1. Outline the mechanism of natural selection.

[4]
2. Using examples, discuss the potential impacts of climate change on ecosystem
services. [9]
3. Describe biotic and abiotic factors with reference to a named ecosystem. [4]
4. Using a system diagram, explain the transfer and transformation of energy as it flows
through an ecosystem. [7]
5. With reference to named societies, to what extent do environmental value systems
influence the use of resources? [9]
6. Distinguish between point and nonpoint sources of pollution with reference to named
examples. [4]
7. To what extent are natural limiting factors more likely than population policies to limit
global human population growth in the future? [9]
8. Explain how human impacts on the atmosphere may influence the productivity of
terrestrial biomes. [7]
9. To what extent is the need for conservation more significant in tropical biomes? [9]
10. Describe the similarities and differences in using a biotic index and a diversity index
to assess ecosystems. [7]
11. Identify four factors that make the use of the insecticide DDT controversial. [4 max]
12. To what extent is the use of Solid Domestic Waste (SDW) as an energy source
beneficial to a society? [9 max]
13. Explain how models of ecosystems might be used in species conservation. [7 max]
14. Discuss how the introduction and re-introduction of a species can affect an
ecosystem. [9 max]
15. Outline the processes by which a species may evolve a greater tolerance to higher
temperatures [4 max]
16. Explain how the level of primary productivity of different biomes influences their
resilience. [7 max]
17. Discuss the role of feedback mechanisms in maintaining the stability and promoting
the restoration of plant communities threatened by human impacts. [9 max]
18. Identify four ways to ensure reliability of the mark–release–recapture method in
estimating population size. [4 max]
19. Explain how the interactions between a species and its environment give rise to the
S-shape of its population curve. [7 max]
20. Distinguish between two named biomes and the factors that cause their distribution.
[4 max]
21. Evaluate one method for measuring primary productivity in a named ecosystem. [7
max]
22. Discuss how human activities impact the flows and stores in the nitrogen cycle. [9
max]
23. Outline how a positive feedback loop can impact an ecosystem. [4 max]
24. Outline two factors that enable a human population to increase its local carrying
capacity. [4 max]
25. To what extent would different environmental value systems be successful in
reducing a society’s ecological footprint? [9 max]
26. Outline the factors that contribute to total biodiversity of an ecosystem. [4 max]
27. To what extent are strategies to promote the conservation of biodiversity successful?
[9 max]
28. Outline how the concept of sustainability can be applied to managing natural capital.
[4 max]
29. Explain how environmental indicators are used to assess sustainability. [7 max]
 1. Distinguish between point and nonpoint sources of pollution with reference to
named examples. [4 max]

a. point source comes from a single source whereas non-point source comes from
multiple/dispersed sources
b. point sources more easily identifiable (than non-point source)
c. point sources are more easily managed (than non-point source)
d. e.g. point source such as a sewage pipe/factory smokestack/drainage ditch
e. e.g. non-point source such as runoff of fertilisers and pesticides from agricultural land/soil
erosion from improperly managed construction sites/oil and toxic chemicals from urban
runoff/vehicle-exhaust emissions

2. Describe biotic and abiotic factors with reference to a named ecosystem. [4

max]

a. abiotic factors are non-living physical factors

b. named examples of ecosystems involving physical factors such as temperature/
sunlight/pH/salinity/precipitation etc.
c. biotic factors are living factors
d. named example of ecosystem with biotic factors such as predation/herbivory/parasitism/
mutualism/disease/competition/producers/ consumers/plants/animals etc

3. Using a system diagram, explain the transfer and transformation of energy as it

flows through an ecosystem. [7 max]
 4. With reference to named societies, to what extent do environmental value
systems influence the use of resources? [9 max]

Answers may include:

• understanding concepts and terminology associated with ecocentrism; technocentrism;
anthropocentrism; biorights; sustainable yield; agriculture; subsistence/commercial farming;
soil conservation; energy production; renewable/non-renewable; water supply; economic
growth; self-restraint; dynamic nature of natural capital, energy security, appreciating
non-use values, waste management, carrying capacity, ecological footprint etc:
• breadth in addressing and linking environmental value systems with sustainable and
unsustainable examples of resource selection and use.
• examples of different environmental value systems in various named regions/countries and
their approaches to the use and selection of different resources.
• balanced analysis addressing the extent to which value systems do or do not influence the
selection and use of resources.:
• a conclusion that is consistent with and supported by analysis and examples given, e.g. “
Western societies tend to prioritise environmental manager approaches trying to combine
the economic benefits of technocentrism with the regulatory interventions of
anthropocentrism. LEDCs policies may become technocentric/utilitarian in their attempt to
industrialise and reduce poverty, even if their traditional values and lifestyles may lean
toward ecocentrism

