Naan Mudhalvan & AICSCC Mains Test Series 2024 - GEOGRAPHY Optional

Week 1 - Test 4 - Weekly Revision

1.
(a) What is western intensification and why is it more prominent in the Atlantic
Ocean? (10)

In both hemispheres, the currents making up the western side of the gyre are much more
intense than the currents on the eastern side. In other words, the currents off of the east
coast of the continents are more intense than currents off of the west coast of the continents.
This phenomenon is known as western intensification, and it is due to the Coriolis Effect.

● The high latitude surface currents of the major gyres experience a strong Coriolis force
due to their proximity to the poles. As the currents move eastward, the strong Coriolis
force begins to deflect the currents towards the equator relatively early. The currents
on the eastern side of the gyre are therefore spread out over a wide area as they move
towards the equator.
● Near the equator, the westward flowing currents experience a much weaker Coriolis
force, so their deflection does not happen until the current is all the way over to the
western side of the ocean basin. These western currents must therefore move through
a much narrower area. This imbalance means that the center of rotation of the gyre
is not in the center of the ocean basins, but it closer to the western side of the gyre.
● The same volume of water must pass through both the east and west sides of the gyre.
In the western gyre currents that volume is passing through a narrower area so the
current must travel faster in order to transport the same amount of water in the same
amount of time.
● On the eastern side of the gyre the current is much wider, so the flow is slower. In the
same way, western boundary currents are not only faster, but also deeper than
eastern boundary currents, as they move the same volume through a narrower space.
Wind strength is influenced by seasonal patterns, land-ocean interactions, land
topography, and ocean temperatures.

● When we observe the Atlantic Ocean, it’s more continental (unlike Indian which is
continental but half ocean). The surrounding region forms sources of air masses. So
there is a strong gush of surface air.
● Stronger winds along the path of the Gulf Stream can make huge amounts of warm,
salty water travel underneath this cold freshwater lid toward the Arctic, pushing up
temperatures and salinity levels at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean. This further
strengthens the ocean current system in the region.
● The strong surface air along with Coriolis force results in the Ekman spiral
formation, which leads to the development of gyre circulation. The stronger gyre
mechanism means a prominent western intensification phenomenon.

(b) Describe the bottom topography of the Indian Ocean. (10)

The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world’s oceans, surrounded by the coasts of Africa
to the west, Asia to the north, Australia to the east, and the southern Indian Oceanic islands
to the south. It incorporates near complete absence of open oceanic basin in the northern
basin and hence called half ocean or Continental Ocean.

The Indian Ocean, like all major oceans, has a complex and varied bottom topography
characterized by a combination of deep ocean basins, mid-ocean ridges, oceanic trenches,
and seamounts.
Continental Shelves: Around the periphery of the Indian Ocean, there are extensive
continental shelves, particularly along the coasts of India, Indonesia, Australia, and East
Africa. These shallow regions are the submerged extensions of the continents and are
important for fisheries and oil and gas exploration.

Mid-Ocean Ridges: The Mid-Indian Ridge is the prominent mid-ocean ridge that runs north-
south through the central part of the Indian Ocean. It is a divergent boundary where the
African Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate are moving away from each other.

● It comprises of the Lakshadweep- Chagos ridge, Mauritius- St. Paul ridge, Antarctic
ridge and Kergulean ridge.
● Minor ridges include Calsburg ridge, Seychelles- Mauritius ridge, Comoros ridge and
Madagascar ridge.

Deep Ocean Basins: It contains several deep ocean basins, including the Arabian Sea Basin,
Somali Basin, Mozambique (Mascarane) Basin, Cocos Keeling basin, Australian basin, etc.

Oceanic Trenches: It does not incorporate dominant fracture zones or trenches.

● The Sunda Trench, also known as the Java Trench, is one of the major oceanic
trenches in the Indian Ocean. Other deep-sea trench in the region is the Diamantina
Trench.
● It also contains the Chagos fracture zone and the St. Pauls fracture zone.
● The Indian Ocean features numerous seamounts, underwater mountains, and guyots
scattered throughout its expanse.

Island Chains and Archipelagos: The Indian Ocean is home to several island chains and
archipelagos, including the Lakshadweep, Maldives, Seychelles, and Chagos Archipelago.
These volcanic and coral islands are often located on underwater ridges and plateaus.

The Indian Ocean is surrounded by diverse coastlines. It plays a vital role in the global
economy, climate system, and cultural interactions among the nations and peoples along its
shores

(c ) Explain What are Authigenic deposits and their different types (10)

Authigenesis refers to processes by which minerals form, in place, within sediments and
sedimentary rocks. Such minerals are referred to as authigenic minerals. Authigenic
sedimentary minerals form during or after sedimentation by precipitation or
recrystallization as opposed to detrital minerals, which are weathered by water or wind and
transported to the depositional location.

TYPES OF AUTHIGENIC SEDIMENTS

The most significant authigenic sediments in modern ocean basins are metal-rich sediments
and manganese nodules.

Manganese nodules are pebbles or stones about the size of walnuts that are built of onion-
like layers of manganese and iron oxides. Minor constituents include copper, nickel,
and cobalt, making the nodules a potential ore of these valuable elements.
Metal-rich sediments include those enriched by iron, manganese, copper, chromium,
and lead. These sediments are common at spreading centres, indicating that processes at
the centres are responsible for their formation—hydrothermal circulation is the controlling
factor.

● Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite and

chlorapatite. Apatite is very common as an accessory
mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks, where it is the most common phosphate
mineral. However, occurrences are usually as small grains which are often visible only
in thin section.
● Clay minerals are the most abundant sedimentary mineral group. They predominate
in the colloidal fractions of soils, sediments, rocks and waters and are classified as
phyllosilicates (usually hydrous aluminosilicates).
● Authigenic calcite is widespread in the ocean and forms mostly from biogenic
calcite recrystallization as well as being geochemically distinct in its minor and trace
element concentrations from its precursor. This recrystallization process ultimately
transforms calcareous ooze into chalk and limestone.
● Glauconite is an iron potassium phyllosilicate (mica group) mineral of characteristic
green colour which is very friable and has very low weathering resistance. Glauconite
is authigenic and highly mature.
● Other minerals usually seen in the deep ocean sediments include silica, iron rich
compounds like hematite, limonite, chamosite, pyrite, siderite etc.

Authigenic sediments are the main constituents of deep sea sedimentation, compared to
shallow waters or land where detrital sediments are more common.

2.

(a) Ice free Arctic Ocean could create a lot of complications in the atmosphere and
the weather. Discuss (20)

Arctic sea ice always waxes and wanes with the season cycle, but its average late summer
minimum is now shrinking by 13.2% per decade (NOAA). As per WEF data, the Arctic is
warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet and could be ice-free in summer by the 2030s,
the ice melting faster than the rate projected earlier.
ARCTIC ICE AND ITS INFLUENCE IN ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER CONDITIONS

● Arctic sea ice acts like the planet’s air conditioner. Its bright, white surface means
high albedo reflecting much solar energy, keeping temperatures relatively cool in the
Arctic. However, as more sea ice retreats throughout the year, the darker open oceans
absorb more solar energy, raising temperatures and setting off a cycle of warming and
further melting creating a feedback loop.
● During winter, the Arctic's atmosphere is very cold. In comparison, the ocean is much
warmer. The sea ice cover separates the two, preventing heat in the ocean from
warming the overlying atmosphere. But heat can escape rather efficiently from areas
of thin ice. With thinner ice, the sea ice less effectively insulates the ocean from the
atmosphere. The Arctic atmosphere then warms, which, in turn, influences the global
circulation of the atmosphere.
● The Arctic is the primary source region of cold and moist airmass. Changes in the
temperature and salinity composition of its source can impact the airmass as well as
the regions it influence.
● The oceans and air act as heat engines, moving heat to the poles in a constant quest
for balance via atmospheric circulation and thermohaline circulation. Declining
arctic sea ice has two main effects on this process.
o Warming up the pole disrupts Earth's overall heat flow by tweaking its
temperature gradient.
o Altered wind patterns push more sea ice toward the Atlantic, where it melts
into cold freshwater. Since less salinity means the water is less dense, melted
sea ice floats rather than sinking. As thermohaline circulation needs cold,
sinking water at high latitudes, this can halt the flow of warm, rising water
from the tropics.
● Sea ice can influence ocean currents. When sea ice forms, most of the salt is pushed
into the ocean water below the ice. Water below newly-formed sea ice has a higher
concentration of salt, making it denser than surrounding ocean water. This water
sinks, flowing along the ocean bottom toward the equator. Meanwhile, warm water
from mid-depth to the surface travels from the equator toward the poles. In this way,
sea ice contributes to the ocean's global conveyor-belt circulation. Changes in the
amount of sea ice can disrupt ocean circulation, thereby leading to changes in global
climate. If sea ice growth is reduced in these regions, there will be less sinking, which
will slow the conveyor belt.
o Depleting sea ice can lead to Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
collapse, which may alter precipitation patterns, potentially destabilizing
the southern Amazon rainforest and transforming it into a savannah-like
ecosystem.
● Arctic ice traps methane. Scientists have long known Arctic tundra and marine
sediments contain large, frozen deposits of methane, posing a climate risk if they thaw
and release the potent greenhouse gas. In 2012, researchers from NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory discovered a new source of Arctic methane- the Arctic Ocean
itself.
o To the north of the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, the researchers found methane
fumes and they traced its source to surface waters exposed by broken ice.
● It's well-established that global warming boosts severe weather in general, but sea-
ice loss also favours bigger storms in the Arctic itself. Unbroken swatches of sea
ice normally limit how much moisture moves from the ocean to the atmosphere,
 making it harder for strong storms to develop. As sea ice dwindles, storm formation
is easier and ocean waves can grow larger.
For example, in Shishmaref, Alaska , years of depleting ice have let waves eat a
shoreline already softened by permafrost thaw. At the same time, a swell in Arctic
storms and waves could also create yet another feedback loop, damaging current ice
and impeding new growth as it agitates the ocean.

There are many factors contributing to the atmospheric and weather changes. At present
rapidly shrinking cryosphere has a huge impact on global climatic patterns. The area covered
by Arctic sea ice is an important indicator of global climate change because as global
temperatures rise, the rate at which warmer air and warmer water temperatures reduce the
amount of existing sea ice can be measured.

(b) How does the Milankovitch cycle explain long term climate change ? (20)

Cycles play key roles in Earth’s short-term weather and long-term climate. A century ago,
Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch hypothesized the long-term, collective effects of
changes in Earth’s position relative to the Sun are a strong driver of Earth’s long-
term climate, and are responsible for triggering the beginning and end of glaciation periods
(Ice Ages).

