Highway Engineering - II

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY PAVEMENT

INTRODUCTION

The field of pavement design is dynamic. The concepts are changing with time as technology develops and new
equipment emerges for site investigation, material testing and traffic data collection, and new data become
available. In the early stage, pavement design was carried out by a rule-of-thumb procedure based on entirely
past experience. Through the observation of performances of the already constructed roads, highway
engineers became aware that pavement performance is dependent on the subgrade soils. Pavements constructed
over plastic soils showed higher distress than those constructed over granular deposits. With the knowledge of
soil mechanics, pavement design was made with soil classification.

With the increase in traffic and usage and development of heavy transport means, the deterioration of
pavements due to heavy trucks and aircrafts necessitated a more rational approach of design. This led to full-
scale and laboratory experiments in different countries at different capacities. The well-known research
investigations are those conducted in the United States of America. The results of these and other full-scale
and laboratory experiments conducted under varying soil, climatic, and loading conditions in different countries
have given rise to our understanding and development of the existing design methods. Although principles of
pavement design are common to all problems and localities, different highway agencies in different countries
use different design manuals prepared to suite their local conditions and available materials of construction.

1.1. TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

A pavement structure is a layer structure which supports the vehicle load on its surface and transfers and
spreads the load to the subgrade without exceeding either the strength of the subgrade or the internal
strength of the pavement itself. The basic idea in building a pavement for all-weather use by vehicles is to
prepare a suitable subgrade, provide necessary drainage, and construct a pavement that will:

 Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic loads, and distribute
them over the subgrade soil without overstressing;
 Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or internal accumulation of moisture;
 Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time, as well as reasonably
resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by vehicle loads and weather.

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible and rigid pavements. In
flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the
granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g.
bituminous road). On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural
strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads). In addition to
these, composite pavements are also available. A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal
pavement with most desirable characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new construction
because of high cost and complex analysis required.

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Figure 1.1. Load transfer in granular structure

A) FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

A flexible pavement is one, which has low flexural strength, and the load is largely transmitted to the subgrade
soil through the lateral distribution of stresses with increasing depth as shown in Figure 1.2. The pavement
thickness is designed such that the stresses on the subgrade soil are kept within its bearing capacity and the
subgrade is prevented from excessive deformation. The strength and smoothness of flexible pavement
structure depends to a large extent on the deformation of the subgrade soil.

Generally, two types of construction have been used for flexible pavements: conventional flexible pavement,
and full-depth asphalt pavement. A third type, known as contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM) construction is still
in the experimental stage and has not been widely accepted for practical use.

Figure 1.2. Stress distribution through flexible pavement structure

Conventional Flexible pavements

Conventional flexible pavements are multilayered structures with better materials on top where the intensity
of stress is high and inferior materials at the bottom where the intensity is low. This design principle makes
possible to use local materials and usually results in a most economical design. This is particularly true in regions
where high-quality materials are expensive but local materials of inferior quality are readily available. Figure 1.3
shows the cross section of a conventional flexible pavement. Starting from the top, a conventional flexible
pavement normally consists of surface course, base course, subbase course, compacted subgrade, and natural
subgrade. The use of the various courses is based on either necessity or economy and some of the courses may
be omitted.

Surface Course. The surface course is the top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes called the wearing
course. It is usually constructed by dense graded hot-mix asphalt. It is a structural part of the pavement,
which must be tough to resist distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-resistant riding surface.
The surface course must be waterproof to protect the entire pavement and subgrade from the weakening
effect of water.

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Base Course. The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface course. It may be
composed of well-graded crushed stone (unbounded), granular material mixed with binder, or stabilized
materials. It is the main structural part of the pavement and provides a level surface for laying the surface
layer. If constructed directly over the subgrade, it prevents intrusions of the fine subgrade soils into the
pavement structure.

Subbase Course. The subbase course is the layer of material beneath the base course constructed using local
and cheaper materials for economic reason on top of the subgrade. It provides additional help to the base and
the upper layers in distributing the load. It facilitates drainage of free water that might get accumulated
below the pavement. If the base course is open graded, the subbase course with more fines can serve as a
filter between the subgrade and the base course.

Subgrade. Subgrade is the foundation on which the vehicle load and the weight of the pavement layers finally
rest. It is an in situ or a layer of selected material compacted to the desirable density near the optimum
moisture content. It is graded into a proper shape, properly drained, and compacted to receive the pavement
layers.

Figure 1.3: Typical cross section for conventional flexible pavement

Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements

Full-depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing one or more layers of hot-mix asphalt directly on the
subgrade or improved subgrade. This concept was conceived by the Asphalt Institute and is generally
considered the most cost-effective and dependable type of asphalt pavement for heavy traffic and quite
popular in areas where local materials are not available.

B) RIGID PAVEMENTS

Rigid pavements are pavement structures constructed of cement concrete slabs, which derive their capacity to
withstand vehicle loads from flexural strength or beam strength due to high modulus of elasticity. Because of
high flexural strength, the vehicle load on cement concrete slab is distributed over a relatively wider area of
the soil than flexible pavements and thus, variation in the subgrade soil strength has little influence. The
flexural strength also permits the slab to bridge over minor irregularities under it. Thus, the performance of
rigid pavements is more governed by the strength of the concrete slab that the subgrade supports. Hence, the
major factor considered in the design of rigid pavement is the structural strength of the concrete.

The subgrade may provide a uniform support for the slab. However, where the subgrade soil cannot provide a
uniform support, or for one or more of the following reasons described here under, there is always a necessity
to build a base course under cement concrete slab and it is widely used for rigid pavements.

Control of pumping. Pumping is defined as the ejection of water and subgrade soil through joints, cracks, and
along the edges of the pavements caused by the downward movements due to heavy axle loads. Pumping occurs
when there is void space under the slab due to temperature curling of the slab, deformation of the subgrade or

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both and erodible material under the slab is saturated. It leads to faulting and cracking of the slab if not
corrected in time.

Control of frost action. Heave caused by the increase in volume of freezed water and the formation and
continuing expansion of ice lenses causes the concrete slab to break and softens the subgrade during frost
melts period. This occurs when the soil within the depth of frost penetration is frost susceptible (e.g. clay),
there is supply of moisture, and the temperature freezes for a sufficient period of time.

Improvement of drainage. When the water table is high and close to the ground surface, a base course can
raise the pavement to a desirable elevation above the water table. An open-graded base course provides an
internal drainage system capable of rapidly removing water that seeps through pavement cracks and joints
carry it away to the roadside. A dense-graded or stabilized base course can also serve as a waterproofing layer.

Control of shrinkage and swell. When the change in moisture causes subgrade to shrink or swell, the base
course can serve as a surcharge load to reduce the amount of shrinkage and swell in addition to its use of
improving drainage. Measures that are taken to reduce entering water into the subgrade further reduce the
shrinkage and swell potentials.

Expedition of Construction. A base course can be used as a working platform for heavy construction equipment.
Under severe weather conditions, a base course can keep the surface clean and dry and facilitate the
construction work.

Figure 1.4: Stress distribution through rigid pavement structure

Types of Concrete Pavement

Concrete pavements can be classified into four types: jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP), jointed
reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP), continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and pre-stressed
concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed plain concrete pavements are plain concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced contraction
joints. Dowels or aggregate interlocks may be used for load transfer across the joints. They normally has a
joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed reinforced concrete pavements are concrete pavements with steel reinforcements in the form of wire
mesh or deformed bars mainly to allow the use of longer joint spacing (10 to 30m) but do not increase the
structural capacity of pavements. Because of the longer panel length, dowels are required for load transfer
across the joints. The amount of distributed steel increases with the increase in joint spacing and is designed
to hold the slab together after cracking.

Continuous reinforced concrete pavements are reinforced concrete pavements designed joint-free for the
purpose of eliminating joints, which are the weak spots in rigid pavements. The elimination of joints would
decrease the thickness of pavement required.

Concrete is weak in tension but strong in compression. The thickness of concrete pavement required is governed
by its modulus of rupture, which varies, with the tensile strength of the concrete. The pre-application of a
compressive stress to the concrete greatly reduces the tensile stress caused by the traffic loads and thus
decreases the thickness of concrete required. The pre-stressed concrete pavements have less probability of

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cracking and fewer transverse joints and therefore result in less maintenance and longer pavement life. Pre-
stressed concrete has been used more frequently for airport pavements than for highway pavements because
the saving in thickness for airport pavements is much greater than that for highway pavements.

C) COMPOSITE PAVEMENTS

Composite pavements are pavements composed of cement concrete as a bottom layer and hot-mix asphalt as a
top layer to obtain an ideal pavement with the most desirable characteristics. The cement concrete slab
provides a strong base and the hot-mix asphalt provides a smooth and non-reflective surface. However, this
type of pavement is very expensive and is rarely used as a new construction. Composite pavements include
rehabilitated concrete pavements using asphalt overlays, and asphalt pavements with stabilized bases. For
flexible pavements with untreated bases, the most critical tensile stress or strain is located at the bottom of
asphalt layer, while for composite pavements the most critical location is at the bottom of the cement concrete
slab or stabilized bases. A disadvantage of this construction is the occurrence of reflection cracks on the
asphalt surface due to the joints and cracks in the rigid base layer.

Comparison of Rigid and Flexible Pavements

The following main differences between rigid and flexible pavements can be cited:

 The manner in which vehicle loads are transmitted to the subgrade soil,
 Design precision,  Suitability for stage construction,
 Design life,  Surface characteristics,
 Maintenance requirements,  Permeability, and
 Initial cost,  Traffic dislocation during construction

1.2. PAVEMENT TYPE SELECTION

Pavement type selection is a process used by a pavement authority to identify the most beneficial type of
pavement structure for a given set of traffic, soils, climate, and other factors. It is sometimes as simple as
specifying a certain type of pavement on the basis of traffic level, or it may be as complicated as assigning
weighting factors to more than a dozen characteristics and evaluating the outcome through a scoring system.
Whatever process is used, it should be a rational and explainable methodology in which the effects of different
variables on decision making may be determined. Information used to develop the process should reflect
documented historical performance and cost records.

In general, there are no greater investments made by a transportation agency than the construction or
reconstruction of pavements. The financial and highway user impacts are great and far-reaching. Pavement type
selection deserves analysis commensurate with such investment. Pavement selection involves many factors, as
you will learn from this synthesis. One thought, however, must always take precedence: that is, pavements are
intended to serve highway users. To the extent that the pavement selection serves users, by ensuring that they
travel on pavements that are safe, smooth, quiet, durable, economical, and constructed of sustainable
materials,

Pavement type selection processes are universally utilized by state departments of transportation and other
agencies responsible for roadway construction to identify and select the most durable, cost-effective, highest-
performing pavement structure for a new roadway. These processes are intended to be free of bias and provide
an analytical review of environmental and performance factors such as soil type, climate, traffic volume, life
cycle, constructability, and cost. All these factors are weighted in a uniform, repeatable process with the

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singular goal of selecting the best pavement type at the greatest overall value to the taxpayer and with a
service life which provides the maximum return on the public’s investment.

In addition to technical and performance factors, roadway owners have been confronted with the need to
consider secondary qualitative factors while selecting a pavement material type. These factors include
consideration of such issues

Among these are low initial cost, low maintenance costs, flexibility and speed of construction, the ability to
handle heavy loads, a long life, and complete recyclability. Furthermore, asphalt pavements allow an
opportunity to reduce traffic noise at the source and improve riding quality. Asphalt pavements should be
considered in every pavement type decision. A check list is enclosed as a handy reference when considering the
pavement type to be selected.

Concrete pavement has long been considered an environmentally and economically sustainable pavement choice
for its longevity. This shall mark of concrete pavements ensures that the desirable performance
characteristics of the pavement remain essentially intact for several decades.

In addition, long-lasting concrete pavements do not require rehabilitation or reconstruction as often and,
therefore, consume fewer raw materials over time. Energy savings also are realized, since rehabilitation and
reconstruction efforts consume energy. Even more importantly, congestion is reduced by using long-lasting
concrete pavements because of less frequent construction zones that impede traffic flow. Ultimately, all of
these benefits add up to greater long-term economic and social benefits to the public.

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CHAPTER TWO
PAVEMENT MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION
Pavements are a conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated properties, and their
interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement. Thus, a good understanding of these
materials, how they are characterized and how they perform, is fundamental to understanding
pavement. This section will emphasize what each material is, how it is characterized and the typical
tests used in this characterization.

2.1. HIGHWAY MATERIALS

Soils, granular materials, aggregates, bitumen and cement are very important building materials in road
engineering. They are used as subgrade, as subbase, as base and wearing course for pavements
structures. Knowledge on the characteristics and behavior of these materials is therefore essential for
any road engineer. This knowledge deals with the response of the materials when subjected to three
dimensional states of stress, their behavior in relation to water and frost, etc. By nature, soils granular
materials and aggregates are rather difficult materials to deal with. Particularly natural soils and
gravels show diverse behavior as a consequence of geological history that had an influence on the
mineralogical composition, the particle shape and particle size distribution. Moreover the actual degree
of compaction and moisture content are of great importance. Set of lecture notes we will deal with
those characteristics of soils and granular materials that are important for engineering purposes. Much
emphasis will therefore be placed on the mechanical characteristics of those materials as a function of
factors like the gradation, the characteristics of the fines, the degree of compaction etc..

2.1.1. SUBGRADE SOILS

Soil is the most important foundation and construction material for pavement structures.

 Foundation material for all pavements as undisturbed in situ subgrade material or

transported and reworked embankment material.
 Construction material for pavement structures either in its natural form (sand and gravel)
or in a processed form as stabilized layer.

Soil investigation is, thus, an integral part of the location, design and construction of highways.

Soil Surveys and Investigations

Soil survey for highway purposes involve the exploration of the soils along the highway routes and the
identification of suitable soils for use as subbase and fill materials. The results of soil investigation
provide pertinent information about soil and rock for a decision on one or more of the following
subjects:

 Selection of roadway alignment;

 Decision on the need for subgrade or embankment foundation treatment;

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 Investigation of slope stability in cuts and embankments;

 Location and design of ditches and culverts;
 Selection and design of the roadway pavement;
 Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction materials; and
 Design of foundations for bridges and other structures.

In selecting the alignment for a new highway the first step is normally to define a number of
conceivable corridors between the end termini of the road. The next step is to select the best corridor
for the proposed road and define within it one or more different alignments. These alignments are
compared, and a final selection is made for design purposes. The process involves continuous searching
and selecting, using increasingly more detailed knowledge of subgrade soils at each decision-making
stage.

Before a field investigation is carried out at the site, preliminary information regarding soil condition
can often be obtained from the following sources:

1. Geological and agricultural soil maps: these often indicate the types of soil or geological
formation that cover the area being investigated.

2. Aerial photographs: terrain information visible on air photos can be used for identification of
most of the common bedrock types associated residual soils, transported soils, and organic
soils.