5. Using examples, evaluate two solid domestic waste disposal strategies as

methods to mitigate climate change [7 max]

Strategy:
a. increased reusing/recycling/reduction of resource use;
Advantage:
b. recycling/reducing/reusing prevents release of GHGs through landfill/incineration;
c. recycling/reducing/reusing prevents release of GHGs in production of further materials;
Disadvantage:
d. involves sorting and transportation costs; e requires challenging behavioural changes;

Strategy:
f. incineration / use for energy production / combustion/oxidation of methane; Advantage:
g. waste can be used to produce heat or electricity / this could replace the energy produced
using coal or other fuels;
i. CO2 produced has lower greenhouse equivalent than methane;
Disadvantage:
j. there is some air pollution associated with incineration;
k. reduction in local property value/peoples’ negative perception;

Strategy:
l. collection of methane from landfills;
Advantage:
m. Can be burnt as fuel (CO2 has lower greenhouse equivalent);
Disadvantage:
n. requires sophisticated equipment not accessible to LEDCs;
o. would promote further use of landfills instead of decommissioning;

Strategy:
p. composting;
Advantage:
q. replacing production of inorganic/artificial fertilisers which contributes to climate change;
Disadvantage:
r. sorting costs;
s. produces methane

6. Outline the mechanism of natural selection. [4 max]

Natural selection occurs through the following mechanism:

a. natural selection acts on the genetic variation of a population;
b. formed by mutations in previous generations;
c. (when environmental conditions change), some individuals will be fitter/more
advantageous than others;
d. thus will survive and reproduce at higher rates;
e. inheriting these advantageous traits to their offspring;
f. hence the frequency of that advantageous character will increase in the population;

7. Outline how species diversity and population size influence the resilience of an
ecosystem. [4 max]

greater species diversity/greater population size usually lead to greater resilience;

with more species, it is more likely others can take over the role/niche of any lost/declining
species;
more food chains/energy/biogeochemical pathways in an ecosystem provides redundancy
therefore greater stability;
a variety of species is more likely to include those resistant to environmental change;
larger populations provide greater storages that can last over periods of lower productivity;
larger populations generally carry greater genetic diversity;
larger populations of invasive species may lead to reduced diversity/resilience; lower
populations are more prone to extinction after a disturbance (eg habitat fragmentation) / or
due to stochastic fluctuations;
an ecosystem may be more resilient if there are many small populations of different species
than one large population of a single dominating species; large populations of
foundation/keystone species may be crucial for resilience of certain ecosystems (eg corals,
kelp, beavers, elephants, pines, hemlock);
 8. Describe the similarities and differences in using a biotic index and a diversity
index to assess ecosystems. [7 max]

Similarities:
both may involve species identification;
both may involve quantitative sampling/estimating the abundance of living organisms;
both require multiple samples for effective comparisons/reliability;
both indices involve evaluating the range/variety of different species;
both involve calculating a single figure (index) from a collection of data;

Differences:
only biotic indices (not diversity indices) give different values to sensitive and tolerant
species;
biotic indices are specifically used for evaluating impact of pollution whereas diversity indices
just measure variety and evenness of species/general condition/maturity of an ecosystem;
diversity indices are appropriate for most ecosystems whereas biotic indices are usually for
aquatic systems;
biotic indices usually focus on animal species/macroinvertebrates alone whereas diversity
indices can be used for plant or animal communities;
diversity indices usually address all species present in system whereas biotic index focuses
on a particular selection;

9. To what extent is the need for conservation more significant in tropical

biomes? [9 max]
 10. To what extent are natural limiting factors more likely than population policies
to limit global human population growth in the future? [9 max]

11. Identify four factors that make the use of the insecticide DDT controversial. [4
max]

DDT…
i. is a very effective/affordable insecticide;
ii. can help in the management of insect borne diseases/malaria/zika;
iii. can help in the control of agricultural pests, improving harvests;
iv. is a persistent (organic) pollutant / causes soil degradation/aquatic pollution;
v. has negative effects on human health;
vi. bioaccumulates in the bodies of organisms;
vii. biomagnifies in food chains;
viii. causes impact on non-target species/death of birds of prey/top carnivores; ix. reduces
biodiversity;
12. To what extent is the use of solid domestic waste (SDW) as an energy source
beneficial to a society? [9 max]

13. Explain how models of ecosystems might be used in species conservation. [7

max]

1. models of ecosystems can give holistic perspective on conservation;