He examined how variations in three types of Earth orbital movements affect how much
insolation reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere as well as where the insolation reaches.
The Milankovitch cycles comprises of cyclical movement related to the earth’s orbit around
the sun. There are three of them namely,

● The shape of Earth’s orbit, known as eccentricity;

● The angle Earth’s axis is tilted with respect to Earth’s orbital plane, known
as obliquity;
● The direction Earth’s axis of rotation is pointed, known as precession.

MILANKOVITCH CYCLE AND LONG TERM CLIMATE CHANGE

Eccentricity: The path of earth’s orbit is an ellipse. This ellipse changes from less elliptical
to more elliptical and back, and is due to the gravitational fields of the neighbouring planets,
particularly larger ones. That is, the pull of gravity from our solar system’s two largest gas
giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn, causes the shape of Earth’s orbit to vary from nearly
circular to slightly elliptical.

● Eccentricity measures how much the shape of Earth’s orbit departs from a perfect
circle. These variations affect the distance between Earth and the Sun and thus the
amount of insolation.

● Eccentricity is the reason why our seasons are slightly different lengths, with
summers in the Northern Hemisphere currently about 4.5 days longer than winters,
and springs about three days longer than autumns. As eccentricity decreases, the
length of our seasons gradually evens out.

● When Earth’s orbit is at its most elliptic, about 23 % more incoming solar radiation
reaches Earth at our planet’s closest approach to the Sun each year than does at its
farthest departure from the Sun. Currently, Earth’s eccentricity is very slowly
 decreasing and is approaching its least elliptic (most circular), in a cycle that spans
about 100,000 years.

● The total change in global annual insolation due to the eccentricity cycle is very small.
Because variations in Earth’s eccentricity are fairly small, they’re a relatively minor
factor in annual seasonal climate variations.

● He calculated that Ice Ages occur approximately every 41,000 years. Subsequent
research confirms that they did occur at 41,000-year intervals between one and three
million years ago. But about 800,000 years ago, the cycle of Ice Ages lengthened to
100,000 years, matching Earth’s eccentricity cycle. While various theories have been
proposed to explain this transition, scientists do not yet have a clear answer.

Obliquity: The angle Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted as it travels around the Sun. Obliquity
is why Earth has seasons. Over the last million years, it has varied between 22.1 and 24.5
degrees with respect to Earth’s orbital plane. The greater Earth’s axial tilt angle, the more
extreme our seasons are, as each hemisphere receives more solar radiation during its
summer, when the hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun, and less during winter, when it is
tilted away.

● Larger tilt angles favour periods of deglaciation (the melting and retreat of glaciers and
ice sheets). These effects aren’t uniform globally -- higher latitudes receive a larger
change in total solar radiation than areas closer to the equator.
● Earth’s axis is currently tilted 23.4 degrees, or about half way between its extremes
and this angle is very slowly decreasing in a cycle that spans about 41,000 years. It
was last at its maximum tilt about 10,000 years ago and will reach its minimum tilt
about 10,000 years from now. As obliquity decreases, it gradually helps make our
seasons milder, resulting in increasingly warmer winters, and cooler summers that
gradually, over time, allow snow and ice at high latitudes to build up into large ice
sheets. As ice cover increases, it reflects more of the Sun’s energy back into space,
promoting even further cooling.
● Milankovitch assumed changes in radiation at some latitudes and in some seasons
are more important than others to the growth and retreat of ice sheets. In addition, it
was his belief that obliquity was the most important of the three cycles for climate;
because it affects the amount of insolation in Earth’s northern high-latitude regions
during summer (the relative role of precession versus obliquity is still a matter of
scientific study).

Precession: As Earth rotates, it wobbles slightly upon its rotational axis, like a slightly off-
center spinning toy top. This wobble is due to tidal forces caused by the gravitational
influences of the Sun and Moon that cause Earth to bulge at the equator, affecting its
rotation. The trend in the direction of this wobble relative to the fixed positions of stars is
known as axial precession. The cycle of axial precession spans about 25,771.5 years.

● Axial precession makes seasonal contrasts more extreme in one hemisphere and less
extreme in the other. Currently perihelion occurs during winter in the Northern
Hemisphere and in summer in the Southern Hemisphere. This makes Southern
Hemisphere summers hotter and moderates Northern Hemisphere seasonal
variations.
 ● But in about 13,000 years, axial precession will cause these conditions to flip, with
the Northern Hemisphere seeing more extremes in solar radiation and the Southern
Hemisphere experiencing more moderate seasonal variations.
● Precession does affect seasonal timing relative to Earth's closest/farthest points
around the Sun. However, the modern calendar system ties itself to the seasons, and
so, for example, the Northern Hemisphere winter will never occur in July.
● Today Earth’s North Stars are Polaris and Polaris Australis, but a couple of thousand
years ago, they were Kochab and Pherkad. And it is estimated that, in a span of about
19000- 20000 years, earth’s geographical axis pointing star may be the Vega star and
thus the northern hemisphere may experience winter during March- September.

The small changes set in motion by Milankovitch cycles operate separately and together to
influence Earth’s climate over very long time spans, leading to larger changes in our climate
over tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years.

Milankovitch combined the cycles to create a comprehensive mathematical model for

calculating differences in solar radiation at various Earth latitudes along with corresponding
surface temperatures. The model is sort of like a climate time travel machine: it can be run
backward and forward to examine past and future climate conditions.