3. Satellite images: are employed as a supplemental to air photos or as a substitute for air
photos for geological studies and soil investigations.

4. Area reconnaissance: reconnaissance survey aids in securing broad understanding of soil

conditions and associated engineering problems that may be encountered. The visual
examination of vegetation cover, roadway cuts, and valleys in the area can give clue. The depth
to water level in adjacent wells may indicate the elevation of the groundwater table.

Field investigations and sample collection for laboratory tests are commonly carried out by the
following four methods:

Geophysical methods (seismic or electrical).The seismic refraction method relies on the principle that
the velocity of sound in soils and rocks is different for different materials. It is particularly useful in
predicting the depth to bedrock. The electrical resistivity mainly depends on the content of clay
minerals, moisture content, and type and concentration of electrolyte in the soil-water. An increasing
content of clay, water or electrolyte causes decreasing the resistivity of soils.
Test pits or trenches: suitable for shallow depths only to sample soils and rocks, and register soil
profiles.
Hand augers: suitable for shallow depths only to obtain disturbed or mixed samples of soils.

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Boring test holes and sampling with drill rigs: the principal method for detailed soils investigations.

Depth of Investigations

It is always required to plan and conduct soil surveys in a manner that examines subgrade materials
according to their suitability in load bearing layers within the zone of the design depth as shown in
Table 2.1. The design depth is defined as the depth from the finished road level to the depth that the
load bearing strength of the soil no longer has an effect on the pavement‟s performance in relation to
traffic loading. Properties of soil below the design depth may indirectly affect pavement performance,
but are generally unrelated to traffic loading. The depth of test pits and borings should in no case be
less than 1.5 m below the proposed subgrade level unless rock material is encountered. The engineer in
charge of planning the investigations should make every effort to locate the test pits (along the
alignment as well as within the lateral extent of the anticipated excavation) in order to optimise the
representability of the material excavated from the test pit. A preliminary vertical alignment may be
required at the time of the soil survey in order to ensure that soil samples are actually taken at levels
that fall within the design depth of the road.

For ordinary work, it is quite sufficient to go to a depth of about 3 m below the proposed foundation
level in areas of cut and 3 m below the existing ground in areas of fill. Investigations in cuttings deeper
than 3 m could be impractical and special equipment may have to be required. If possible, postponement
of sampling until the time of construction should be considered under such conditions. Evaluation of
subgrade strength in embankment areas should be based on the best possible information about likely
sources of fill materials for use within the design depth.

Table 2.1. Design depth (Tanzania Pavement Design manual, 1999)

Design depth (m)

Road type General requirements Heavy traffic roads
(> 0.2  106 standard axles )
Paved trunk roads 0.8 1.2
Other roads 0.6 1.0

When required, investigations should be extended to below design depth to detect problems that need
special considerations such as presence of problem soils, unfavorable subgrade conditions, and features
associated with slope and embankment stability. If necessary, sub surface investigation is carried out
using field or in-place testing techniques. Standard penetration test and piezometer installation are
common methods of field or in-place testing used to evaluate the strength of soils and measure water
table depth respectively.

Testing Frequency

For highways pavements, testing sites are generally placed at 100 m to 5 km (generally 300 m) along the
centerline of the proposed alignment. Midway between the center line stretches, additional boreholes
30 m away from the centerline both in its left as well as right side. Table 2.2 shows the minimum

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average frequency for the purpose of sampling and material testing which shall be increased according
to site conditions. Indicator tests include Atterberg limits and gradation of particles larger than 75m.

Table 2.2. Minimum materials testing frequency (Tanzania Pavement Design manual, 1999)

Road type Indicator tests Strength tests

Paved trunk roads Min 4 per km Min 2 per km
Other paved roads Min 2 per km Min 1 per km
Gravel roads Min 2per km Min 1 per 2 km

Essential Laboratory Tests

In specifications for testing of soils reference is frequently made to the standard methods of testing
such as British Standards (BS), American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). To a large extent the same type
of methods are used all over the world. However, when actually performing tests it is of the at most
importance that the specified standards be followed precisely, as small differences in the testing
procedure may have a noticeable influence on the test result. This section briefly describes the
purpose and the general principle of the most common tests used in highway engineering. Standard
procedure of the tests can be obtained in the BS, ASTM, AASHTO and other standards and manuals.

Particle Size Distribution Test: The distributions of particle sizes in soils is important in road
engineering as the value of many properties, such as internal friction, voids content, wear resistance
and permeability, and depend on the gradation.

Water Content: The engineering properties of a soil, e.g. strength and deformation characteristics,
depend to a very large degree on the amount of voids and water in the soil, i.e. the condition of the soil.
The water content is defined as the weight of water contained in a soil sample compared with the oven-
dry weight of the sample. It is customarily expressed as a percentage, although the decimal fraction is
used in most computations.

Atterberg Limits: The stiffness or consistency of the soil at any time depends on the state at which
the soil is, which in turn depends on the amount of water present in the soil. The water content levels
at which the soil changes from one state to the other are known as Atterberg limits. The attreberg
limits include the liquid limit (LL), the plastic limit (PL), and shrinkage limit (SL) as illustrated in Figure,
and they are determined by tests carried out on the fine soil fraction passing the 0.42 mm sieve. They
are important limits of engineering behavior because they facilitate the comparison of the water
content of the soil with those at which the soil changes from one state to another. Attreberg limits are
used in the classification of fine-grained soils, since they correlate with the engineering behaviors of
such soils. The range of moisture content over which the soil is in the plastic state is the difference
between the LL and the PL (PI = LL-PL) and is known as the plasticity index (PI). Another index that is
used to reflect the properties of the natural soil is the liquid index (LI) and is defined as:

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Figure 2.1. Consistency limits of soils

wn  PL
LI  Where, wn is the natural moisture content of the soil.
PI

Soil Compaction
When soil is to be used as embankment or subbase material in pavement construction, it is essential
that the material be placed in a uniform layers and compacted to a high density. Increasing the soil‟s
density improves its strength, lowers its permeability, and reduces future settlement. Compaction is
achieved in the field by using hand-operated tampers, sheep-foot rollers, rubber-tired rollers, or other
types of rollers. The maximum density achieved as a result of compaction with rollers and other types
of compaction equipment is measured in the field and compared with the maximum dry density of the
soil previously determined in laboratory tests. This is the most common method of quality control at
construction sites.

The moisture-density relationship of soils was first studied by Procter, and the test sometimes is
known as Procter test. The relationship for practically all soils takes the form shown in Figure 2.2. The
dry density that can be obtained by compaction varies with the moisture content, type of soil being
compacted, and the compaction effort. It can be seen from this relationship that for any compaction
effort, the dry density of a soil will vary with its water content. At low moisture content, the soil is dry
and stiff to compress the particles. As water is added the particles get lubricated by water film and is
easy to compress the soil mass. Thus, the density increases and the air content decreases as the water
fills the voids and compacted. The moisture content at which maximum dry density is obtained is known
as optimum moisture content (OMC). At moisture content higher than the OMC, the air and water in the
soil mass tend to keep particles apart and prevent compaction. The dry density at higher moisture
contents than OMC, thus, decreases and the total voids increase.

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Figure -2.2. Typical moisture-density relationship for soils

The zero-air void curve shown in Figure 2.2 is the theoretical moisture-density curve for a saturated
soil and zero-air voids where the degree of saturation is 100%. This curve is usually not attained in the
field, since zero-air void can‟t be attained. Points on the curve may be calculated by

 w Gs
d 
1  wG s
Where,
d = dry density of soil, Gs = specific gravity of soil particles, and

w = density of water, w = moisture content of soil

The distance between the zero-air void (ZAV) cure and the test moisture-density curve is an indication
of the amount of air voids remaining in the soil at different moisture contents. The farther away a
point on the moisture-density curve is from the ZAV curve, the more air voids remain in the soil and the
higher is the like hood of expansion or swelling if the soil is exposed to water. Swelling of such soil can
be reduced by compacting at higher moisture content.

Soil type and gradation heavily affect the density that can be achieved by compaction. Granular, well-
graded soils generally have fairly high maximum densities at low optimum moisture contents, while clay
soils have lower densities. The edge-to-side bonds between clay particles resist compaction efforts to
force them into a denser structure. With granular soils, the more well-graded soils have spaces
between large particles that fill with smaller particles when compacted, leading to a higher density than
with uniform soils. Typical moisture-density curves for different types of soils are shown in Figure 2.3.
Note that a line joining the peak points of the density curves would be approximately parallel to the
ZAV curve. This is due to the fact that most soils at their maximum density still contain about 2-3%
air.

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a - Gravel-sand mixture
b - Well graded sand

c - Uniform sand
d - Mixed soil

e -Heavy clay

Figure 2.3. Compaction curves for different types soils

The OMC and the maximum dry density that can be attained on a given soil also depend on the compaction
effort used as shown in
Figure 2.4. Compaction effort is a measure of the mechanical energy imposed on the soil mass during
compaction. Since Procter‟s time the loads imposed on pavementsnotably by airplaneshave increased
tremendously, a revised test using a much higher compaction effort is now often used.

Figure 2.4. Effect of compaction effort in dry density

Laboratory compaction test. The soil sample is first air dried and sieved usually through the 4.75-mm (No. 4)
sieve, mixed thoroughly with water and then compacted in layers. The mass of the compacted sample is
measured, and a sample of it is taken to dry for the purpose of determining water content. More water is then
added to the soil, and it is compacted again. This procedure is repeated until the density decreases. In the
standard compaction test, the soil is compacted in a 10 cm (4 in) diameter mold having a volume of 943.9
cm3(1/30 ft3).The soil is placed in three layers, each compacted with 25 blows of a 2.5 kg (5.5 1b) hammer
falling 30 cm (12 in). If coarser grains are to be included in the test, a larger mold 15 cm (6 in) in diameter with
a volume of 2124 cm3 (0.075 ft3) is used. With these coarse materials, the number of blows per layer is
increased to 56 (from 25) to maintain the same compaction effort. This compaction effort was originally chosen
by Proctor to approximate the effort provided by construction rollers. In the revised compaction test, known
as modified Procter or heavy compaction test, the compaction effort is provided by a 4.5 kg (10 lb) hammer
falling 45 cm (18 in) on each of five layers in the same mold. The maximum dry density obtained in the modified

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test is higher than that obtained in the standard test, and occurs at lower optimum moisture content (see
Figure 2.4).

Field density test. Since the compactibility of soils varies considerably, the construction requirements for
roads are usually specified as a percentage of the maximum dry density found in a laboratory compaction test
for each soil type encountered on the project. For example, a project specification might require that the soil
be compacted to 95% of the maximum dry density found by the standard compaction test. Quality control of
compaction on a construction project involves conducting standard field compaction tests on each different soil
type after compaction, and comparing the results with the laboratory maximum density value for the soil, to
ascertain if the specifications have been met. If the maximum dry density from the test was 2000 kg/m 3 at an
optimum water content of 11%, the required field density would be 95% of 2000, or 1900 kg/m 3. The moisture
content of the soil should be as close as possible to 11%, which reduces the required compaction effort (for
example, number of passes of the roller).

Field density tests are made using either destructive or nondestructive methods. In destructive methods, the
simplest is the core-cutter method. This method can be used only on cohesive soils free from coarse-grained
material. It involves driving a hollow metal cylinder, which has a cutting edge, into the soil to remove an
undisturbed sample on which dry density and moisture content determinations can be made. The other
commonly used method is in which a sample of compacted material is dug out of a test hole in the soil layer
being checked. The dry mass of the soil removed and the volume of the hole are measured. The field dry
density equals the dry mass divided by the volume originally occupied by the sample. Two basic methods are
used to measure the volume of the hole: a balloon filled with a liquid and a sand-cone apparatus. Using the
balloon apparatus, the volume of the sample hole is found by forcing a liquid-filled balloon into the test hole.
The rubber membrane allows the fluid to fill all the cavities in the test hole. The volume of fluid required to do
this is read on a scale on the apparatus. With the sand-cone apparatus, the volume of the test hole is obtained
from the mass of loose sand required to the fill the hole.

The quick and nondestructive method of measuring the in situ density and moisture content of the compacted
soil is the nuclear method. Using the nuclear equipment, the density is obtained by measuring the scatter of
gamma radiation by the soil particles since the amount of rays is proportional to the bulk density of the soil.
The moisture content is also obtained by measuring the scatter of neutrons emitted in the soil due to the
presence of hydrogen atoms. The detector in the nuclear equipment measures the amount of rays and the
neutrons that passes through the soil, and thus the density and the moisture content can be calculated.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

Originally developed by the California Division of Highways, CBR test has been modified and has been the most
common strength test conducted on soils and other unbound road making materials. In this test, laboratory
specimens compacted in a standard CBR mold at the OMC are tested to give a relative strength of the material
for a pavement structure with respect to crushed rock, which is considered an excellent coarse base material.
A load is applied by cylindrical metal plunger of 56 mm diameter to penetrate the specimen at a rate of one mm
per minute and readings of the applied load are taken at intervals of penetration of 0.25 mm up to a total
penetration of not more than 7.5 mm. Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions of the site, CBR
specimens are immersed in water for four days before the test to obtain a saturation condition similar to what
may occur in the field. During this period, the sample is loaded with a surcharge load that simulates the
estimates weight of pavement layers over the material tested. Any swell due to soaking is also measured.
Experience suggests that the CBR test is of poor reproducibility, particularly with granular soils.

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The CBR value is reported as a percentage of a standard value which is intended to represent the value that
would be obtained with compacted crushed stone. Typical test results are illustrated in Figure 2.5. It
sometimes happens that the plunger is still not perfectly bedded in the specimen and, as a result of this and
other factors, a load-penetration curve with a shape similar to that of curve for Test 2 in Figure 2.5 may be
obtained instead of the more normal shaped curve illustrated by the curve for Test 1. When this happens the
curve must be corrected by drawing a tangent at the point of greatest slope and then transposing the axis of
load so that zero penetration is taken as the point where the tangent cuts the axis of penetration. The
corrected load-penetration curve is the tangent from the new origin to the point of tangency and then the
curve itself as illustrated in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5. Typical results from the CBR test

The CBR is then determined by reading off from the curve the load that causes a penetration of 2.54 mm and
dividing this value by the standard load (6.9 Mpa) required to produce the same penetration in the standard
crushed stone as
Unit load for 2.54 mm penetration in test specimen
CBR   100
Unit load for 2.54 mm penetration in sandard crushed rock

Similarly, the CBR at 5.08 mm penetration is obtained by dividing the load causing a penetration of 5.08 mm
with the load of 10.34 MPa required to produce the same penetration in standard crushed stone. The two values
are then compared and if the 2.54 mm value is greater than the 5.08 value, it is the CBR of the material and
used for design purposes. If on the other hand the 5.08 mm value is larger, the test is entirely repeated on a
fresh specimen. If the new percentage valve at 5.08 mm penetration is still greater, then this is taken as the
CBR value.

