairing

1. Tyre completely deflated
2. Cleaning of parts
i. Flange
ii. Lock ring
iii. Rim gutters
3. Identify damage and conduct repairs
14.6. Assemble a wheel assembly
i. Proper PPE
ii. Use of lubricant
iii. Safety e.g.
11. Lock rings
12. Safety cage
iv. Inflation procedure

14.7. Install wheel back to the machine

i. Observing Safety
ii. Proper tools and equipment
iii. Install the wheel back to the machine

Reference materials
 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy
Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT 13.15 MAINTAINING WHEELS AND TYRES

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to;

1. Adhere to safety procedures pertaining to the task
2. Remove wheel from machine
3. Install wheel back to the machine
4. Use tools and equipment for tyre repairing
5. Disassemble a wheel assembly
6. Assemble a wheel assembly
15.1. Observing Safety procedures
1. When inflating tyres on two-piece rims
2. When inflating a tyre on divided rim
3. Use of inflation gage

Activities

15.2. Removal procedures: -

 When removing the tyre from the rim
During removing, dismantling, assembly, and fitting of wheels and tyres
reasonable care must be taken to reduce accidents, injury, and damage.
These recommended precautions if followed when servicing wheels and
tyres can considerably reduce the incorrect practices.

1. The vehicle should be jacked on a flat hard surface and not on soft
or uneven ground.
2. The wheels are checked for damage and the parking brake is
applied and ensured effective.
3. Axle-stands with a jacked-up axle should always be used,
4. Personnel should not lean against a jacked-up vehicle.
5. The valve core must be removed completely to deflate the tyre
before removing the wheel from the vehicle or the tyre from the
wheel.
6. The outer clamping nuts should not be loosened or unscrewed on
divided wheel rims.
7. Care must be taken not to distort flanges and lock-rings during
dismounting of tyres.

15.3. Inspection procedures: -

1. The parts of the rim that come into contact with the tyre bead
should not distort or damage in anyway.
2. Any accumulation of rust on the flange gutter and rim base is
removed. These surfaces are cleaned with a wire brush and emery
cloth if necessary, and then repainted with epoxy-resin paint if
necessary.
3. The tyre case is examined inside and outside for any damage or
manufacturing defects.
4. The cover beads are wiped with a clean dry rag and then the cover
beads, flange, and rim are lubricated.
 5. The sizes of wheel, tyre and valve for tubeless, and the wheel, tyre,
flap (if fitted) and valve for tubed assemblies are checked for
compatibility.
6. The stud holes are checked for any damage or elongation. Cracked
rims and stud-attachment naves with wheels should not be used.
7. The split flanges and lock-rings used with truck wheels and rims
should not be distorted and should be of the correct size and type.

15.4. Maintenance procedures

1. Correct minimum inflation for the load
2. Dual tyre at equal pressure
3. Checking tyre pressure at frequent interval
4. Use of sealing type valve cap
5. Keep inflation air dry (Dry nitrogen)
6. Do not operate under inflated tyres
7. Do not bleed air from hot tyre
8. Do not reduce pressure to improve ride quality
9. Do not operate grossly over inflated tyres

15.5. Carrying out tyre mending

1. Whenever a tubeless tyre is renewed, the complete valve should
also be renewed.
2. The tyre-and-wheel assembly is placed flat on the ground so that
the cover takes up its correct position on the rim to obtain a good
airtight seal.
3. Initially the assembly is inflated with the removed valve core to a
pressure of 100 kPa.
4. If the tyre does not inflate, the air line is kept connected and the
assembly is rolled
along the ground. Once the tyre beads have seated, the air line is
disconnected and the valve core is inserted.
5. A moist or contaminated air supply should not to be used.
6. The fitting line at the tyre beads should be concentric with the
wheel flange, to avoid unnecessary lift or run out.
7. The tyre is placed in a safety cage and the air line between the
valve and the person inflating the tyre should be long enough to
prevent any damage from flying components in the event of a tyre
or wheel burst.
8. If no tyre guard is available, then the assembly should be leaned
against a wall, with the lock-ring/loose flange facing the wall.
9. The correct pressure for the size and application is to be
established before inflating, and not to be over-inflated.
 10. Standing in front of or leaning over the tyre during inflation
must be avoided.
11. All pressure gauges and air-metering devices must be
checked against a master
pressure gauge.
12. It is essential that all wheel nuts are fully tightened following
the correct sequence, alternating opposite sides of the wheel.
13. Wheel nuts must not be under-tightened or over-tighten and,
if a power tool is used, the correct tightening torque is to be
checked.