2. flows of energy and matter / box-and-arrow models can be used to identify key
storages/processes for conservation;
3. modelling may consider biodiversity measures to help in evaluating conservation;
4. measures of genetic diversity help to determine breeding plans for species
conservation;
5. physical models can help in studying abiotic needs of a species;
6. modelling feeding interactions / predator-prey interactions allows conservationists to
determine the needs of species;
7. modelling feeding interactions can demonstrate possible trophic cascades and
provide information about benefits of conservation;
8. modelling biotic interactions can help identify potential threats/essential interactions
to the conservation of a species;
9. modelling energy/matter flows helps determine habitat needs/area for a species;
10. modelling may not take account of human activities / unpredictable events;
11. modelling may not take account of rare events, such as natural disasters;
12. mathematical modelling may quantify population dynamics;
13. thus allow predictions on probability of extinction/recovery;
14. microcosm may study effects of disturbance on species;
15. single species models may be too simplistic and fail to predict actual behaviour of
ecosystem
16. zoos can be designed to reflect the specific features of an endangered species niche
14. Discuss how the introduction and re-introduction of a species can affect an
ecosystem. [9 max]

15. Distinguish between two named biomes and the factors that cause their
distribution. [4 max]

e.g. tundra vs tropical rainforest:

Distinguishing features [3 max]:

tundra has lower insolation / TRF has the highest insolation of all biomes;
TRF has constant insolation throughout the year / tundra has long, dark winters;
tundra has lower mean annual temperature / TRF has warmer temperatures;
tundra has 6–10 months of freezing temperatures / TRF has constant warm temperatures;
TRF has the largest annual precipitation compared to any biome / tundra precipitation is as
low as in deserts;
TRF has almost constant precipitation throughout the year; tundra precipitation mostly in
form of snow / tundra has a characteristic layer of frozen ground below the
surface/permafrost;
TRFs have the highest biodiversity of all biomes

Explanation of distribution [2 max]:

tundra found at the poles, while TRFs at the tropics (above and below the equator);
Hadley cell rises at the Equator causing huge precipitation (low pressure zone) / as warm air
cools and its moisture condenses; tundra is found in the low pressure area of polar cell / at a
region where there is net loss of solar energy (causing freezing temperatures) / alpine tundra
found on mountaintops, where temperatures are below 0 most time of the year due to high
altitude

16. Discuss how human activities impact the flows and stores in the nitrogen cycle.
[9 max]

17. Outline how a positive feedback loop can impact an ecosystem. [4 max]

positive feedback loops (destabilising) amplify changes in an ecosystem;

feedback refers to the return of part of the output from a system as input so as to affect
succeeding outputs;
this drives the system towards a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted;
this new equilibrium may be an alternative stable state / involve collapse of original system;
eg increased global temperatures are melting permafrost, leading to the release of methane;
which is a greenhouse gas and leads to further increases in global temperatures;

18. Outline two factors that enable a human population to increase its local
carrying capacity. [4 max]

range of resources used;

…means that a local human population can consume/exploit more resources available
locally than any other species; human ingenuity/substitution;
…means that humans are capable to find alternative resources when one is near depletion;
variations in lifestyle;
…means that people can be flexible in their mode of consumption of limited/dwindling
resources;
importation of resources;
…means that a wealthy population can grow beyond the boundaries set by their local
resources;
technological developments; (can be linked to all previous factors) …allows humans to use
available resources more efficiently / discover new resources / import resources from far
away;

19. To what extent would different environmental value systems be successful in

reducing a society’s ecological footprint? [9 max]

20. Outline the factors that contribute to total biodiversity of an ecosystem. [4

max]

biodiversity includes the diversity of species, habitat and genes; species diversity involves
both the variety/number of species/richness and their relative proportions/evenness;
habitat diversity refers to the range of different habitats in an ecosystem or biome;
...which may vary due to environmental gradients/changing abiotic
conditions/altitude/latitude/major disturbances (volcanic activity/landslides, etc);
habitat/niche diversification promotes species diversity; genetic diversity refers to the range
of genetic material/genes in a population/species;
...which is influenced by mutation/sexual reproduction/natural selection/speciation;
high primary productivity/insolation/precipitation/optimum abiotic conditions promote
biodiversity;
succession promotes greater biodiversity by increasing length/branching of food chains /
because it leads to improved abiotic conditions;
 21. Explain how ecological techniques can be used to study the effects of human
activities on the biodiversity of a named ecosystem. [7 max]

named ecosystem,
eg shallow stream running through woodland;

studies should be made before and after human activity/in proximal and distal positions from
activity;
Explanation: to provide evidence of human causation/correlation;

transects and quadrats may be used to sample area;

Exp: to reduce overall workload but be representative of area;

sampling should be repeated over time/distance;

Exp: to increase reliability;

abundance/biomass of biotic components may be measured;

Exp: to assess whether population size/productivity of populations/species have been
affected.

numbers of motile organisms can be measured using Lincoln Index/mark–

release–recapture;
Exp: because quadrats are ineffective if organisms are constantly on the move;

abiotic components may be measured using probes/thermometers/chemical tests, etc;

Exp: because human activity may alter prevailing abiotic conditions;

indicator species may be identified/quantified (using keys);