Apparatus is also available to carry out in situ CBR tests in the field on exposed subgrades, subbases, and
bases. Such testes can be useful in investigating pavement failures and also in examining existing roads in good

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condition. Accompanied by measurements of field densities and moisture conditions, such testing provides a
useful means of building up knowledge of appropriate pavement design criteria for local soils under the locally
prevailing climatic conditions.

Design Subgrade CBR: The strength of subgrade soils is dependent on the type of soil, density, and moisture
content. The design CBR of the subgrade soil, therefore, should be evaluated at the moisture content and
density representative to the subgrade condition during the service time of the pavement structure. For wet or
moderate climatic zones and where the ground water influences the subgrade moisture content, the CBR test is
carried out after 4 days of soaking.

A road section for which a pavement design is undertaken should be subdivided into subgrade areas where the
subgrade CBR can be reasonably expected to be uniform, i.e. without significant variations. Identification of
sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade conditions is carried out by desk studies on the basis of geology,
pedology, drainage conditions and topography, and considering soil categories which have fairly consistent
geotechnical characteristics (e.g. grading, plasticity, CBR). Usually, the number of soil categories and the
number of uniform subgrade areas will not exceed 4 or 5 for a given road project. The design subgrade CBR for
homogenous section is usually taken as the 90 %-ile value of the CBR test results as shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Design CBR as the 90 % -ile value

Resilient Modulus Test

The resilient modulus, MR, is the elastic modulus obtained from repetitive load test that simulates the actual
pavement loading. MR is defined as the ratio of the repeated deviator stress d to the recoverable axial strain
r. It is well known that most paying materials are not elastic but experience some permanent deformation after
each load application. However, if the load is small compared to the strength of the material and is repeated
for a large numbers of times, the deformation under each load repetition is nearly completely recoverable and
proportional to the load and can be considered as elastic.

Figure 2.7 shows the straining of a specimen under a repeated load test. At the initial stage of load
applications, there is considerable permanent deformation, as indicated by the plastic strain. As the number of
repetitions increases, the plastic strain due to each load repetitions decreases. After 100 to 200 repetitions,
the strain is practically all recoverable, as indicated by r in the figure.

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Accumulated
plastic strain

Figure 2.7. Strains under repeated loads

A triaxial device equipped for repetitive load condition is used to carryout resilient modulus test. The test may
be conducted on all types of unbounded pavement materials ranging from cohesive to stabilized materials. The
resilient modulus of asphalt mixtures can also be determined by the repeated load application in tensile test.

Other Soil Tests

The soil tests presented above are only those most commonly used in highway engineering. There are other
tests likely to be used for soil surveys, design and control of construction depending on the site conditions
encountered and structures to be constructed. These include field and laboratory tests such as those
conducted to determine the shear and compression strength, settlement, and permeability of soils. Procedures
for these and those described above are defined in BS, ASTM, AASHTO and other equivalent standards.
Whenever any of these tests are conducted, an appropriate standard procedure should always be employed.

Soil Classifications

The previous discussions have shown that soils are variable engineering materials. As a means of obtaining
general behavior, soils are systematically categorized on the basis of some common characteristics obtained
from visual description, during soil boring, and laboratory tests. As a result very many soil classification
systems are in use throughout the world in different areas of study. In highway engineering, soils are classified
by conducting relatively simple tests on disturbed samples to serve as a means of identifying suitable materials
and predicting the probable behavior when used as subgrade or subbase material. The most commonly used
classification systems for highway purposes are the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) Classification System and the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). These
classification systems only help engineers to predict how the soil will behave if used as a subgrade or subbase
material, however, the information obtained should not be regarded as a substitute for the detailed
investigation of the soil properties.

AASHTO Classification System

The AASHTO Classification System is based on the Public Roads Classification System that was developed
from the results of extensive research conducted by the Bureau of Public Roads, now known as the Federal
Highway Administration of the United States. Several revisions have been made to the system since it was
first published. The system has been described by AASHTO as a means for determining the relative quality of
soils for use in embankments, subgrades, subbases, and bases.

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Table 2.3. AASHTO soil classification system

In this system of classification, soils are categorized into seven groups, A-1 through A-7, with several sub
groups, as shown in Table 2.3. The classification of a given soil is based on its particle size distribution, LL, and
PI. Soils are evaluated within each group by using an empirical formula to determine the group index (G1) of the
soils, given as

GI = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15)(PI - 10)

Where,
GI = group index
F = % of soil particles passing 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve in whole number based on material passing 75 mm (3
in.) sieve,
LL = liquid limit expressed in whole number, and
PI = plasticity index expressed in whole number.

The GI is determined to the nearest whole number. A value of zero should be recorded when a negative value is
obtained for the GI. Also, in determining the GI for A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, the LL part is not used, that
is, only the second term of the equation is used. Classifying soils under the AASHTO system is finding the
correct group for the particle size distribution and atterberg limits of the soil from the classification Table
2.3. The group is then designated using the GI value. Granular soils fall into classes A-1 to A-3. A-1 soils consist
of well-graded granular materials, A-2 soils contain significant amounts of silts and clays, and A-3 soils are
clean but poorly graded sands. A-4 soils cover non-plastic or moderately plastic soils, and A-5 contains similar
material to Group A-4 but exhibits high LL. A-6 soils are typical plastic clays exhibiting high volume change
between wet and dry states. Group A-7 covers plastic clays, having high values of LL and PI and show high
volume change.

In general, according to the AASHTO system of classification, the suitability of a soil deposit for use in
highway construction can be summarized as follows.

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1. Soils classified as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 can be used satisfactorily as subgrade or
subbase material if properly drained. In addition, such soils must he properly compacted and covered
with an adequate thickness of pavement for the surface load to be carried.
2. Materials classified as A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5, and A-7-6 will require a layer of subbase
material if used as subgrade. If these are to be used as embankment materials, special attention must
be given to the design of the embankment.
3. Generally, as the GI of a soil increases its value as subgrade material decreases. For example, a soil
with a GI of 0 (an indication of a good subgrade material) will be better as a subgrade material than one
with GI of 20 (an indication of a poor subgrade material).

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Originally developed by Casagrande during World War II for use in airfield construction, USCS has been
modified several times to obtain the current version. The fundamental premise used in the USCS system is
that, the engineering properties of any coarse-grained soil depend on its particle size distribution, whereas
those for a fine-grained soil depend on its plasticity. Thus, the system classifies coarse-grained soils on the
basis of grain size characteristics and fine-grained soils according to plasticity characteristics.

In this system of classification, material that is retained in the 75 mm (3 in.) sieve is recorded, but only that
which passes is used for the classification of the sample. Soils are designated by letter symbols with each
letter having a particular meaning as defined as follows:

Coarse-grained soils. Soils with more than 50 percent of their particles being retained on the No. 200 sieve
are classified as coarse-grained soils. The coarse-grained soils are subdivided into gravels (G)  soils having
more than 50 percent of their particles larger than4.75 mm (i.e., retained on No. 4 sieve) and sands (S) 
those with more than 50 percent of their particles smaller than 4.75 mm (i.e., passed through No. 4 sieve). The
gravels and sands are further divided into four subgroups, each based on grain size distribution and the nature
of the fine particles in them as well graded (W), poorly graded (P), silty (M), or clayey (C). Gravels can be
described as either well-graded gravel (GW), poorly graded gravel (GP), silty gravel (GM), or clayey gravels
(GC), and sands can be described as well-graded sand (SW), poorly graded sand (SP), silty sand (SM), or clayey
sand (SC).

A gravel or sandy soil is described as well graded or poorly graded, depending on the values of two shape
parameters known as the coefficient of uniformity, Cu, and the coefficient of curvature, Cc given as

D60 ( D30 ) 2
Cu  And Cc 
D10 D10  D60

Where, D60 = grain diameter at 60% passing

D30 = grain diameter at 30% passing
D10 = grain diameter at 10% passing

Accordingly, gravels are described as well graded if C u is above 4, and Cc is between 1 and 3. Sands are also
described as well graded if Cu is above 6, and Cc is between 1 and 3.

Moreover, coarse-grained soils with more than 12 percent fines (i.e., passes No. 200 sieve) are classified as
silty or clayey depending on their LL plots. Those soils with plots below the “A” line (defined as below) or with a

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PI less than 4 are silty gravel (GM) or silty sand (SM), and those with plots above the "A” line with a PI greater
than 7 are classified as clayey gravels (GC) or clayey sands (SC).

Fine-grained soils.Soils with less than 50 percent of their particles retained on the No. 200 sieve are
classified as fine-grained soils. The fine-grained soils are subdivided into clays (C) or silt (M) based on a
plasticity chart plotted PI versus LL of the soil from which a dividing line known as the "A" line separates the
more clayey materials from the silty materials. The equation of the “A” line is

PI  0.73LL  20

Soils that fall below the “A” line are silty soils, whereas those with plots above the "A” line are clayey soils.
Organic clays are an exception to this general rule since they plot below the "A" line. Organic clays, however,
generally behave similarly to soils of lower plasticity. The organic, silty, and clayey soils are further divided into
two groups, one having a relatively low LL (L) and the other having a relatively high LL (H). The dividing line
between high LL soils and low LL soils is arbitrarily set at 50 percent. Fine-grained soils are, thus, further
classified as either silt with low plasticity (ML), silt with high plasticity (MH), clays with high plasticity (CH),
clays with low plasticity (CL), or organic with high plasticity (OH).

Table 2.4. Pre-requisite Details of Quality of Construction Material as per ERA 2002 specification
Test Types Selected Sub Grade Material (ERA - Section 4402 A) Suitable Material (ERA - Section 4402 B)
Maximum Size 2/3 of the thickness of compacted layer. 100.0 mm
Plasticity Index Max 30% Max.20
Liquid Limit Max 60% Max 40%
CBR Minimum
(AASHTO- at 93% MDD 15% at 95% MDD
180,method D)

Swell Maximum 2% for both type of materials 1.50%

95% of Modified AASHTO density average of 4 consecutive tests

and min.93% for any single test for a depth 0.0 – 300.0 mm and
Field 95% of Modified AASHTO density average of 4
93% average of 4 consecutive tests and min.91% for any single test
compaction consecutive tests and min.93% for any single
for a depth between 300.0 and 1000.0 mm and for rock fills
Minimum test.
compaction equals at least 8 passes of vibrating roller shall be
applied.

Table 2.5. Unified Soil Classification System

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2.1.2. UNBOUND PAVEMNT MATERIALS

Granular minerals are used in different layers of pavement structure alone or in combination with various types
of cementing materials which support the main stresses occurring within the pavement and resist wear due to
abrasion by traffic as well as the direct weathering effects of the natural elements in the road surface. The
manner in which they do so depends on the inherent properties and qualities of the individual particles and on
the means by which they are held together (i.e. interlocking, binders, or both). In low-cost gravel roads, where
it is desired to make the most use of locally available materials such as gravels, they frequently form the entire
pavement structure. In such instances, the gradation of the soil-aggregate materials is most important and
particular attention is paid to the plasticity characteristics of the material.
In a flexible pavement, aggregates in the subbase layer are specified mainly by their gradation to prevent the
intrusion of fine particles while at the same time improving the subsurface drainage characteristics of the
roadway, and their load-bearing capacity. In a base layer, their stress-carrying capacity is the factor of
primary importance. Aggregates, under rigid pavements, are not specified mainly by their the load-bearing
capacity, but emphasis is placed instead on achieving a gradation which will prevent pumping of the subgrade or
intrusion of frost-susceptible materials while at the same time improving the subsurface drainage
characteristics of the roadway.

In high-quality bituminous road surfacing, aggregates comprise of up to about 95 per cent of the weight of the
surfacing, are primarily responsible for any load-carrying capacity, which the surfacing may have; while at the
same time it provides the resistance to abrasion under traffic, and resistance to weathering. Although there
are very many types of bituminous surfacing, in general, the ideal aggregates should have adequate strength
and toughness, ability to crush into chunky particles, free from unduly thin and elongated, low porosity,
hydrophobic characteristics, and particle size and gradation appropriate to the type of construction. These
criteria are also important for concrete, particularly those relating to particle shape and size distribution,
since they affect water requirements and workability of concrete mixes as well as other important concrete
properties.

A wide range of materials can be used as unbound base and subbase courses including crushed quarried rock,
crushed and screened, mechanically stabilized, modified or naturally occurring “as dug” or “pit run” gravels.
Their suitability for use depends primarily on the design traffic level of the pavement and climate. However,
such materials must have a particle size distribution and particle shape which provide high mechanical stability
and should contain sufficient fines (amount of material passing the 0.425 mm sieve) to produce a dense material
when compacted. The use of locally available materials is encouraged, particularly at low traffic volumes. Their
use should be based on the results of performance studies and should incorporate any special design features
which ensure their satisfactory performance.

2.1.2.1. Sources and Properties of Aggregates

Sources of aggregates
Along with the naturally occurring sands and gravels, hard rocks are important sources of aggregates.
Geologists‟ classified bedrocks according to the three distinct modes of formation as igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are the original rock, formed from the cooling of molten material.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the solidification of chemical or mineral sediments deposited under ancient
seas. They are usually layered since the original material was deposited in this manner. Metamorphic rocks are
igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed (metamorphosed) due to intense heat and pressure.
The principal sources of road aggregates in this country include natural sand and gravel deposits, and crushed
rock. Pulverized concrete and asphalt pavements and other recycled and waste materials are not used, but
could be the future source of pavement materials. Natural sand and gravel pits have been used extensively as
sources of road aggregates. Sand or gravel pit is first stripped off topsoil, vegetation, and other unsuitable
material from the surface of the deposit to obtain pit run materials. The material obtained is loose, and is
usually excavated with power shovels or front-end loaders. Often it is crushed, especially if there are cobbles

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or boulders in the deposit. The smaller sizes go through the crusher without change, whereas larger particles
are broken down to the desired size. Crushed gravel, as this is called, is a high-quality aggregate used for many
purposes. Sand or gravel deposits might be composed of many different types of mineral particles-such as
limestone, sandstone, and granite--depending on the original bedrock source of the particles.
The properties of aggregates produced in quarries from bedrock depend on the type of bedrock. Igneous and
metamorphic rocks are usually very hard and make excellent aggregates for most purposes. Limestone and
dolomite are quite common sedimentary rocks. They are softer than igneous rocks, but are still acceptable as
aggregates for most purposes. Shale, being composed of clay grains, is very weak and disintegrates easily when
exposed to the weather and is a poor aggregate material. Aggregates produced from bedrock are obtained
from quarries. After stripping and opening the quarry, holes are drilled from the surface. Then dynamite is
placed in these holes to break the rock into sizes that can be transported. The rock is then crushed to the
required sizes in various types of rock crushers.