LIMITATIONS OF MILANKOVITCH CYCLE

But Milankovitch cycles can’t explain all climate change that’s occurred over the past 2.5
million years. They cannot account for the current period of rapid warming Earth has
experienced since the pre-Industrial period (the period between 1850 and 1900), and
particularly since the mid-20th century.

● Scientists are confident Earth’s recent warming is primarily due to human activities
like the direct input of carbon dioxide into Earth’s atmosphere from burning fossil
fuels.
● The Milankovitch cycles operate on long time scales, ranging from tens of thousands
to hundreds of thousands of years. In contrast, Earth’s current warming has taken
place over time scales of decades to centuries. Over the last 150 years, Milankovitch
cycles have not changed the amount of solar energy absorbed by Earth very much.
● Milankovitch cycles are just one factor that may contribute to climate change, both
past and present. Even for Ice Age cycles, changes in the extent of ice sheets and
atmospheric carbon dioxide have played important roles in driving the degree of
temperature fluctuations over the last several million years. The extent of ice sheets,
for example, affects how much of the Sun’s incoming energy is reflected back to space,
and in turn, Earth’s temperature.
● Earth is currently in an interglacial period (a period of milder climate between Ice
Ages). If there were no human influences on climate, scientists say Earth’s current
orbital positions within the Milankovitch cycles predict our planet should be cooling,
not warming, continuing a long-term cooling trend that began 6,000 years ago.

Scientific researches to better understand the mechanisms that cause changes in Earth’s
rotation and how specifically Milankovitch cycles combine to affect climate is ongoing. But
the theory that they drive the timing of glacial-interglacial cycles is well accepted.

(c ) Discuss the variation of relative humidity with latitude (10)

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the amount of water Vapor in the air to the amount
the air can hold at that temperature. It is usually expressed in percentage. The relative
humidity varies either when the capacity changes on account of temperature change or when
more moisture enters into the system of air.

Latitudinal Variation:

The Maximum relative humidity is recorded at the equator where the air is moist. As one
moves from the equatorial to the subtropical region there is increase in pressure on account
of subtropical high pressure belt.

The descending air is Adiabatically heated and its capacity to hold air increases. Hence
relative declines as one moves from the equator to the subtropical region.

But away from the subtropical region, the relative humidity again increases as the
temperatures drop in higher latitudes. With a lower capacity to hold moisture, the percentage
of relative humidity increases.

Another important feature of relative humidity distribution is the northward shifting of the
belts of highest and lowest relative humidity in July and southward shifting in January
following the apparent movement of the sun.

Relative humidity along with heat index has gained increased importance due to recurrent
heatwaves globally and is a useful tool for predicting hostile weather conditions.

3.

(a) Explain how significant the ‘Ekman Spiral’ is in the ocean gyre system. (20)

Ekman Spiral is a phenomenon that describes the motion of ocean Currents under the
influence of Winds and Earth's rotation. This concept was named after the Swedish
scientist Vagn Walfrid Ekman who first theorized it in 1902. Ekman Spiral is a result of
combination of the Coriolis Effect and friction on the movement of surface water. The
wind-stress moves the uppermost layer of water. This layer, in turn, drags the layer below
it. Each deeper layer moves more slowly than the layer above it until the movement ceases at
a depth of about 100 meters.

MECHANISM OF EKMAN SPIRAL

 ● When the wind blows close to the surface, below 500 meters, it encounters frictional
drag which causes it to slow down. This leads to a deflection of the wind, towards the
right in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the southern hemisphere.
● The extent of deflection decreases as the velocity of the wind decreases and the angle
of deflection depends on the velocity of the wind. As a result of the deflection, the wind
blows obliquely to the isobars. The angle of obliqueness increases with the increasing
effect of frictional drag caused by the Earth’s surface, with an average value of 25-350
for land surfaces and 10°-20° over the sea.
● When the surface water molecules move due to the force of the wind, they drag deeper
layers of water molecules below them. Each deeper layer moves more slowly than the
layer above it, until the movement ceases at a depth of about 100 meters.
● All layers of water are deflected by Coriolis force to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, each
successive layer moves 45 degree to the direction of drag force being applied. This
creates a twisting effect creating the spiral. The spiral is known as Ekman Spiral and
each subsequent layer is called the Ekman Layer. The average movement of all the
layers comes out to be 90 degree to the direction of the surface wind.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EKMAN SPIRAL IN THE OCEAN GYRE SYSTEM