Exp: because their presence/abundance will indicate degree of human impact;

species diversity can be measured using a diversity index (eg Simpson’s)

Exp: because the index takes into account both species richness and
equitability/distribution/relative abundance / can quantitatively compare different
habitats/same habitat over time;

genetic & habitat diversity can be identified;

Exp: because these are also components of overall biodiversity.
 22. To what extent are strategies to promote the conservation of biodiversity
successful? [9 max]

23. Outline how the concept of sustainability can be applied to managing natural
capital. [4 max]

natural capital refers to natural resources that can supply a natural income of goods or
services;
natural income is the yield/growth obtained from natural resources/capital;
to be sustainable, natural capital must be used at rate slower than its replenishment / within
maximum sustainable yield / that fulfils current needs without compromising future
availability;
if more than the natural income is extracted, then the use is unsustainable;
exploitation of natural capital may also be unsustainable due to processes of
extraction/transport/processing / environment should be in same condition as at outset to be
sustainable;
altering human behaviour/values/choices through policies/legislations/campaigns so that
unsustainable exploitation of natural capital is reduced;
non-renewable natural capital is either irreplaceable or can only be replaced over geological
timescales / non-renewable natural capital can never be used sustainably;
 24. Explain how environmental indicators are used to assess sustainability. [7
max]

environmental indicators (EIs) may involve measures of biodiversity/

pollution/population/climate/emissions/resource consumption;
EIs are tools for measuring progress toward sustainability/supporting policy
evaluation/informing the public/comparing nations;
EIs involve the setting of measurable goals from established baseline measurements;
EIs can be used at a range of scales from local to global; after some time, measures can be
reassessed and compared to the baselines/ domestic objectives/international agreements
(eg Kyoto/Montreal Protocol);
environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are EIs that measure a wide profile of indicators
usually before and after some development;
ecological footprints(EFs) are EIs that focus on rates of consumption compared to rates of
natural income;
if a population’s EF is greater than the area available this indicates unsustainability;
the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment used indicators to give a scientific appraisal of the
condition/trends in the world’s ecosystems and services;
certain species can be used as indicators of pollution; some indicator species are particularly
sensitive to pollution so a low abundance may suggest heavy pollution / high abundance
suggest clean environment (eg lichens);
loss of these sensitive species may be an effective indicator for appealing to the public;
some indicator species are particularly resistant to pollution so a high abundance/dominance
of these species may suggest high pollution (eg tubifex worms/coliform bacteria);

25. Explain how the level of primary productivity of different biomes influences
their resilience. [7 max]

resilience is the ability to withstand disturbances / tendency to maintain stability/avoid tipping

points;
generally, biomes with higher primary productivity (eg rainforests/estuaries/wetlands) are
more resilient than those with lower productivity (eg tundra/deserts);
more productive biomes can support more species/diversity; diversity increases resilience
because loss of one species is more easily replaced by others;
more productive biomes support more branching food chains / greater complexity of
interrelationships;
…that allows for more negative feedback mechanisms/shifting feeding habits maintaining
stability/providing more resilience;
more productive biomes produce larger biotic storages;
larger storages are less likely to be eliminated/reduced beyond a tipping point so contribute
to greater resilience;
larger storages provide higher maximum sustainable yields so are less prone to
overharvesting;
higher productivity entails faster plant growth, thus more effective regeneration after a
disturbance;
oceanic biomes have low productivity per unit area but their large size increases their
resilience;
coral reefs have high productivity but narrow niche requirements give them low resilience;
 26. Identify four ways to ensure reliability of the mark–release–recapture method
in estimating population size. [4 max]

ensure process of capture does not reduce/increase potential for recapture / generate
trap-shy/trap-happy individuals;
ensure marking process does not impact individual’s survival; ensure method of marking is
durable for period of investigation;
ensure sufficient proportion of population is caught/marked in first capture;
repeat procedure/recapture to increase reliability;
ensure traps are well distributed throughout area of population;
ensure sufficient time between captures to allow mixing of population;
only apply procedure to motile species that do not travel outside study area;

27. Explain how the interactions between a species and its environment give rise
to the S-shape of its population curve. [7 max]

the slow initial growth rate is due to low numbers reproducing;

…and/or unfamiliarity with resources / threats of the newly colonised habitat;
growth rates/numbers increase more rapidly due to abundance/accessibility of
resources/greater numbers reproducing;
…leading to positive feedback/exponential growth;
growth rate subsequently decrease/numbers increase more slowly due to limiting/density
dependent environmental factors/environmental resistance;
…eg limited food/greater predation/competition/nesting sites, etc;
growth rate eventually becomes zero / population stabilises / fluctuates around carrying
capacity;
due to reaching the carrying capacity of the environment;
…kept stable by density dependent factors / negative feedback / predator– prey cycles;
28.