The use of pulverized concrete from pavements, sidewalks, and buildings being demolished is growing in other
countries both due to the increased cost of natural aggregates and the desire to recycle rather than landfill
these materials. Recycled concrete is crushed, processed, and used as base material and in concrete and asphalt
paving mixtures. Asphalt pavements can be recycled and reused in pavements. Pulverized asphalt mixtures are
also used as aggregates in base courses, but the proportion may be limited to about 30-50% as the strength of
the layer can be reduced due to the lubricating effect of the asphalt film on the particles.

Aggregate tests
Aggregates are obtained from different sources and consequently differ considerably in their constitutions;
inevitably they differ also with regard to their engineering properties. The properties of aggregate that are
important for road construction include its gradation, resistance to crushing and abrasion, durability, specific
gravity, water absorption, propensity to polish, and the size and shape of the aggregate particles. Aggregate
tests are necessary to determine the suitability of the material for a specific use and to make sure that the
required properties are consistently within specification limits. The following sub-sections discuss important
tests of aggregates and their significance of application; detailed test procedures can be found in manuals of
material testing standards.
Gradation test.: Gradation is the characteristic of aggregates on which perhaps the greatest stress is placed
in specifications for highway bases, cement concretes, and asphalt mixes. Hence, gradation test, also called
sieve analysis, screen analysis or mechanical analysis, is the most common test performed on aggregates to
evaluate the suitability of the aggregate materials with respect to their grain size distribution for a specific
use. Gradation is determined by separating the aggregates into portions, which are retained on a number of
sieves or screens having specified openings, which are suitably graded from coarse to fine. The results obtained
may be expressed either as total percentage passing or retained on each sieve or as the percentages retained
between successive sieves.

The theoretical maximum density of aggregates is obtained when the grain size distribution follow the Fuller
maximum density equation of the form
n
d
p  100 
D
Where, p is the percent passing sieve size, "d ", “D' represents the maximum sieve size in the material, and n is
a constant which varies between 0. 45 and 0.5.
The assumption in this relationship is that the voids between the larger particles are filled with still smaller
particles, until the smallest voids are filled with a small amount of fines. Strength, or resistance to shear
failure, in road bases and other aggregate layers that carry load is increased greatly if the mixture is dense
graded. The larger particles are in contact with each other, developing frictional resistance to shearing failure,
and tightly bound together due to the interlocking effect of the smaller particles. When aggregate particles
are to be bound together by cement or bitumen, a variation in the grading of an aggregate will result in a change

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in the amount of binder required to produce a material of given stability and quality. Proper aggregate grading
contributes to the uniformity, workability and plasticity of the material as it is mixed.

Often the fines content must be limited, because they are relatively weak, and require an excessive amount of
binder to cover them. If fines are present as dust on larger particles, they weaken the bond between the
cement and those particles. Fines in highway bases may lead to drainage and frost- heaving problems. Also,
excessive amounts of fines (or smaller sizes of aggregates) may result in weak mixtures, as the large particles
are not in contact with each other. The strength of the mixture would then depend only on friction between the
small particles, which is much less than between large particles. In practice, the required gradation is not found
naturally, particularly, if the aggregates are pit-run materials. In such cases, combining two or more aggregates
of different sources satisfies the gradation requirement for a specific use.
Aggregate Crushing Test. Aggregate crushing test evaluates the resistance of aggregates against the
gradually applied load. The test is used to evaluate the crushing strength of available supplies of rock, and in
construction, to make sure that minimum specified values are maintained. The test is undertaken using a metal
plunger to apply gradually a standard 40 tonnes load to a sample of the aggregate (10 – 14 mm) contained in a
standard test mould. The amount of material passing 2.36 mm sieve in percentage of the total weight of the
sample is referred to as the Aggregate Crushing value (ACV). Over the range of normal road making
aggregates, ACVs vary from 5 percent for hard aggregates to 30 percent for weaker aggregates. For weaker
aggregates than this, the same apparatus is used to evaluate the Ten Percent Fines value i.e. the load which
produces 10 percent of fines passing 2.36 mm sieve. The value is obtained by interpolating of the percentage of
fines produced over a range of test loads.

Aggregate Impact Test. This test is a means of evaluating the resistance of aggregates to sudden impact
loading. It is carried out by filling a steel test mould with a sample of aggregate (10 – 14 mm) and then the
impact load applied is by dropping hammer at a height of 380 mm. The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) is the
percentage of fines passing 2.36 mm sieve after 15 blows. This test produces results that are normally about
105 per cent of the ACV and it can be used for the same purposes. Both tests give results which are
sufficiently repeatable and reproducible for contract specifications.
Abrasion Test. Abrasion test is the test used to know how the aggregate is sufficiently hard to resist the
abrasive effect of traffic over its service life. The most widely used abrasion test is the Los Angeles Abrasion
Test which involves the use of a steel drum, revolving on horizontal axis, into which the test sample of chippings
is loaded together with steel balls of 46.8 mm diameter. The Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAV) is the
percentage of fines passing the 1.7 mm sieve after a specified number of revolutions of the drum at specified
speed. The drum is fitted with internal baffles causing the aggregate and the steel balls to be lifted and then
fall as the drum revolves. The test therefore gives an indication of the impact strength in combination with the
abrasion resistance of the aggregate. For bituminous surface dressings, chippings with an ACV less than 30 are
desirable and the stronger they are the more durable will be the dressings. With premixed bituminous
materials and with crushed stone bases, high mechanical strength, though useful, is not always of paramount
importance. The repeatability and reproducibility of this test are satisfactory and appropriate for use in
contract specifications.
Soundness Test. This test procedure is useful in both survey and design for the evaluation of aggregates to
resist disintegration due to weathering. A sample of aggregate is saturated in a solution of magnesium sulphate
or sodium sulphate, and then removed and dried in an oven. This process is repeated for five cycles. On
completion, the percentage lost gives the durability of the material. The test is not suitable for providing a
single criterion for the susceptibility of aggregates to rapid weathering but it may find a place as part of the
evaluation procedure of aggregates suspected of containing minerals that are weakened by chemical alteration.
Specific Gravity and Water Absorption. The tests are likely to be used both in surveys of aggregate
resources and in design, particularly in the interpretation of compaction tests and in the design of bituminous
mixtures. They may also be used as part of quality control during construction, particularly when the survey has
indicated that aggregate from the chosen source is subject to variations in density. The test procedure is
simple and the tests are repeatable and reproducible.

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Most rocks absorb less than one per cent by weight of water and, up to this level, water absorption is of no
great consequence. However, some rocks can absorb up to 4 percent of water. This suggests that the rock may
be of low mechanical strength and will be difficult to dry and heat during processing to make bituminous
mixtures. Inadequate drying will cause difficulty in securing good adhesion between bitumen and stone, and in
hot process mixtures, where the stone must be heated to about 180 oC, it causes a large waste of energy.

In the tests, a 4 kilogram sample of the crushed rock of specific nominal size chippings is soaked in distilled
water for 24 hours, weighed in water (WW), surface dried and weighed in air (WS). It is then oven dried at
105oC for 24 hours and weighed again in air (WD). The specific gravity and the water absorption are then
obtained as follows:

WD WS  WD
Specific gravity  Water absorption (%)   100
WD  Ww WD
Shape Tests. Three mechanical measures of particle shape which may be included in the specifications for
aggregates for road construction, are the flakiness index, elongation index and angularity number. The flakiness
index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose least thickness is less than three-fifths
of their mean dimension. The mean dimension, as used in each instance, is the average of two adjacent sieve
aperture sizes between which the particle being measured is retained by sieving. The elongation index of an
aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest length is greater than 1.8 times their mean
dimension. The angularity number of an aggregate is the amount, to the nearest whole number, by which the
percentage of voids exceeds 33 when an aggregate is compacted in a specified manner in a standardized metal
cylinder.
Use of the shape tests in specifications is based on the view that the shapes of the particles influence both
the strength of aggregate particles and internal friction that can be developed in the aggregate mass. Since,
other factors being equal, an aggregate composed of smooth rounded particles of a certain gradation will
contain less voids than one of the same grading but composed of angular particles, the angularity of an
aggregate can be reflected in terms of the volume of contained voids when the aggregate is compacted.
Measurements show that the angularity number may range from zero for a material of highly rounded beach-
gravel particles to 10 or more for newly crushed rock aggregate.

Table 2.6. Pre-requisite Details of Quality of Construction Material as per ERA 2002 specification

Natural Gravel Sub Base Crushed Stone Sub Base Crushed Stone Base
Test Types
(ERA - Section 5104) (ERA - Section 5105) (ERA - Section 5200)

Plasticity Index Maximum:

15 6 6
(AASHTO T-90)

CBR Minimum: (AASHTOT-193) 30% at 95% MDD 30% at 95% MDD Greater than 100%

97% of MDD as an average of 4 consecutive tests and 95% of

Field compaction Minimum 98%
MDD on any single test

Los Angeles Abrasion value

51% 45% 30%
Maximum: (AASHTO – T96)

Flakiness index _ Max. 35% Max. 30%

Blending aggregates
To meet the gradation requirements of aggregates for particular uses in pavement construction, it is often
necessary to blend two or more aggregates together. Charts and diagrams are available to do this blending, but
the trial-and-error method is simpler and just about as fast as more complex methods. Consider two aggregates
graded and designated as aggregate A and B, and let the specification limit is as given in Table 2.5. The use of
the trail-and-error method for blending is then illustrated as follows:

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Table 2.7. Aggregate gradation to be combined to meet specification limits

% Passing
Sieve Aggregate A Aggregate B Specification Mid-point Combined aggregate
12.5 mm 100 100 90-100 95 100
No. 10 0 100 40-55 48 48
No. 200 0 14 5-10 8 7

It is clear in Table that all the material passing a No.10 sieve must come from aggregate B, i.e., approximately
48% which leaves 52 % for aggregate A. Or consider the retained percentage on No.10 sieve for alternative
solution. All materials retained on No.10 must come from aggregate A, which is 52 % require in the
specification, i.e. 52 % from A and 48% from B. In both cases, the proportion which best fits the specification
limits can be satisfied. The following equation may be written to apply the procedure to any given sieve:

aA  bB  T
Where, A and B are percentages from aggregates A and B to be blended for satisfying the specification limits.
a and b are the respective sieve analysis values for a given sieve X, expressed as a decimal fraction, and T is
the sieve analysis value in the blended aggregate. The equation can be used for gradation expressions

 Percentage retained on a given sieve,

 Percentage passing on a given sieve, and
 Percentage retained on two or more sieves.

The result of this equation is used to proportion the 1 st trial blend for the trial-and-error method. The second
and the subsequent blends are proportioned by observation until the specification is satisfied. In the above
illustration, the equation can be written for the No.10 sieve, % passing, as:

a p Ap  b p B p  Tp
in which the subscript p indicates the percentage passing. The known variables here are ap = 0, bp= 1, and Tp =
48%, which implies that B = 48%. For percent retained, the equation can be written as:

ar Ar  br Br  Tr
in which the subscript r indicates the percentage retained. The known variables here are ar = 1, br= 0, and Tr =
52%, which implies that A = 52%.

Example 2- 1. Three aggregates are to be blended to meet a specification. The aggregates, gradations, and
the specification are given in Table 2.6.

Table 2.8. Aggregate gradation and specification for Example 2- 1

Sieve size Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Specification Spec. Combined
A B C Mid- gradation
point (1st trial)
Passing 12.5 mm 100 100 100 100
9.5 mm 62 100 72-88 80 79
4.75 mm 8 100 78 45-65 55 46
2.36 mm 2 91 52 30-60 45 34
1.18 mm 0 73 36 25-55 40 25
600 m 51 29 16-40 28 18
300 m 24 24 8-25 16.5 11
150 m 4 20 4-12 8 6
75 m 1 18 3-6 4.5 5

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Solution. Most of coarse aggregate will come from aggregate A and most of the fines will be obtained from
aggregate C. To obtain a mixture that is approximately in the middle of the specification, we first use the
equation and continue with more trials. The equation can be written to blend aggregate A, B, and C for retained
on 9.5 mm sieve and passing 75 m sieve as follows:

aA  bB  cC  T
For retained materials on 9.5 mm sieve, the known variables are ar = 0.38, br= 0, cr= 0 and Tr = 20%, which
implies that A = 53%. Similarly, for passing 75 m, the known variables are ap= 0, bp= 0, cp= 0.18 and Tp = 4.5%,
which results C = 25%, and B = 100 – 53 – 25 = 22. The first trial blend as seen in Table is within the
specification limit, but on the coarse side. Reducing the contribution of aggregate A and increasing B, or C or
both for the second and the subsequent trials can result a blend more close to the middle of the specification.

2.1.3. BITUMINOUS ROAD BINDERS

Binders used in pavement construction are mainly of two types: cement and bitumen. Cement is the most
commonly used cementing agent in the concrete building industry. In road construction, it is used as a binder
for rigid pavement structures and a stabilizing agent. Bituminous material (or bitumen), also known as asphalt
cement in the US, is a viscous liquid or solid material, black or dark brown in colour, having adhesive properties,
consisting essentially of hydrocarbons which are soluble in carbon disulphate. They are usually fairly hard at
normal temperatures. When heated, they soften and flow. When mixed with aggregates in their fluid state, and
then allowed to cool, they solidify and bind the aggregates together, forming a pavement surface. They are
used on all types of roadway – from multiple layers of asphalt concrete on the highest class of highways to thin,
dust-control layers on seldom-used roads. Because enough coverage on properties, mix design, and quality
control of cement concrete is normally provided in other civil engineering courses, this chapter focuses on
bituminous binders.

Types of Bituminous Materials

Bituminous materials are derived from petroleum or occur in natural deposits in different parts of the world.
Based on their sources there are two main categories of bitumens, namely, those which occur naturally and
those which are by-products of the fractional distillation of petroleum at refinery. Refinery bitumen are by far
the greater proportion of road bitumen used all over the world. Of the possible types falling into these
categories, the ones that are used for highway paving purposes are illustrated in figure 3.1.

Bituminous Materials

Natural Bitumen Refinery Bitumen

Penetration grade Liquid bitumen

Lake asphalt Rock asphalt
bitumen

Cutbacks Emulsions

Slow curing Medium curing Rapid curing Anionic Cationic

cutback
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Figure 2.7. Commonly used types of road bitumen

A) Natural Bitumen
Native or natural Bitumen relate to a wide variety of materials and refer to those bitumen that are found in
nature as native asphalts or rock asphalts associated with appreciable quantities of mineral matter. Native
asphalts are obtained from asphalt lakes in Trinidad and other Caribbean areas, and were used in some of the
earliest pavements in North America after softening with petroleum fluxes. The properties depend on the
insoluble materials (organic and inorganic) the asphalt contains. Some natural asphalts are soft and adhesive;
others are very hard and brittle. Some exist on the surface of the earth in lakes or pools, while others occur at
depth and must be mined. Rock asphalts are natural rock deposits containing bituminous materials that have
been used for road surfaces in localities where they occur.