● The fundamental genesis of the oceanic gyre circulation is related to the spinning
of the earth, which makes the equatorial water to move towards west while those at
the higher latitudinal counterpart, the subpolar water moves towards east.
● Ekman Spiral give rise to Gyres. These are ocean-circling currents that occur north
and south of the equator. They do not occur at the equator, where the Coriolis Effect
is not present.
● Ekman transport helps drive ocean gyres and contributes to their overall circulation
patterns. By causing the flow towards the centre of the gyre, it imitates geostrophic
flow. The Ekman Spiral is a fundamental concept in physical oceanography and helps
us understand the ocean circulation patterns and the transport of heat, salt, and
other properties in the ocean.
● Ocean gyres are large rotating ocean currents that circulate clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. They are driven by
the Earth’s rotation, wind, and the distribution of ocean currents and water masses.
Ocean gyres play a critical role in the ocean's ability to distribute heat, salt, and other
properties around the world.
● There are five major ocean gyres: The North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific,
South Pacific, and Indian Ocean gyres. These gyres move water in a circular pattern
and can have a significant impact on ocean ecosystems, as they can trap and
concentrate floating debris, such as plastic waste, into specific areas known as
garbage patches.
● Ocean gyres also have a significant impact on the Earth's climate by transporting heat
and carbon dioxide from the equator towards the poles. This helps regulate the Earth's
temperature and distribute heat and other properties around the world.
● Upwelling, a part of thermohaline circulation, is a factor affecting the gyre
circulation. Water upwelling and the Ekman Spiral are closely related
phenomena in oceanography. Upwelling is the movement of deep, nutrient-rich
water towards the surface. This occurs when winds blow across the ocean surface,
 causing the water to move in the opposite direction, which in turn draws deeper water
to the surface.

● When the wind blows across the ocean surface, the surface water molecules move due
to the wind's force and drag deeper layers of water molecules with them. The deeper
water is deflected by the Coriolis Effect, leading to a 90 0rotation of the mass transport
of all the layers.
In areas of water upwelling, the wind stress at the surface causes the surface
water to move away from the coast, drawing deeper water towards the surface. This
deep water is then deflected by the Coriolis Effect and moves in a spiral pattern,
causing the upwelling of water
This deep water is often rich in nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates,
which support the growth of phytoplankton and other marine life.
● There are two main types of upwelling: coastal upwelling and equatorial upwelling.
Coastal upwelling occurs along the western coasts of continents and is caused by
strong onshore winds that push surface water away from the coast. Equatorial
upwelling, on the other hand, occurs in the equatorial region and is caused by winds
blowing from east to west.

Upwelling is a critical process in the ocean, as it provides nutrients to the surface that support
marine ecosystems and play a key role in the transfer of heat, carbon dioxide, and other
properties in the ocean. It also helps regulate the Earth's climate by removing carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and storing it in the ocean. Water upwelling and the Ekman Spiral are
intertwined processes in the ocean that are critical for the transfer of nutrients and other
properties in the Ocean and play a key role in supporting marine ecosystems.

(b) Briefly explain the Mid ocean ridges and how they are distributed in the major
oceans (15)
The Mid Ocean Ridges exist mostly in the middle of the ocean basins, where the divergent
plate boundaries are located. Mid- Oceanic ridges are mountain-like structures standing
well above the deep ocean floors. They cover almost 23% of the earth’s surface. These
rugged features exist as chains, in the centre of the oceanic basins. The most prominent
feature of a ridge is its steep-sided central valley called rift valley. These peaks may rise
upto 2 km above the sea surface also as seen in some locations. Upwelling of molten mantle
rock has created these rift zones.

The theory of Plate Tectonics has indicated many major tectonic processes which that lead to
the formation of ridges.

● the release of convection currents along Divergent Plate Boundaries,

● the origin of Mid Ocean ridges and
● the spreading of the sea floor.

Mid ocean ridges are characteristic of sea floor spreading processes. These are very active
zones wherein a new magma is expected to emerge on the ocean floor regularly. There are two
processes responsible for the ocean floor spreading-

● The ridge-push and slab-pull process. Ridge-push occurs when the ridge pushes the
tectonic plate away from the ridge, often towards the subduction zone. At the
subduction zone, slab -pull come into effect.
● The other process is the mantle conveyor mechanism. Convection currents from
the mantle move up as magma and leaves through weak zones as volcanic eruptions
creating new crust upon cooling. These are called as mid ocean ridge basalts. The
rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest at the axis of the
ridge. Most oceanic crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old. The
crust is in a state of constant renewal at the ocean ridges.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MID-OCEANIC RIDGES

Mid oceanic Ridges are distributed in almost all major oceans of the world. They range from
the longest mid Atlantic Ridge of one ocean floor to a small ridge of another ocean.
The Atlantic Ocean

The North American and Eurasian Plates are moving away from each other along the line
of the Mid Atlantic Ridge. The Ridge extends into the South Atlantic Ocean between the
South American and African Plates. The tensional stress results in several faults. High
intense transform faults create cracks in the lithosphere creating auxillary faults.

The Mid Atlantic Ridge is the longest one in the world. It divides the Atlantic in the middle
along the plate boundary. Its alignment is broken near the equator. The Mid Atlantic Ridge
is exactly following the boundary of coastlines and continental margins on both sides of the
ocean. It is flanked by many ocean basins. During the nineteenth century, the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge was only vaguely known. The US Navy’s Matthew Fontaine Maury prepared a chart of
the Atlantic in 1855, identifying it as a shallow middle ground. American oceanographers
Bruce Heezen and Maurice Ewing proposed in the 1950s that it was a continuous mountain
range.

The Atlantic Ocean has the following notable other ridges like

● The Reykjanes Ridge – The Reykjanes Ridge exists in the Reykjanes Basin near
Iceland as the starting point of Mid Atlantic Ridge. Its continuity has been broken by
a fracture zone. The Hatton Ridge is parallel to Reykjanes Ridge in the Iceland Basin.

● The Atlantic Indian Ridge – The Atlantic Indian Ridge exists at the Southern end of
Mid Atlantic Ridge. It is about 2000 km long. It is located along the northern boundary
of the Atlantic – Indian Basin.