Reference materials

 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy

Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.

UNIT B13.16 DIAGNOSING WHEELS AND TYRE

FAILURES

Unit outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to;

1. Observe safety procedures
2. Follow removal procedures
3. Follow all inspection procedures
4. Follow maintenance procedure
5. Identify tools and equipment
6. Carry out evaluation
7. Identify wear pattern

Activities
Diagnose tyre failure
1. Cracking or Cuts
2. Excessive Worn Tread
3. Bulges
4. Excessive Vibration
5. Tyre Separation
6. Wavy Tyre walls
7. Side wall damage
8. Misalignment
9. Inflation pressures

Tyre care and maintenance

Caution
The load and cold inflation pressure imposed upon a particular wheel or
rim must not exceed the wheel or rim manufacturer’s recommendation.
Tyre life will depend upon many factors such as:
1. Inflation pressure
2. Wheel load
3. And vehicle speed

Fig. 16.1. High speed distortion sign

1. Correct tyre pressure will minimize the distortion and straining of

the tyre casing:
i. Low inflation pressure will rapidly wear the outer edges of the
tread.
ii. High inflation pressure will tend to wear he centre of the tread
crown.

Fig.16.2. under-inflation vs over-inflation signs

 Note: Both conditions reduce tyre life span.

2. Overloading of the tyre will highly stress the carcass of structure,

distort the tread pattern blocks and increase their rubbing action,
and over heat the tyre.
Note:
i. Overloading (over inflating) the vehicle will lead to tyre
reduced life.
ii. Reduces the capacity to absorb ordinary shock loads.
iii. Causes fabric or tread separation
3. With increased wheel speed, the rate of flexing and rise in carcass
temperature shortens tyre life. High speeds lead to scuffing of
tyres.
4. Causes of uneven tyre wear across the tread:
i. Incorrect steering geometry suspension causing too much
wheel camber
ii. Overloading of the vehicle
iii. Under inflation of the tyre
iv. Excessive tyre scrub due to fast driving around corners
v. Wheel truck out of alignment either in the straight-ahead
position or on turns.
An even tread wear across the crown can lead to the tyre having
more than heavy spot (Bald wear). To correct this situation, carry
out dynamic balancing of the wheel.
5. Causes of wear on outside of the tyre:

Fig.16.3. outside wear pattern

i. Brakes locking (binding) on the opposite wheel.

ii. Wheel out of dynamic balance
iii. Poor wheel alignment (Front wheels)
iv. Damaged inner wheel bearings
v. Excessive positive camber

6. Causes of wear on inside of tyre

i. Brakes locking (binding) on the opposite wheel.
ii. Wheel out of dynamic balance
iii. Poor wheel alignment (front wheels)
iv. Damaged inner wheel bearings
v. Excessive negative camber
 Fig.16.4. inside wear pattern

7. Causes of tyre wear on inner sides

i. Poor wheel alignment (front wheels)
ii. Damaged inner wheel bearings
iii. Damaged suspension

Fig.16.5. Inner tyre wear patterns

8. Causes of feathering
i. Damaged vibration damper (shock absorbers)
ii. Broken leaf springs.
iii. Under inflated air or hydra pneumatic springs.
iv. Sudden braking.
v. Excessive toe-in.

Fig.16. 6. Wear patterns due to toe-in and toe-out

Tyre rotation and replacement

i. Tyre rotation procedures depend on preventive maintenance
procedures and vehicle manufacturers as well as tyre manufacturer
recommendations.
ii. A regular relocation of tyres from the front to the rear wheel
positions depends on the type of vehicle being operated and the
size and type of tyres.
 Summary

Reference materials

 Gus W, Owen, C., Sean, B. (2018). Fundamentals of Mobile Heavy

Equipment. Burlington, MA.
 Heizler H, (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-
Heinemann
 Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
 Sean, B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment
Systems, 2nd Ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning
 Sean, B. (2015). Heavy Duty Truck Systems. 6th Edition. Boston.
USA.