B) Refinery Bitumen
Bitumen artificially produced by the industrial refining of crude petroleum oils are known under a number of
names depending on the refining method used such as residual bitumen, straight-run bitumen, steam-refined
bitumen and  as is now most commonly accepted  refinery bitumen. Petroleum crudes are complex mixtures
of hydrocarbons differing in molecular weight and consequently in boiling range. Before they can be used,
crudes have to be separated, purified, blended, and sometimes chemically or physically changed. Not all
petroleum crudes contain a sufficient quantity of bitumen to enable straight reduction to specification road
bitumen. Those which do are known as asphaltic-base crudes. Crudes which contain high proportions of simpler
paraffinic compounds, with little or no bituminous bodies present, are known as paraffinic-base crudes. Some
petroleum crudes exhibit characteristics of both the previous categories, and these are known as mixed-base
crudes.

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Figure 2.8. Flow chart of the manufacture of refinery bitumen

The primary processing involved in the production of bitumen from petroleum is fractional distillation. This is
carried out in tall steel towers known as fractionating or distillation columns as schematically shown in Figure .
The inside of the column is divided at intervals by horizontal steel trays with holes to allow vapour to rise up
the column. In this process, part of the hydrocarbon materials in the crude oil are vaporized by heating them
above their boiling points under pressure. The lightest fractions of the crude remain as a vapour and are taken
from the top of the distillation column, heavier fractions are taken off the column as side-streams with the
heaviest fractions remaining as a liquid and therefore left at the base of the column. The lightest fractions
produced by the crude distillation process include propane and butane which are gases under atmospheric
conditions. Moving down the column a slightly heavier product, naphtha, is produced which is a feedstock for
gasoline production and the chemical industry. Then there is kerosene, which is used primarily for aviation fuel
and to a lesser extent for domestic fuel. Heavier again is gas oil, which is used as a fuel for diesel engines and
central heating. The heaviest fraction taken from the crude oil distillation process is long residue which is a
complex mixture of high molecular weight hydrocarbons. Such refining process is known as straight-run
distillation, and the residue is straight-run bitumen.

To remove high boiling temperature constituents such as those contained in the non-volatile oils, refining is
carried out, without changing them chemically by the use of reduced pressures and steam injection in the
fractionating column. This type of distillation is known as vacuum or steam distillation, and bitumen produced by
such means are said to be vacuum reduced or steam refined.

On the other hand, when the objective is primarily to increase the yield of fuels, the petroleum oil undergoes
cracking distillation. In general, cracking process consists in exposing the petroleum crude to a temperature of
475-600oC at pressure varying from 3 to 75 atmospheres. This process produces heavier residues as a
consequence of forming the lighter materials. These residues are known as "cracked oil" or "cracked asphalt".
They are characterized by relatively high specific gravity, low viscosity, and poor temperature susceptibility.
They are generally regarded as less durable or weather resistant than straight run materials.

In a few cases, a selective solvent, such as propane, is used to treat the topped crude to separate paraffinic
crude oils of high viscosity index for use in the manufacture of lubricating oils and special products. This
separation method is based on chemical type and molecular weight rather than by boiling point as in the usual
distillation. In the process, the paraffinic oils are dissolved by the solvent and come afloat in the fractioner
vessel. The residual asphalt, which is relatively insoluble, is drawn off at the bottom.

These residual asphalts produced by the different methods of refining described above are of various grades
asphalt cement, depending upon the degree to which distillates are removed as determined by the conditions of
distillations. They are further processed by air-blowing, blending, compounding, and admixing with other
ingredients to make variety of asphalt products used in paving, roofing, waterproofing, coating and sealing
materials, and materials for industrial applications.

Penetration Grade Bitumen

In the preparation of paving binders, it is common to blend two or more different asphaltic residues to produce
a material possessing desirable physical properties. Additive materials may also be used to improve properties
such as adhesion to solid surfaces and flowing characteristics. By varying the ingredients and the amounts used,
it is possible to exercise considerable control over the properties of the finished asphalt. The major paving
products are penetration grade bitumen (also known as asphalt cements), cutback asphalts, and asphalt
emulsions.
Penetration grade bitumen or asphalt cements are in consistency from semi-solid to semi-liquid at room
temperature. Such bitumen are graded according their viscosity (mainly used in the US) and penetration.
Penetration is the depth in 0.1 mm that a specified needle is able to penetrate the samples when standard
penetration tests are carried out. They are produced in various viscosity grades, the most common being AC
2.5, AC 5, AC 10, AC 20, and AC 40. These roughly correspond to penetration grades 200-300, 120-150, 85-100,
60-70, and 40-50, respectively. The viscosity grades indicate the viscosity in hundreds of poises ± 20%

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measured at 60oC (140oF). For example, AC 2.5 has a viscosity of 250 poises ± 50. AC 40 has a viscosity of 4000
poises ± 800.
The majority of penetration grade bitumen is used in road construction, the harder grades, 35 pen to 100 pen,
being used in asphalt where bitumen stiffness is of primary importance and the softer grades, 100 pen to 450
pen, in macadam where the lubricating properties during application and bonding of the aggregate in service are
more important. During construction asphalt cements require to be heated to varying degrees before mixing
with hot or warm aggregates and the mixed material must be laid while hot within a few hours of mixing.

Liquid Bitumen
Sometimes it is uneconomical or inconvenient to use hot asphalt in road construction. In such situations, liquid
binders are preferable to handle at relatively low temperatures and mixed with aggregates either when cold or
only warmed sufficiently to make them surface-dry. For the suitability of such construction methods, asphalt
cements are frequently modified by preparation as liquid products. The two forms of liquid bitumen generally,
are those which are prepared by dissolving the asphalt cement in a suitable volatile solvent and known as
cutback bitumen, and those which are prepared by emulsifying the asphalt cement in an aqueous medium and
called bitumen emulsions.

Cutback Bitumen
Cutback bitumen prepared by dissolving penetration grade bitumen in suitable volatile solvents to reduce their
viscosity to make them easier to use at ordinary temperatures. They are commonly heated and then sprayed on
aggregates. Upon curing by evaporation of the solvent, the cured-out asphalt cement will be in approximately
the same condition as before being taken into solution and bind the aggregate particles together. The curing
period depends on the volatility of solvents.

Cutback bitumen grouped into three types based on the type of solvent, which governs the rates of evaporation
and curing, namely, slow-curing (SC), medium-curing (MC), and rapid-curing (RC). Each type of cutback bitumen
is subdivided into several grades characterized by their viscosity limits. The viscosity is controlled by the
quantity of cutback solvent to make the various grades from very fluid to almost semi-solid at ambient
temperatures.

Slow-Curing (SC) Cutbacks: Slow-curing asphalts can be obtained directly as slow-curing straight-run asphalts
through the distillation of crude petroleum or as slow-curing cutback asphalts by "cutting back" asphalt cement
with a heavy distillate such as diesel oil. They have lower viscosities than asphalt cement and are very slow to
harden. Slow-curing asphalts are usually designated as SC-70, SC-250, SC-800, or SC-3000, where the numbers
are related to the approximate kinematic viscosity in centistokes at 60 oC (140oF). They are used with dense-
graded aggregates and on soil-aggregate roads in warm climates to avoid dust.

Medium-Curing (MC) Cutbacks: Medium-curing asphalts are produced by fluxing, or cutting back, the residual
asphalt (usually 120-150 penetration) with light fuel oil or kerosene. The term medium refers to the medium
volatility of the kerosene-type dilutent used. Medium-curing cutback asphalts harden faster than slow-curing
liquid asphalts, although the consistencies of the different grades are similar to those of the slow-curing
asphalts. However, the MC-30 is a unique grade in this series as it is very fluid and has no counterpart in the SC
and RC series.

The fluidity of medium-curing asphalts depends on the amount of solvent in the material. MC-3000, for
example, may have only 20 percent of the solvent by volume, whereas MC-70 may have up to 45 percent. These
medium-curing asphalts can be used for the construction of pavement bases, surfaces, and surface treatments.

Rapid-Curing (RC) Cutbacks: Rapid-curing cutback asphalts are produced by blending asphalt cement with a
petroleum distillate that will easily evaporate, thereby facilitating a quick change from the liquid form at time
of application to the consistency of the original asphalt cement. Gasoline or naphtha generally is used as the
solvent for this series of asphalts.

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The grade of rapid-curing asphalt required dictates the amount of solvent to be added to the residual asphalt
cement. For example, RC-3000 requires about 15 percent of distillate, whereas RC-70 requires about 40
percent. These grades of asphalt can be used for jobs similar to those for which the MC series is used, but
where there is a need for immediate cementing action or colder climates.

Asphalt emulsions
Emulsified asphalts are produced by breaking asphalt cement, usually of 100-250 penetration range, into minute
particles and dispersing them in water with an emulsifier. These minute particles have like electrical charges
and therefore do not coalesce. They remain in suspension in the liquid phase as long as the water does not
evaporate or the emulsifier does not break. Asphalt emulsions therefore consist of asphalt, which makes up
about 55 percent to 70 percent by weight, up to 3% emulsifying agent, water and in some cases may contain a
stabilizer.
Two general types of emulsified asphalts are produced, depending on the type of emulsifier used: cationic
emulsions, in which the asphalt particles have a positive charge; and anionic, in which they have a negative
charge. Each of the above categories is further divided into three subgroups, based on how rapidly the asphalt
emulsion will return to the state of the original asphalt cement. These subgroups are rapid setting (RS),
medium-setting (MS), and slow setting (SS). A cationic emulsion is identified by placing the letter "C" in front
of the emulsion type; no letter is placed in front of anionic and non-ionic emulsions. For example, CRS-2 denotes
a cationic emulsion, and RS-2 denotes either anionic or non-ionic emulsion.
The anionic and cationic asphalts generally are used in highway maintenance and construction. Note, however,
that since anionic emulsions contain negative charges, they are more effective in adhering aggregates
containing electropositive charges such as limestone, whereas cationic emulsions are more effective with
electronegative aggregates such as those containing a high percentage of siliceous material. Cationic emulsions
also work better with wet aggregates and in colder weather. Bitumen emulsions break when sprayed or mixed
with mineral aggregates in a field construction process; the water is removed, and the asphalt remains as a film
on the surface of the aggregates. In contrast to cutback bitumen, bitumen emulsions can be applied to a damp
surface.

2.1.3.1. Properties of Bituminous Materials

The properties of bituminous materials pertinent to pavement construction can be classified into four main
categories: consistency, durability, rate of curing, and resistance to water action.

A) Consistency
The consistency of any bituminous material changes as the temperature changes. The change in consistency of
different bituminous materials may differ considerably even for the same amount of temperature change. For
example, if a sample of blown semisolid asphalt and a sample of semisolid regular paving-grade asphalt with the
same consistency at a given temperature are heated to a high enough temperature, the consistencies of the two
materials will be different at the high temperatures, with the regular paving-grade asphalt being much softer
than the blown asphalt. Further increase in temperature will eventually result in the liquefaction of the paving
asphalt at a temperature much lower than that at which the blown asphalt liquefies. If these two asphalts are
then gradually cooled down to about the freezing temperature of water, the blown asphalt will be much softer
than the paying-grade asphalt. Thus, the consistency of the blown asphalt is less affected by temperature
changes than is the consistency of regular paving-grade asphalt.

This property of bituminous materials is known as temperature susceptibility. The temperature susceptibility of
a given asphalt depends on the crude oil from which the asphalt is obtained, although the variation in
temperature susceptibility of paving-grade asphalts from different crudes is not as high as that between
regular paving-grade asphalt and blown asphalt. Because the consistency of a bituminous material varies from
solid to liquid depending on the temperature of the material, the consistency of an asphalt material is measured
at a specified temperature.
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B) Durability
When bituminous materials are exposed to environmental elements, natural deterioration gradually takes place,
and eventually the materials lose their plasticity and become brittle. This change is caused primarily by
chemical and physical reactions that take place in the material. This natural deterioration of the bituminous
material is known as weathering. For paving asphalt to act successfully as a binder, the weathering must be
minimized as much as possible. The ability of a bituminous material to resist weathering is described as the
durability of the material. Some of the factors that influence weathering are oxidation, volatilization,
temperature, exposed surface area, and age hardening.

Oxidation is the chemical reaction that takes place when the bituminous material is attacked by the oxygen in
the air. This chemical reaction causes gradual hardening and eventually permanent hardening and considerable
loss of the plastic characteristics of the material. Volatilization is the evaporation of the lighter hydrocarbons
from the bituminous material. The loss of these lighter hydrocarbons also causes loss of the plastic
characteristics of the bituminous material.

It has been shown that temperature has a significant effect on the rate of oxidation and volatilization. The
higher the temperature, the higher the rates of oxidation and volatilization. It has been postulated that the
rate of organic and physical reactions in the bituminous material approximately doubles for each 10 oC (50oF)
increase in temperature. The exposed surface of the material also influences its rate of oxidation and
volatilization. There is a direct relationship between surface area and rate of oxygen absorption and loss due to
evaporation in grams per cubic centimetre per minute. This fact is taken into consideration when asphalt
concrete mixes are designed for pavement construction in that the air voids are kept to the practicable
minimum required for stability to reduce the area exposed to oxidation.
If a sample of asphalt is heated and then allowed to cool, its molecules will be rearranged to form a gel-like
structure. This will cause continuous hardening of the asphalt over time, even though it is protected from other
factors such as oxidation and volatilization that cause hardening. This process of hardening with time is known
as age hardening. The rate at which age hardening occurs is relatively high during the first few hours after
cooling, but it gradually decreases and becomes almost negligible after about a year. Age hardening does not
seem to have a significant effect on pavements, except when they are laid as a thin mat.

C) Rate of Curing
Curing is defined as the process through which a bituminous material increases its consistency as it loses
solvent by evaporation. As discussed earlier, the rate of curing of any cutback bituminous material depends on
the distillate used in the cutting-back process. This is an important characteristic of cutback materials, since
the rate of curing indicates the time that should elapse before a cutback will attain a consistency that is thick
enough for the binder to perform satisfactorily. The rate of curing is affected by both inherent and external
factors. The important inherent factors are: volatility of the solvent, quantity of solvent in the cutback, and
consistency of the base material.

The more volatile the solvent is, the faster it can evaporate from the bituminous material, and therefore the
higher the curing rate of the material. This is why gasoline and naphtha are used for rapid-curing cutbacks,
whereas light fuel oil and kerosene are used for medium-curing cutbacks. For any given type of solvent, the
smaller the quantity used, the less time is required for it to evaporate, and therefore the faster the asphalt
material will cure. Also, the higher the penetration of the base asphalt, the longer it takes for the asphalt
cutback to cure.

The important external factors that affect curing rate include temperature, ratio of surface area to volume,
and wind velocity across exposed surface. These three external forces are directly related to the rate of
curing in that the higher any of these factors is, the higher the rate of curing. Unfortunately these factors
cannot be controlled or predicted in the field, which makes it extremely difficult to predict the expected
curing time. The curing rates of different bituminous materials are therefore usually compared with the
assumption that the external factors are held constant.