● The South Scotia Ridge – The South Scotia Ridge is located near the southern tip of
South America in the Scotia Sea.
 ● The America – Antarctica Ridge is located in the Southern Ocean, North of Antarctica.
It has a North East – South West alignment. It is 1500 km long.

● The Astrid Ridge – is a small ridge located in the Lazarev sea of Antarctica. It is at
the southern part of Atlantic-Indian Basin.

● The Parnaiba Ridge – The Parnaiba Ridge is a minor ridge located near the equator
in the West Atlantic and east of Amazon delta.

● The Blake Bahama Ridge – The Blake Bahama Ridge is located closer to Bahamas in
the West Atlantic.

● The West Scotia Ridge – The West Scotia Ridge is located in the western parts of
Scotia Sea.

● The Newfoundland Ridge – The Newfoundland Ridge is located in the North West
Atlantic Ocean near Newfoundland.

● The Walvis Ridge –The Walvis Ridge is located in the Southern Atlantic west of
Namibia of South Africa.

The Pacific Ocean

In Pacific Ocean, the north-eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Explorer Plate,
the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Gorda Plate forming respectively the Explorer Ridge,
the Juan de Fuca Ridge and the Gorda Ridge. In the middle of the eastern side is a transform
boundary with the North American Plate along the San Andreas Fault, and a boundary
with the Cocos Plate. The south-eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Nazca
Plate forming the East Pacific Rise. The southern side is a divergent boundary with
the Antarctic Plate forming the Pacific–Antarctic Ridge.

The Pacific-Antarctic Ridge can be traced northeast from a point halfway between New
Zealand and Antarctica to where it meets the East Pacific Rise off the coast of South America.
At intermediate to fast rates, the former spreads. The East Pacific Rise extends northward
to the Gulf of California, where it connects with the transform zone of the Pacific-North
American plate boundary

A spreading centre can be found in the Scotia Sea, which lies between South America and
the Antarctic Peninsula. The Galapagos spreading centre is located between the East Pacific
Rise and South America near the Equator and runs east-west. A few hundred kilometres off
the coast of the Pacific Northwest, three short spreading centres can be found.

It has the following notable other ridges:

● Gorda Ridges are located west of North America near Cascade mountain ranges.

● Kyushu – Palau Ridge is located in the middle of Philippine Sea.

● West Norfolk Ridge and Norfolk Ridge are located near the Norfolk Island of
Australia.

● Kermadec Ridge is located along the western parts of Southwest Pacific basin.
 ● Robbie Ridge is located to the southwest of Phoenix Islands. It is a north-south
trending ridge. It is parallel to the Kermadec trench.

● Christmas Ridge and Necker Ridge are in the Central Pacific basin southwest of
Hawaii.

● Colon Ridge exists in southern parts of Guatemala Basin between north and south
America in the east pacific.

● Nasca Ridge is located west of South America near Peru-Chile trench.

● Macquarie Ridge is along the boundary between Southern Ocean and the Tasman
Sea and South of New Zealand.

● Caroline Ridge is located near the Challenger Deep of Marianas Trench.

● Galapagos Ridge is located west of South America near Andes.

The Indian Ocean

The westerly side of the Indian Plate is a transform boundary with the Arabian
Plate called the Owen Fracture Zone, and a divergent boundary with the African
Plate called the Central Indian Ridge (CIR).

The Southwest Indian Ridge (trending along NE-SW direction), a very slow oceanic ridge,
cuts the ocean between Africa and Antarctica. East of Madagascar, it connects the Mid-
Indian and Southeast Indian ridges. The Carlsberg Ridge is located on the Mid-Indian
Ridge’s northern end. It moves north, joining spreading centres in the Gulf of Aden and the
Red Sea. Spreading is very slow at this point, but on the Carlsberg and Mid-Indian ridges, it
approaches intermediate rates.

Southeast Indian Ridge spreads at a medium rate. This ridge extends south-eastward from
the western Indian Ocean, cutting the ocean between Australia and Antarctica. The
Southwest Indian Ridge is distinguished by rifted crests and rugged mountainous flanks.

The Mid-Indian Ridge has fewer of these features, while the Southeast Indian Ridge has
smoother topography overall. Some other Ridges of Indian Ocean are the following:

● Ninety East Ridge. It is a north-south trending ridge located in the middle of Cocos
Basin and Mid-Indian Basin. It starts from the Andaman Sea in the North and extends
upto the Broken Ridge in the South. It runs parallel to the longitude 90 degrees E.

● Investigator Ridge is located in the south-eastern parts of Cocos basin and east of
Cocos Islands.

● Chain Ridge is located northeast of Somali Basin and North of Seychelles and
Amirantle Ridge is near the Seychelles, south of Somali basin.

● Davie Ridge is located in the Mozambique Channel between Mozambique and

Madagascar.

● Murray Ridge is in the Arabian Sea, east of Oman.

 ● Broken Ridge is an east-west trending ridge located to the west of Perth basin.

● Hartog Ridge is in the western parts of Perth basin west of Australia.

● East Indiaman Ridge is near the Broken Ridge west of the Perth Basin.

Mid-ocean ridges are geologically significant because they occur along the type of plate
boundary that results in the formation of a new ocean floor as the plates spread apart. As a
result, the mid-ocean ridge is known as a spreading centre. The plates separated at varying
rates of 1 cm to 20 cm per year.

3.