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The curing and adhesion characteristics of emulsions used for pavement construction (anionic and cationic)
depend on the rate at which the water evaporates from the mixture. When weather conditions are favourable,
the water is relatively rapidly displaced and so curing progresses rapidly. When weather conditions include high
humidity, low temperature, or rainfall immediately following the application of the emulsion, its ability to
properly cure is adversely affected. Although the effect of surface and weather conditions on proper curing is
more critical for anionic emulsions, favourable weather conditions are required to obtain optimum results for
cationic emulsions also. A major advantage of cationic emulsions is that they release their water more readily.

D) Resistance to Water Action

When bituminous materials are used in pavement construction, it is important that the asphalt continues to
adhere to the aggregates even with the presence of water. If this bond between the asphalt and the
aggregates is lost, the asphalt will strip from the aggregates, resulting in the deterioration of the pavement.
The asphalt therefore must sustain its ability to adhere to the aggregates even in the presence of water. In
hot-mix, hot-laid asphaltic concrete, where the aggregates are thoroughly dried before mixing, stripping does
not normally occur and so no preventive action is usually taken. However, when water is added to a hot-mix,
cold-laid asphaltic concrete, commercial antistrip additives are usually added to improve the asphalt's ability to
adhere to the aggregates.

2.1.3.2. Tests for Bituminous Materials

Several tests are conducted on bituminous materials to determine both their consistency and their quality to
ascertain whether materials used in highway construction meet the prescribed specifications. Some of these
specifications are provided in standards of AASHTO, ASTM, and Asphalt Institute. Procedures for testing and
selecting representative samples of asphalt have also been standardized. Some of the tests used to identify
the quality of a given sample of asphalt on the basis of the properties discussed in the preceding section will
now be described.

A) Consistency Tests
The consistency of bituminous materials is important in pavement construction because the consistency at a
specified temperature will indicate the grade of the material. It is important that the temperature at which
the consistency is determined be specified, since temperature significantly affects the consistency of
bituminous materials. As stated earlier, asphaltic materials can exist in either liquid, semisolid, or solid states.
This necessitates for more than one method for determining consistency of asphaltic materials. The property
generally used to describe the consistency of asphaltic materials in the liquid state is the viscosity, which can
be determined by conducting either the Saybolt Furol viscosity test or the kinematic viscosity test. Tests used
for asphaltic materials in the semisolid and solid states include the penetration test and the float test. The
ring-and-ball softening point test may also be used for blown asphalt.

Saybolt Furol Viscosity Test

Saybolt Furol viscosity test is a test carried out by the Saybolt Furol Viscometer which has a standard
viscometer tube, 12.7 cm (5 in) long and about 2.54 cm (1 in) in diameter with an orifice of specified shape and
dimensions provided at the bottom of the tube. When testing, the orifice is closed with a stopper, and the tube
is filled with a quantity of the material to be tested. The material in the tube is brought to the specified
temperature by heating in a water bath and when the prescribed temperature is reached the stopper is
removed, and the time in seconds for exactly 60 millilitres of the asphaltic material to flow through the orifice
is recorded. This time is the Saybolt Furol viscosity in units of seconds at the specified temperature.
Temperatures at which asphaltic materials for highway construction are tested include 25oC (77oF), 50oC
(122oF), and 60oC (140oF). It is apparent that the higher the viscosity of the material, the longer it takes for a
given quantity to flow through the orifice.

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Kinematic Viscosity Test

The test uses a capillary viscometer tube to measure the time it takes the asphalt sample to flow at a specified
temperature between timing marks on the tube. Three types of viscometer tubes, namely Zeitfuch's cross-arm
viscometer, Asphalt Institute vacuum viscometer, and Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer are used.
When the cross-arm viscometer is used, the test is started by placing the viscometer tube in a
thermostatically controlled constant temperature bath, and a sample of the material to be tested is then
preheated and poured into the large side of the viscometer tube until the filling line level is reached. The
temperature of the bath is then brought to 135 oC (275oF), and some time is allowed for the viscometer and the
asphalt to reach a temperature of 135 oC (275oF). Flow is then induced by applying a slight pressure to the large
opening or a partial vacuum to the efflux (small) opening of the viscometer tube. This causes an initial flow of
the asphalt over the siphon section just above the filling line. Continuous flow is induced by the action of
gravitational forces. The time it takes for the material to flow between two timing marks is recorded. The
kinematic viscosity of the material in units of centistokes is obtained by multiplying the time in seconds by a
calibration factor for the viscometer used. The calibration of each viscometer is carried out by using standard
calibrating oils with known viscosity characteristics. The factor for each viscometer is usually furnished by the
manufacturer.
The test may also he conducted at a temperature of 60 oC (140oF) using either the Asphalt Institute vacuum
viscometer or the Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer. In this case, flow is induced by applying a prescribed
vacuum through a vacuum control device attached to a vacuum pump. The product of the time interval and the
calibration factor in this test gives the absolute viscosity of the material in poises.

Penetration Test

The penetration test gives an empirical measurement of the consistency of a semi-solid asphaltic material in
terms of the depth a standard needle penetrates into that material under a prescribed loading and time. It is
the bases for classifying semi-solid bituminous materials into standard grades.

Figure 2.9. Standard penetration test

A sample of the asphalt cement to be tested is placed in a container, which in turn is placed in a temperature-
controlled water bath. The sample is then brought to the prescribed temperature of 25 oC (77oF), and the
standard needle, loaded to a total weight of 100 gm, is left to penetrate the sample of asphalt for the
prescribed time of exactly 5 sec. The penetration is given as the depth in units of 0.1 mm that the needle
penetrates the sample. For example, if the needle penetrates a depth of exactly 20 mm, the penetration is of
the material is said to be 200. When carried out at different temperature penetration test can indicate
temperature susceptibility of the binder.

Float Test

The float test is used to determine the consistency of semisolid asphalt materials that are more viscous than
grade 3000 or have penetration higher than 300, since these materials cannot be tested conveniently using
either the Saybolt Furol viscosity test or the penetration test. The float test is conducted with the apparatus
schematically shown in Figure. It consists of an aluminium saucer (float), a brass collar that is open at both
ends, and a water bath. The brass collar is filled with a sample of the material to be tested and then is
attached to the bottom of the float and chilled to a temperature of 5 oC (41oF) by immersing it in ice water. The
temperature of the water bath is brought to 50 oC (122oF), and the collar (still attached to the float) is placed
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in the water bath, which is kept at 50 oC (122oF). The head gradually softens the sample of asphaltic material in
the collar until the water eventually forces its way through the plug into the aluminium float. The time in
seconds that expires between the instant the collar is placed in the water bath and that at which the water
forces its way through the bituminous plug is the float test value, and it is a measure of consistency. It is
apparent that the higher the float-test value, the stiffer the material.

Figure 2.10. Float test

Ring-and-Ball Softening Point Test

The ring-and-ball softening point test is used to measure the susceptibility of asphaltic maertails to
temperature changes by determining the temperature at which the material will be adequately softened to
allow a standard ball to sink through it. Figure shows the apparatus commonly used for this test. It consists
principally of a small brass ring of 15.875 mm (5/8 in) inside diameter and 6.35 mm (1/4 in) high, a steel ball
9.525 mm (3/8 in) in diameter, and a water or glycerine bath. The test is conducted by first placing a sample of
the material to be tested in the brass ring, which is cooled and immersed in the water or glycerine bath that is
maintained at a temperature of 5oC (41oF). The ring is immersed to a depth such that its bottom is exactly 2.54
mm (1 in) above the bottom of the bath. The temperature of the bath is then gradually increased, causing the
asphalt to soften and permitting the ball to sink eventually to the bottom of the bath. The temperature in at
which the asphaltic material touches the bottom of the bath is recorded as the softening point.

Figure 2.11. Ring-and-ball softening point test

B) Durability Tests
When asphaltic materials are used in the construction of roadway pavements, they are subjected to changes in
temperature and other weather conditions over a period of time. These changes cause natural weathering of
the material, which may lead to loss of plasticity, cracking, abnormal surface abrasion, and eventual failure of
the pavement. This change, known as weathering, is caused by chemical and physical reactions that take place in

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the material. One test used to evaluate the susceptibility characteristics of asphaltic materials to changes in
temperature and other atmospheric factors is the thin-film oven test.

Thin-Film Oven Test (TFO)

This is a procedure that measures the changes that take place in an asphalt during the hot-mix process by
subjecting the asphaltic material to hardening conditions similar to those in a normal hot-mix plant operation.
The consistency of the material is determined before and after the TFO procedure, using either the
penetration test or a viscosity test, to estimate the amount of hardening that will take place in the material
when used to produce plant hot-mix.
The procedure is performed by pouring 50 cc of the material into a cylindrical flat-bottom pan, 14 cm (5.5 in)
inside diameter and 1 cm (3/8 in) high. The pan containing the sample is then placed on a rotating shelf in an
oven and rotated for five hours at a temperature of 163 oC (325oF). The amount of penetration after the TFO
test is then expressed as a percentage of that before the test to determine percent of penetration retained.
The minimum allowable percent of penetration retained is usually specified for different grades of asphalt
cement.

Rate of Curing

Tests for curing rates of cutbacks and emulsions are based on inherent factors, which can be controlled. The
test is conducted to determine the time required for a liquid asphaltic material to increase in its consistency on
the assumption that the external factors are held constant. Volatility and quantity of solvent for cutbacks are
commonly used to indicate the rate of curing. The curing rates for both cutbacks and emulsions may be
determined from the distillation test.

Distillation Test for Cutbacks

In the distillation test for cutbacks, the apparatus used consists principally of a flask in which the material is
heated, a condenser, and a graduated cylinder for collecting the condensed material. A sample of 200 cc of the
material to be tested is measured and poured into the flask. The material is then brought to boiling point by
heating it with the burner. The evaporated solvent is condensed and collected in the graduated cylinder. The
temperature in the flask is continuously monitored and the amount of solvent collected in the graduated
cylinder recorded when the temperature in the flask reaches 190 oC (374oF), 225oC (437oF), 260oC (500oF), and
316oC (600oF). The amount of condensate collected at the different specified temperatures gives an indication
of the volatility characteristics of the solvent. The residual in the flask is the base asphaltic material used in
preparing the cutback.

Distillation Test for Emulsions

The distillation test for emulsions is similar to that described for cutbacks. A major difference, however, is
that the glass flask and Bunsen burner are replaced with an aluminium alloy still and a ring burner. This
equipment prevents potential problems that may arise from the foaming of the emulsified asphalt as it is being
heated to a maximum of 260oC (500oF). The results obtained from the use of this method to recover the
asphaltic residue and to determine the properties of the asphalt base stock used in the emulsion may not always
be accurate because of significant changes in the properties of the asphalt due to concentration of inorganic
salts, emulsifying agent, and stabilizer. These changes, which are due mainly to the increase in temperature, do
not occur in field application of the emulsion since the temperature in the field is usually much less than that
used in the distillation test. The emulsion in the field, therefore, breaks either electrochemically or by
evaporation of the water. An alternative method to determine the properties of the asphalt after it is cured on
the pavement surface is to evaporate the water at sub atmospheric pressure and lower temperatures.

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C) General Tests

Several other tests are routinely conducted on asphaltic materials used for pavement construction either to
obtain specific characteristics for design purposes (for example, specific gravity) or to obtain additional
information that aids in determining the quality of the material. Some of the more common routine tests are
described briefly hereunder.

Specific Gravity Test

The specific gravity of asphaltic materials is used mainly to determine the weight of a given volume of material,
or vice versa, to determine the amount of voids in compacted mixes and to correct volumes measured at high
temperatures. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of the material to the
weight of the same volume of water. The specific gravity of bituminous materials, however, changes with
temperature, which dictates that the temperature at which the test is conducted should be indicated. For
example, if the test is conducted at 25 oC (77oF) which is usually the case and the specific gravity is determined
to be 1.41, this should be recorded as 1.41/25 oC. Note that both the asphaltic material and the water should be
at the same temperature.

The test is normally conducted with the dry weight (W 1) of the pycnometer and stopper is obtained, and then
the pycnometer is filled with distilled water at the prescribed temperature. The weight (W2) of the water and
pycnometer together is determined. If the material to be tested can flow easily into the pycnometer, then the
pycnometer must be completely filled with the material at the specified temperature after pouring out the
water. The weight W3is then obtained. The specific gravity of the asphaltic material is then given as
W3  W1
Gb 
W2  W1
Where Gb is the specific gravity of the asphaltic material and W1, W2, and W3are in grams. If the asphaltic
material cannot easily flow, a small sample of the material is heated gradually to facilitate flow and then poured
into the pycnometer and left to cool to the specified temperature. The weight W4of pycnometer and material is
then obtained. Water is then poured into the pycnometer to completely fill the remaining space not occupied by
the material. The weight W5 of the filled pycnometer is obtained. The specific gravity is then given as

W4  W1
Gb 
(W2  W )1  (W5  W4 )

Ductility Test

Ductility is the distance in centimetres a standard sample of asphaltic material will stretch before breaking
when tested on standard ductility test equipment at 25 oC (77oF). The result of this test indicates the extent to
which the material can he deformed without breaking. It also indicates the temperature susceptibility of
binders. Bitumen possessing high ductility are usually highly susceptible to temperature while low ones are not.
The test is used mainly for semisolid or solid materials, which first are gently heated to facilitate flow and
then are poured into a standard mould to form a briquette of at least 1 cm2 in cross section. The material is
then allowed to cool to 25oC (77oF) in a water bath. The prepared sample is then placed in the ductility machine
and extended at a specified rate of speed until the thread of material joining the two ends breaks. The
distance (in centimetres) moved by the machine is the ductility of the material.

Solubility Test

The solubility test is used to measure the amount of impurities in the asphaltic material. Since asphalt is nearly
100 percent soluble in certain solvents, the portion of any asphaltic material that will be effective in cementing
aggregates together can be determined from the solubility test. Insoluble materials include free carbon, salts,
and other inorganic impurities. The test is conducted by dissolving a known quantity of the material in a solvent,
such as trichloroethylene, and then filtering it through a Gooch Crucible. The material retained in the filter is

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dried and weighed. The test results are given in terms of the percent of the asphaltic material that dissolved in
the solvent.

Flash-Point Test

The flash point of an asphaltic material is the temperature at which its vapours will ignite instantaneously in
the presence of an open flame. Note that the flash point is normally lower than the temperature at which the
material will burn. The test can be conducted by using either the Tagliabue open-cup apparatus or the Cleveland
open-cup apparatus. The Cleveland open-cup test is more suitable for materials with higher flash points,
whereas the Tagliabue open-cup is more suitable for materials with relatively low flash points, such as cutback
asphalts. The test is conducted by partly filling the cup with the asphaltic material and gradually increasing its
temperature at a specified rate. A small open flame is passed over the surface of the sample at regular
intervals as the temperature increases. The increase in temperature will cause evaporation of volatile materials
from the material being tested, until a sufficient quantity of volatile materials is present to cause an
instantaneous flash when the open flame is passed over the surface. The minimum temperature at which this
occurs is the flash point. It can be seen that this temperature gives an indication of the temperature limit at
which extreme care should be taken, particularly when heating is done over open flames in open containers.