(c ) Explain the different techniques of ocean floor mapping (10)

Mapping the ocean floor, also known as bathymetry, is a crucial process for understanding
the topography, geological features, and ecosystems of the Earth's oceans. The term
bathymetry originally referred to the ocean's depth relative to sea level, although it has come
to mean submarine topography, or the depths and shapes of underwater terrain.

VARIOUS METHODS OF BATHYMETRY

Echo Sounding

Echo sounding is done with the help of a transmitter mounted on a vessel. The transmitter
sends out a pulse through the water as a narrow beam; this beam is reflected off the ocean
floor back to the surface, where it is recorded by a listening device called hydrophone.

Side Scan Sonar

Side scanning, based on the principle of echo sounding, has been adapted to survey the
ocean floor that lies to the either side of an observation ship. The graphic display of these
incoming signals yields a rough three-dimensional map of the portion of the ocean bottom
traversed by the side scanning transmitting equipment enclosed in a watertight housing
called a fish.

Continuous Seismic Reflection

Seismic reflection employs a stronger energy source and lower sound frequencies than echo
sounding. The sound waves penetrate the ocean floor and are reflected back recorded in
hydrophone and a seismic reflection profile is created.

Mechanical Photography

Mechanical photography and sampling has been made possible by unmanned probing
devices, which are lowered from specially equipped oceanographic ships.

Multi-beam Sonar
Multi-beam sonar systems can cover a wide swath of the seafloor and produce high-resolution
maps. Multi-beam sonar data helps in identifying seafloor features, such as underwater
mountains, canyons, and sediment distribution.

Satellite Altimetry
Satellite altimetry measures the height of the sea surface with high precision. By detecting
subtle variations in sea surface height caused by gravitational forces and variations in
seafloor topography, it indirectly provides information about the ocean floor.

Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs):

ROVs and AUVs equipped with sonar systems and cameras are used for detailed mapping of
specific areas or inaccessible regions. They provide high-resolution imagery and collect data
on underwater features, marine life, and geological samples.

Diving Operation: This includes SCUBA equipment and deep-sea diving saucer.

Accurate mapping helps in identifying underwater features like ridges, trenches, seamounts,
and plate boundaries, providing valuable insights into tectonic activity and the formation of
natural resources. Mapping assists in locating potential fishing zones, identifying mineral
deposits, and assessing the environmental impact of various human activities.

4.

(a) Ocean current genesis and movement are controlled by several factors. Discuss
(20)

Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater. It is a

massive movement of ocean water that is caused and influenced by various forces. They are
like river flows in oceans. They created a global conveyor belt that greatly impacts the
climate of different regions on Earth. Warm currents along coasts increase temperatures by
warming the sea breezes. For instance, the Gulf Stream makes northwest Europe more
temperate.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE GENESIS AND MOVEMENT OF OCEAN CURRENTS

Ocean currents are driven by winds and water density, while factors like the shape of the
ocean basin also influence them. There are two main types: surface currents and deep-water
currents, which play a crucial role in shaping ocean waters worldwide. Ocean currents are
influenced by two types of forces namely:

Primary forces:

● Coriolis force: The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right
in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. These large
accumulations of water and the flow around them are called Gyres. These produce
large circular currents in all the ocean basins.
o It is caused by Earth’s rotation and also plays a significant role in determining the
direction of ocean currents. It causes moving objects to appear deflected in a
particular direction, resulting in clockwise currents in the Northern Hemisphere
and counter clockwise currents in the Southern Hemisphere.
o The Coriolis force always acts perpendicular to motion and is influenced by the
geographic latitude and the speed of the moving water. These forces, along with
others, work together to create the complex patterns of ocean currents observed
worldwide.
● Heating by insolation: Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is
why, near the equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle
latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.
 ● Wind: Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction
between the wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its
course.
● Frictional Forces: When water moves through the oceans, it encounters friction,
which slows it down. Imagine a faster-moving layer of water dragging along a slower-
moving layer, causing a transfer of momentum between them. This is called frictional
forces. The movement of water is affected by turbulence, transferring energy to smaller
scales until it dissipates heat. Wind blowing over the sea surface also transfers
momentum, creating wind-driven circulation. Ocean currents along the ocean floor
and sides are also influenced by friction with the motionless ocean floor removing
momentum from the water circulation. Also, gravity tends to pull the water down the
pile and create gradient variation.
Secondary forces:

● Differences in water density: It affects vertical mobility of ocean currents. Water

with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the same way cold
water is denser than warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter
water tends to rise. Also water move from less density (low salinity) are to ht high
density (high salinity) area.
● Temperature of water: Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the
poles sinks and slowly moves towards the equator. Warm-water currents travel out
from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the poles to replace the sinking
cold water.
There is a temperature difference between the equator and poles. Water in
the equatorial region (high temperature) expands and tends to move to the low
temperature polar regions.
● Precipitation and evaporation: They affect the salinity of ocean water. Areas with
good precipitation often have low salinity. And areas with high evaporation rates have
high salinity.
● The shape of coastline is also an important factor that affects the current in the
oceans. Accumulation of water on east coasts leads to gravity induced movements
down the slope. Wind, Coast line and inundation, large river discharge, presence of
partially enclosed seas also modify ocean currents.
The effect of continentality on the ocean currents can be easily found while comparing
the ocean current belts in Atlantic and Indian Ocean.
Although there are a number of factors which impact the formation of ocean currents, the
ocean current themselves play a major role in determining regional as well as global climate.
Without currents in the ocean, regional temperatures would be extreme- super hot at the
equator and frigid toward the poles and much less of Earth’s land would be habitable.