Loss-on-Heating Test

The loss-on-heating test is used to determine the amount of material that evaporates from a sample of asphalt
under a specified temperature and time. The result indicates whether an asphaltic material has been
contaminated with lighter materials. The test is conducted by pouring 50 g of the material to be tested into a
standard cylindrical tin and leaving it in an oven for 5 hr at a temperature of 163 oC (325oF). The weight of the
material remaining in the tin is determined, and the loss in weight is expressed as a percentage of the original
weight. The penetration of the sample may also be determined before and after the test to determine the loss
of penetration due to the evaporation of the volatile material. This loss in penetration may be used as an
indication of the weathering characteristics of the asphalt.

2.1.3.2. STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS

The term „soil stabilisation‟ may be defined as the alteration of the properties of an existing soil either by
blending (mixing) two or more materials and improving particle size distribution or by the use of stabilizing
additives to meet the specified engineering properties. Quite often soils are stabilized for road construction in
most parts of the world for the following one or more objectives:

 Improve the strength (stability and bearing capacity) for subgrade, subbase, base, and low-cost road
surfaces,
 Improve the volume stability – undesirable properties such as swelling, shrinkage, high plasticity
characteristics, and difficulty in compaction, etc. caused by change in moisture,
 Improve durability – increase the resistance to erosion, weathering or traffic, and
 Improve high permeability, poor workability, dust nuisance, frost susceptibility, etc.

Due to their mineralogical composition, soils may be rather complex materials. Stabilization is therefore not a
straightforward application of a given stabilizing agent; a number of aspects should be taken into account in the
selection of the proper stabilization technique. The factors that should be considered include physical and
chemical composition of the soil to be stabilized, availability and economic feasibility of stabilising agents, ease
of application, site constraints, climate, curing time, and safety. Such factors should be taken into account in
order to select the proper type of stabilisation.

Basically four techniques of soil stabilization are commonly practiced in pavement construction. These are: -

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 Mechanical stabilization,  Lime stabilization, and

 Cement stabilization,  Bitumen stabilization.

Mechanical stabilization is a method by which a soil or gravel is mixed with the original soil in order to improve
the grading and mechanical characteristics of the soil. Other methods of stabilization use additives such as
cement, lime and bitumen to improve strength, workability or waterproofing.
Portland cement has been used with great success to improve existing gravel roads, as well as to stabilize
natural soils. It can be used for base courses and subbases of all types. It can be used in granular soils, silty
soils, and lean clays, but it cannot be used in organic materials. Since soil cement shows strength gains over that
of the natural material, it is very often used for base-course construction. Another cementing agent, which is
often used, is lime. Lime increases soil strength primarily by pozzolanic action, which is the formation of
cementitious silicates and aluminates. It is the most effective agent to stabilize clayey materials. Bituminous
materials are used as stabilizers to retard or completely stop moisture absorption by coating soil or aggregate
grains in the soil-aggregate mixture. Bituminous stabilization is best for semi-granular soils. As will be seen in
the coming sections, the suitability of these methods depends on site constraints, materials, climate, and
economic feasibility.

The stabilizing process with admixture involves the addition of a stabilizing agent to the soil, mixing with
sufficient water to achieve the optimum moisture content, compaction of the mixture, and final curing to
ensure that the strength potential is developed.

A) Mechanical Stabilization
As has been mentioned before, mechanical stabilization is an improvement of an available material by blending it
with one or more materials in order to improve the particle size distribution and plasticity characteristics.
Typical materials used for mechanical stabilization include river deposited sand, natural gravel, silty sands, sand
clays, silt clays, crushed run quarry products and waste quarry products, volcanic cinders and scoria, poorly
graded laterites and beach sands, etc. Materials produced by blending have properties similar to conventional
unbounded materials and can be evaluated by ordinary methods.

The principal properties affecting the stability of compacted base or sub-base materials are internal friction
and cohesion. Internal friction is chiefly dependent on the characteristics of the coarser soil particles, i.e.
gravel, sand and silt sizes. The cohesion, shrinkage, swelling and compressibility are mainly associated with the
quantity and nature of the clay fraction as indicated by plastic properties.
Preliminary mix design of mechanical stabilization is based on particle size distribution and plastic properties.
It is desirable also that strength tests (CBR, etc.) be carried out to verify that the required improvement has
been achieved. When unconventional materials are used, more detailed testing and investigation will often be
needed and may include the modification of the accepted design or specification criteria.

Particle Size Distribution: While maximum frictional strength does not necessarily coincide with maximum
density, the achievement of a high density will generally provide a high frictional strength. A particle size
distribution that results maximum dry density, obtained with the closest packing and minimum voids, has been
shown experimentally to follow Fuller‟s equation with the value of the exponent 'n' usually 0.45 to 0.50 for most
soils. However, with some materials, e.g. gravel-sand-clays, high densities can be achieved with „n‟ values as low
as 0.33. For materials with a
8 percent for „n‟ values of 0.5 and 0.45 respectively. In certain cases higher percentages of material passing

When the pavement design relies on a relatively low permeability in the pavement courses, the materials used
should be of particle size distribution within the limits established by substituting values of 0.50 and 0.33 for
„n‟ in the above equation. These limits are sufficiently wide to allow for variations that will inevitably occur in
field mixing. However, if plant mixing is undertaken, more restrictive limits may be set. Where the value of the
exponent „n‟ is less than 0.33, the fines content of the material may be excessive. A high fine content will result
in reduced permeability, but may lead to the development of pore pressures and consequent instability during

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compaction or in service. Where „n‟ is greater than 0.5, the material tends to be harsh, and may be prone to
segregation and ravelling and therefore more difficult to work.

Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index: The plasticity limits indicated for different layers of pavement structure can
generally be used as satisfactory design criteria for mechanical stabilized materials. Moreover, Plastic Index
and Linear Shrinkage of a material passing 0.425 mm are normally related to one another. The permissible
values of shrinkage may be determined by test or estimated from the permissible values of PI. Typical values
are 2 % for sealed and 3 % for unsealed pavements.

When the percentage of soil binder is low, as a rough rule, the Plasticity Modulus (PI x the percentage passing
the 425 mm sieve relative to the whole material) should not exceed 200 for gravel to receive bituminous
surface treatment. In arid climates, consideration could be given to relax the PM to about 400, provided road
formations are well drained. Slightly wider limits of Plasticity Index may prove satisfactory with some
ironstone gravels and limestone rubbles, if the soil binder has some natural setting properties. This should not,
however, be taken as a general rule - each case should be treated on its merits and caution should be exercised
in dealing with new and unfamiliar materials. In the case of major works it is advisable to construct trial
sections of pavement for evaluation at least two years before embarking upon their large-scale use.

Figure 2.12. General properties of mechanically stabilised grading

Strength Tests: Stabilized materials may be assessed by strength tests suitable for this purpose at the
density and moisture conditions prevailing in the pavement during the service life. It is important, in the testing
of a potential base material, to be able to predict its moisture condition. By this means, the failure envelopes at
moisture conditions bracketing the equilibrium moisture conditions and at the required density anticipated in
the proposed pavement may be derived. The equilibrium moisture conditions to be expected in a pavement may
be obtained by examining existing roads constructed from materials similar to those being investigated and
assembling such information for future use.

One of the most commonly used strength tests is the laboratory CBR test. The values given in Table 6 1 have
generally been found to be applicable. A 4-day soaking of compacted specimens before testing is generally used.
Conditions adopted for the test may be altered in respect of the degree of compaction and moisture content,
to simulate the worst conditions expected in service. In some circumstances, conditioning the specimens by
soaking for 4 days might be too conservative, and in other cases a period longer than 4 days might be more
appropriate for relatively impermeable materials. In this case the adoption of a minimum CBR value different to
those tabulated above should be considered.

The selection of suitable criteria should take account of local experience, especially that related to the
performance of local materials. Design of stabilised mixtures involves characterising the individual materials,
proportioning them to fit the selected criteria, and making up a trial mixture to check that the preferred
proportions do provide the desired qualities. In addition to adequate investigation and design, good construction

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and control testing techniques are essential if a satisfactory road pavement is to result. This involves careful
proportioning and thorough mixing of the constituent materials to produce a uniform unsegregated final
product which can be compacted and finished in accordance with the specification.

Table 2.9. California bearing ratio limits for mechanical stabilised base materials

Pavement Minimum CBR values

High class, high traffic volume 100
Rural roads, wet areas 80
Rural roads, dry areas 60

B) Cement Stabilization

Cement is an effective stabilizing agent applicable to a wide range of soils and situations. It has two important
effects on soil behaviours:

induced volume change (shrinkage and swell) and it also improve strength stability under variable
moisture, and
 Develop inter-

Soil properties progressively change with increasing cement contents. For practical reasons, two categories of
cement stabilised materials have been identified.

-change, etc., and the inter-particle

bonds are not significantly developed. Such materials are evaluated in the same manner as conventional unbound
flexible pavement materials.

Cement bound materials: cement is used to sufficiently enhance modulus and tensile strength. Cement bound
materials have practical application in stiffening the pavement.
There are no established criteria to distinguish between modified and bound materials, but an arbitrary limit of
indirect tensile strength of 80 KN or unconfined compressive strength of 800 KPa after seven days moist
curing has been suggested.

A number of factors influence the quality of the cement-soil interactions. The most important factors can be
categorized into four groups:

Nature and type of soil: This include: clay content (max 5 %), plasticity of the soil (max LL of 45) , gradation,
content of organic materials (max 2 %), sulphate content (max 0.25 % for cohesive soils and 1 % for non-
cohesive soils), and PH content. Soils with high clay content and high plasticity are difficult to mix and high
additive contents are required for an appreciable change in properties. Pre-treatment with lime however is good
method to allow the soil to be cement-stabilized later on. Basically well graded material requires less cement
content than poorly graded one. The requirements with respect to the organic matter, PH, and sulphate
contents are in fact the same as those which are used for concrete.

Cement content: The cement required to stabilize soils effectively vary with the nature and type of soils. The
criteria used are the compressive strength (about 1.7 MPa) after seven days. The quantity required for gravely
soils is generally much less than required for silty and clayey soils. Generally, a soil is regarded to be suited for
cement-stabilised if, the soil has a maximum grain size less than 75 mm, percent passing and retained 0.075 mm
sieve is less than 35 %, and greater than 55 % respectively, and liquid and plastic limits less than 50 and 25
respectively. Based on vast experiences on cement stabilization, the general guidelines shown in Table 6 2 have
been provided regarding the amounts of cement that are needed to stabilize a soil.

Table 2.10. General guidelines on cement requirement to stabilise soil

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Amount of cement (%) Amount of cement (%)

Soil type Soil type
By weight By volume By weight By volume

A-1-a 3-5 5-7 A-4 7-12 8-13

A-1-b 5-8 7-9 A-5 8-13 8-13

A-2 5-9 7-10 A-6 9-15 10-14

A-3 7-11 8-12 A-7 10-16 10-14

Moisture content: Moisture is required for hydration of cement to take place, to improve the workability, and
facilitate the compaction of the soil-cement mixture. The soil-cement mixture exhibit the same type of
moisture-density relationship as an ordinary soil. Thus, for a given compaction effort, there is an optimum
moisture content at which the maximum density is obtained. It is, however, seen that the highest compressive
strength can be obtained with specimens compacted slightly below the optimum for maximum density.

Pulverization, mixing, compaction, and curing conditions: Many procedures of construction are available, but can
be categorised into mixing in plant (in a travelling plant and stationary plant for dry mixing), and in place mixing.
The methods are principally the same except mixing in the first is done in mixing plants and in the later is in-
place. Regardless of the type of machine used, the procedure of mix-in-place construction involves initial
preparation of the subgrade, pulverization of the soil, spreading of the soil, dry-mix the soil and the cement,
adding water and wet mix, compact and finish, and protect and cure (place a curing membrane to keep moist).

The influence of the degree of mixing and compaction is self-explaining. One should however be aware of the
fact that any delay in compaction after mixing will have a negative effect. As with concrete, curing is an
important factor influencing on the end result. The temperature should be high enough and the stabilised
material should be prevented from drying out in order to obtain the best result.
Since cement stabilized materials constitute in most cases the main structural part of pavements, much
attention is given to their mechanical characteristics such as:

 Tensile and compressive strength,

 Deformation behaviour, and
 Fatigue characteristics

Tensile and compressive strengths: After rapid strength gains in the first one to two days, cement stabilised
materials continue to gain strength, providing curing is sustained. The compressive strength based on the
unconfined compressive test increases with the cement content in the mixture depending on the nature and
types of soil as shown in Figure 4.2. It has been used to determine the strength of stabilized materials, but has
little direct application to pavement design. CBR can be used to evaluate the strength of cement modified
materials, but not for bound materials. Tensile strength is important in the design of cement bound materials.
Density is also an important parameter which has a direct relationship with the UCS.

Figure 2.14. Effect of cement content on UCS and density of various stabilized soils

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Curing temperature and curing time, compaction, and degree of pulverization are important factors which
affect the strength gained by cement stabilization. Curing time is meant the time during which evaporation of
moisture is prevented. The method of compaction is also important for clayey soils. High degree of
pulverization achieved in a shorter period of time leads to more intensive reaction between soils and cement
and results high strength.

Deformation behaviour: In order to make proper stress-strain analyses, information on the elastic modulus of
the materials should be known. It is well known that clays, sands, and gravels show different elastic
deformation behaviour under repetitive loading. The addition of cement on these materials changes the elastic
deformation properties, but not completely. The parent material will have a great influence on the properties of
the soil-cement mixture.

It has been shown that cemented clayey materials have a different behaviour in compression (about 1.5 times
of modulus) than in tension. However, a more or less linear behaviour is observed up to 75 % of the failure load.
Cemented clayey material also exhibits some degree of permanent deformation under repeated loading and a
certain amount of creep under steady loads. Cemented sand and gravel exhibit a similar performance but
permanent deformation and creep are less than in cemented clayey soils. The less fines are present in the soil
mixture the more the cement-treated soil behave like concrete. Altogether, this means that the influence of
the parent soil is still noticeable in the performance of the stabilized material.

Fatigue characteristics: Cement stabilized materials cracks either due to hydration and drying shrinkage and
fatigue at the result of repeated tensile stresses (strains). Knowledge of fatigue characteristics of cement-
treated materials is essential for design purposes. It has been apparent that the parent soil has a great
influence on the fatigue characteristics of cement stabilized materials. Although there seems a great variation,
there is indeed something like a threshold strain level under which no fatigue will occur.