4.

(b) What are local winds? Classify their types and describe their impacts. (20)

Local winds are mesoscale wind systems generated on account of local factors and their zone
of influence is limited. Though their reach is restricted they play a significant role in weather
and climate of the smaller regions.

Diurnal Winds:

These local winds have a character of reversal within 24 hours and affect the microclimate of
a region.

Land and Sea Breeze:

The winds are a result of differential heating of land and water. During the day, as land gets
heated sooner than water there is the existence of low pressure over the land area and high
pressure over the seas. The sea breeze is active during the day and as the night settles in
pressure conditions reverse as land loses heat relatively faster than water. This results in
land breeze during the night time.
This provides moderating climatic conditions along the coastal areas.

Mountain and Valley Breeze:

During the day, the mountain tops receiving higher insolation experience slightly higher
temperature compared to the valley. This is because of less thickness of air at the mountain
top and a higher density of air near the valley. This results in a Valley breeze which is active
during the day.

The conditions reverse during the evenings when the valley is at a higher temperature due to
higher density of greenhouse gases and the mountain tops are cooler as they radiate heat.
The mountain breeze causes temperature inversion and is detrimental for agriculture in the
valley region.

Seasonal Winds:

They are active during a specific month of a year and exert influence over a large area.They
can either be Warm or Cold.

Warm Winds:

Chinook: This is Foehn wind which is a warm dry wind on the leeward side of the mountains.
This blows on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Montana. They are
common during late winter and early spring. They melt snowclad Praire grasslands helping
agriculture.

Santa Ana: This is a warm dry wind which moves from Central USA to Southern California.
They increase temperature rapidly and can cause forest fires and damage crops during the
months of October and November.

Sirocco: This is a dry dusty wind flowing from the Sahara Desert. As it crosses Mediterranean
Sea it picks up moisture and provides rain over parts of Southern Europe.

Cold Winds:

Mistral: It is a cold northwest wind that blows into the Western Mediterranean basin from
higher elevations to the north. They are common during winter months when they descend
from the Auvergne Plateau to the Rhone valley in Southern France.

Bora: In the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea, a cold, dry north-easterly wind blowing down
from the mountains is called bora. The downslope winds are cooler than the surrounding
coastal lowlands and they bring unusually sub-freezing temperatures.

4.

(c ) Explain the impact of agricultural systems on climate. (10)

Reports suggest that agriculture along with forestry and other types of land use account for
23% of human greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time natural land processes absorb
carbon dioxide equivalent to almost a third of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels and
industry.
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, wind
patterns, and other aspects of the Earth's climate system. It poses significant challenges to
both natural ecosystems and human societies, necessitating urgent action.

THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS ON CLIMATE

● Agriculture and emission: Agricultural emissions of greenhouse gases include

carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane.
o Methane comes primarily from livestock digestion (known as enteric fermentation)
and the way livestock manure is managed. It contributes the most to agricultural
emissions of greenhouse gases.
o Nitrous oxide, which results mostly from agricultural fertilizer application to soils
and from manure management.
o Carbon dioxide emissions come from increased decomposition of plant matter in
soils and from converting lands to agricultural uses. Those emissions are partially
offset by the increased plant matter stored in cropland soils.
o GHGs trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and
resulting in global warming.
● Agriculture and deforestation: As per UNFCCC, agriculture is the direct cause of
deforestation. Subsistence farming, commercial agriculture, shifting cultivation and
industrial logging cause deforestation.
o The biggest cause of forest loss – accounting for around 70 % – is agricultural
deforestation, notably for beef, soy, palm oil and commercial timber.
o Animal agriculture — livestock and animal feed is a significant driver of
deforestation, and is also responsible for approximately 60% of direct global
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
o When deforestation occurs, much of the carbon stored by treesis released back
into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, which contributes to climate change.
o Clearing forests reduces the Earth's capacity to absorb CO2 through
photosynthesis, contributing to increased atmospheric concentrations.
Deforestation impact the water cycle, which inturn influence rainfall received.
The presence of pollutants in waterbodies (caused by agriculture) also impacts the
rate of evaporation.
● Unsustainable Agriculture often causes land degradation. Land serves as a sink
for carbon, because healthy ecosystems and soils can absorb carbon from the
atmosphere. During 2007-2016, these sinks removed 28% of total human carbon
dioxide emissions from the air — an important barrier to even more severe climate
change.
o When land is degraded, it becomes less productive, restricting what can be grown
and reducing the soil's ability to absorb carbon. This exacerbates climate change,
while climate change in turn exacerbates land degradation.
● Chemical fertilisers and manure from livestock operations are the most prevalent
nonpoint sources of excess nutrients in surface water resulting in eutrophication.
Studies say that the greening or eutrophication of the world's lakes will
increase the emission of methane into the atmosphere by 30 to 90 % during the next
100 years, say researchers. This increased methane emission is equivalent to 18-33
% of annual carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. Limiting lake greening
is important to preserve fragile water supplies and to avoid acceleration of climate
change.
Just as agricultural systems are sensitive to climate and weather effectivity, these
agricultural practices influence the climatic patterns too. Implementation of sustainable
forest management and agricultural practices and promote reforestation and land
restoration efforts to enhance carbon sequestration.