Since durability and UCS are strongly related, the durability test is normally used in the soil-cement mix design
procedure. However, UCS test is also used as an additional test to the durability test. Durability is defined as a
loss in weight of a specimen after 12 freeze-thaw cycles or 12 wet-dry cycles. The material loss is generated by
brushing the samples after each cycle.

C) Lime stabilization
Lime is a broad term which is used to describe calcium oxide (CaO) – quick lime; calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 –
hydrated lime, and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) – carbonate of lime. Out of these, calcium oxide and calcium
hydroxide react with soil and calcium carbonate is of no value for stabilization. In practice, various forms of
quick lime and hydrated lime have been successfully utilized as a soil stabilizing agent. The most commonly used
products are hydrated calcite lime (Ca (OH2)), monohydrated dolomitic lime (Ca (OH2) MgO), calcite quick lime
(CaO), dolomitic quick lime (CaOMgO). They are available as commercial and waste lime. Lime can be applied as
dry hydrated lime, quick lime or slurry lime.

As has been indicated above, lime is an effective stabilizing agent for clayey materials to improve both
workability and strength. Lime is not effective with cohesion less or low cohesion materials without the
addition of secondary (pozzolanic-fine materials which react with lime to form cementitious compounds)
additives. The cementitious products resulting from cement and lime stabilization are with comparable
behaviour and may follow fairly similar evaluation, design, and construction considerations. The significant
difference in the nature and rate of cementitious reactions, however, is a basis for the choice between cement
and lime.

The reaction between soil and lime are complex and still not completely understood. Basically four different
factors are involved in the soil-lime reaction which are: cation exchange, flocculation, pozzolanic reaction, and
carbonation. Cation exchange is an immediate reaction and unlike pozzolanic reaction, it is not significantly
dependent on temperature in which cations such as sodium and hydrogen are replaced by calcium ions for which
the clay mineral has a greater affinity. It has been shown that the thickness of the water layer around the clay
particles decrease substantially as the result of cation exchanges. This condition in turn promotes the

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development of flocculent structures. This means that plasticity, shrinkage and swelling and other normal clay –
water interactions are distinctly inhibited. The effects of lime on the plasticity properties of soils are
primarily due to cation exchange reactions. An immediate reduction in plasticity results in an immediate
increase in shear strength. The effect of lime on clay minerals of high cation exchange capacity, such as
montmorillonite clays, is therefore more apparent than it is on clay minerals of low cation exchange capacity
such as koalinite clays.

Figure 2.15. Effect of time on the plasticity of lime stabilized clays

Chemically equivalent amounts of quick lime and hydrated lime have the same effect on plasticity. However,
quick lime has an additional drying effect since, the chemical reaction between the lime and the water in the
soil removes free water from the sol and the heat produced by the reaction assists in drying.

The change in plasticity is accompanied by an immediate change in the strength of the soil as measured by the
CBR. Figure 6 4 shows how the effect of lime on the CBR value increases with time as the pozzolanic reactions
take effect. Siliceous and aluminous materials in the soil react with lime to produce a gel of calcium silicates
and aluminates. This gel cements the soil particles together in a manner that is similar to that of hydrated
cement. Minerals in the soil that react with lime to produce a cementing compound are known as pozzolans.
Lime-cementing action in a soil is usually a slow process; depending on the type of pozzolans, it takes
considerably more time than required for hydration of Portland cement. This long term effect on strength,
causing continuing strength improvements with time, often called pozzolanic reactions. The cementing action
also depends on climatic conditions and a thorough compaction of the mixture. High curing temperatures have a
positive effect on the pozzolanic reactions. Temperatures lower than 13 and 16oC retard the reaction; from
this point of view it is obvious that lime stabilization is especially popular in tropical countries.

Carbonation occurs when the hydrated lime reacts with the CO2 from the air. Carbonates (CaCO3) add some
strength but the carbonation reaction “eats” the lime and will therefore deter pozzolanic reactions.

Figure 2.16. Effect of lime content and time on the CBR values of lime stabilised soil

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Other factors that are of influence on the soil-lime reaction are:

 The presence of excessive quantities of organic carbon retards the lime-soil reaction,
 Moderately weathered and unweathered soils with high pH display good reactivity,
 Poorly drained soils exhibit a higher degree of lime-reactivity than better drained soils,
 All calcareous soils react satisfactorily with lime, and
 A minimum amount of clay approximately 15 % is required to insure an adequate source of silica and/or
alumina for the lime-soil pozzolanic reaction.

The strength of lime stabilized materials is dependent on the amount of lime, the curing time, curing
temperature and compaction. In addition, the quality of water, type of stabilizing lime, and uniformity of mixing
are important factors affecting the quality of production as they are in cement stabilization. Although lime
modifies or bonds soil as in cement stabilization, the tendency to form bound products is less with lime than it
is with cement. Lime has more tendencies to produce granular materials and consequently its major applications
are in the modification of clays, plastic sands, and plastic gravels.
Mix design procedures for lime stabilisation are the determination of the maximum amount of lime that can be
taken by the soil before free lime occurs (the lime content above which further increases do not produce
significant additional strength) or the lime requirement to attain a specific strength levels. Characteristics
related design procedures are related to the conditions for which they have been developed. The usually used
minimum strength requirements for mix design are 0.69 MPa for subbase and 1.03 MPa for base courses. These
minimum strengths are related to the AASHTO coefficients of relative strength of 0.12 for subbase materials
and 0.11 for base-course materials. When lime is used for subgrade improvements, the design lime content may
be designated as the lime content above which no further appreciable reduction in PI occurs or a minimum lime
content which produces an acceptable PI reduction. For field construction, the lime content is increased 0.5 to
1.0 % to offset the effect of field variability.

D) Bituminous Stabilization
Bituminous stabilization is used with non-

strength with increase in moisture content. Both effects take place partly from the formation of bitumen film
around the soil particles which bonds them together and prevents the absorption of water, and partly from
simple blocking of the pores, preventing water from entering the soil mass. Because more care is necessary in
bituminous stabilization to achieve satisfactory mixing, its use has not been as widespread as cement and lime
stabilizations.

Bituminous materials. The bituminous materials that are used for stabilization works are mostly penetration
grade bitumen and cutback bitumen and bitumen emulsion. The characteristics of cutbacks depended on the
particle size distribution of the soil, the temperature of application, and the type of mix plant. The more
viscous binders are normally used soils having only a small proportion of material passing the 0.075 mm sieve and
for plat mixes, while the lighter binders are used for mix-in-place methods and with soils containing a larger
proportion of fines. Emulsions are generally suitable for soil stabilization in climate where rapid drying
conditions occur, since this is equivalent to adding water to the soil as well as bituminous binder. I the tropics,
where the temperature is high the use of emulsions may be an advantage since it helps to provide part of the
optimum moisture content for compaction, thereby reducing the amount of water necessary for this purpose.

Soil requirements. Bituminous materials are used for the stabilization of both cohesive and non-cohesive
granular soils. Sols which can readily pulverized by construction equipment are satisfactory for bituminous
stabilization. Cohesive soils usually have satisfactory bearing capacity at low moisture content. The purpose of
using bitumen as a stabilizer in such soils is to waterproof them as a means to maintain them at low moisture
contents and high bearing capacities. In the non-cohesive granular materials, bitumen serves as a bonding or
cementing agent between particles. Depending on the particle size distribution and physical properties of the
available soil materials and the function of the stabilising bitumen, there are four types of soil-bitumen
mixtures in highway engineering:

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1. Soil-bitumen: this is a mixture of cohesive soil and bitumen for waterproofing purposes. The maximum grain
size should preferably not greater than one-third of the compacted layer. The best result has been obtained
with soils that fall within the grain size limits shown in Table 6 3. The bitumen requirements commonly range
from 4-7% of the dry weight of the soil.

2. Sand bitumen: sands such as beach, river, pit, or existing roadway sand may be stabilized with bitumen if
they are substantially free from vegetable matter, lumps or balls of clay or adherent films of clay. Sometimes
it may require admixture of filler material to meet mechanical stability requirements. It is recommended that
the sand contain less than 12 % of 0.075 mm. however, in the case of windblown sands up to 25 % finer than
0.075 mm may be allowed provided that the portion of the sand passing the No. 40 sieve has a field moisture
less than 20 % and linear shrinkage less than 5 %. The required amount of bitumen content ranges from 4-10 %,
the optimum should be determined by compaction, strength, and water resistance testing and should not exceed
the pore space of the compacted mineral mix.

3. Waterproofed granular stabilization: This is a system in which a soil material possessing good gradation of
constituent particles from coarse to fine, and having high potential density is waterproofed by uniform
distribution of small amount (1-2 %) of bitumen. Recommended gradations of the soil aggregate materials are
shown in Table 2.11.

4. Oiled earth: This is a soil surface, consisting of silt-clay material made water and abrasion resistant by slow
or medium curing bitumen cutbacks or emulsions.

Table 2.11. Characteristics of soils empirically found suitable for bitumen stabilization
Percent passing
Sieve size Waterproofed granular stabilization
Soil-bitumen Sand-bitumen A B C
1.5 inch 100
1 inch 80-100 100
0.75 inch 65-85 80-100 100
No.4 > 50 100 40-65 50-75 80-100
No.10 25-50 40-60 60-80
No.40 35-100 15-30 20-35 30-50
No.100 10-20 13-23 20-35
No.200 10-50 <12;<251 8-12 10-16 13-30
Plasticity characteristics
LL <40
PI <18 <10;<15 <10;<15 <10;<152
Field moisture <201
Linear shrinkage <51
* Lower value for wide and higher values for narrow gradation band sand
** values between 10 and 15 permitted in certain cases

The mechanism of stabilization with bituminous materials consists of adding cohesive strength and reducing the
percolation of water; no chemical interaction is taking place. Waterproofing occur by coating the surface of
particles or aggregated lumps of particles or by blocking the pores of the soil mass, and a strength comes from
the presence of a continuous film of bitumen, giving cohesion. There are two opposing effects – the thinner the
film of bitumen the stronger the material; however, thick films or filled pores are the most effective in
preventing ingress of water. Too much bitumen, however, causes loss of strength by lubricating the particles
and preventing interlock.

The mix design procedure for bituminous treatments of soils may be considered under four headings: mix
design for stability in non-cohesive material; mix design for waterproofing in non-cohesive or cohesive
materials; mix design for sand-bitumen mixes, and mix design for oiled earth roads. For the first three types
of mix, a series of tests should be made with varying bitumen contents and grades using hot bitumen, cutback

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and emulsion, and the appropriate mix is selected giving due weight to the need for stability or water
resistance as required. Compaction, compressive, and water absorption test are normally used to select the
optimum amount of bitumen content.

Many difficulties in construction and poor pavement performance may be attributed to a lack of appreciation of
this additive effect.

2.1.4. PORTLAND CEMENT

It is the name given to a cement obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous or other lime bearing
material with if required, and argillaceous, or other silica, alumina and iron oxide-bearing material, burning them
at a clinkering temperature, and grinding the resulting material. No material, other than gypsum, water and
grinding aids may be added after burning.

The raw materials Lime stone or chalk Calcareous materials and clay or shale  argillaceous materials
(Alumina & silica). The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done in water – Wet process or in a dry
condition- Dry process.

Mechanism of Hydration and Setting

There are two groups of compounds in cement:

 The one that reacts slowly in water Casio2

 The one that reacts quickly in water tricaso4, tri calcium Aluminates, tri calcium silicate.

The whole process result in two phases

 Liquid phase- fresh water and cement compounds (chemical reaction), temporary Plastic matter.
 Solid phase -after setting time.

In common with many chemical reactions, the hydration of cement compounds is exothermic, and there is heat
liberated.

Types of Portland cement

 Properties of cement are influenced by the dominant properties of the individual cpds. (C3S, C2S, C3A,
C4AF). Thus, by varying the percentage of these cpds, one can obtain PC of different characteristics.
 The main types of Portland cement include:

Table 2.12. Types of cements

Name ASTM description Name ASTM description

Ordinary cement Type I Sulphate Resisting cement Type V
Modified cement Type II Portland Pozzolana cement Type IP
Rapid hardening cement Type III White cement _
Extra Rapid hardening cement _ Portland blast furnace
cement Type IS
Low heat cement Type IV

2.1.4.1. TESTS ON THE PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Tests can be:

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a) Chemical - to check the quality of the product

- Results are reported in terms of oxides
- Mostly done in the cement plant lab

b) Physical - Setting times, soundness tests, strength tests etc.

Normal Consistency and Setting Times of Cement

Since different batches of cement differ in fineness, pastes with the same water content may differ in
consistency when first mixed. For this reason the consistency of the paste is standardized by varying the
water content until the paste has a given resistance to penetration, when it is first mixed. When testing the
Portland cement it is necessary to carry out trial mixes until a mix of the required consistency is obtained. The
quantity of water required to produce a paste of standard consistency is needed for the determination of the
water content of mortar for tensile test, soundness test and setting time tests.

It is essential that cement set neither too rapidly nor too slowly. In the first case there might be insufficient
time to transported and place the concrete before it becomes too rigid. In the second case too long a setting
period tends to slow up the work unduly, also it might postpone the actual use of the structure because of
inadequate strength at the desired age. Setting refers to the stiffening process which cement paste,
undergoes as time elapses. It should not be confused with hardening, which refers to the gain in mechanical
strength after the paste has solidified. The setting test measures the time taken for the cement paste to
offer a certain degree of resistance to penetration of a special attachment passed in to it. Two periods of
times are used to assess the setting behavior. These are called the "initial setting time" and the "final setting
time". The Vic at apparatus for testing consistency, initial setting time and final setting time is shown Figure
2.17.

Normal Consistency: measured by Vicat apparatus

Procedure:
1. A trial paste of cement and water is mixed
2. Fill the Vicat mould with cement paste & put centrally under the rod
3. Lower the plunger gently & bring in contact with the surface of the paste and released it quickly.
4. 30 seconds after releasing the plunger, the penetration is recorded.

The paste is standard (normal) consistency when the rod settles 10 ± 1 mm below the original surface.

*Usual ranges of w/c for normal consistency is 26-33%

Setting times: determined by Vicat apparatus

Procedure:

1. Fresh concrete paste of normal consistency is prepared

2. About 30 min. after mixing fill the Vicat mold & put centrally under the rod
3. Lower the needle gently & bring in contact with the surface of the paste and released it quickly.
4. Thirty seconds after releasing the needle the penetration is recorded. This is repeated every 15
minutes until a penetration of 25mm or less is obtained in thirty seconds.
5. The results of all penetration tests are recoded, and the time when a penetration of 35mm is
obtained is determined by interpolation. The period elapsing between the time when the water is

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added to the cement and the time at which the needle penetrates 25mm is taken as the initial
setting time.

 For the determination of the final setting time, the needle with an annular attachment replaces the
needle of the Vicat apparatus (of initial setting time). The cement shall be considered as finally set when,
upon applying the needle gently to the surface of the test block, only the needle makes an impression, while
the attachment fails to do so.

Figure 2.17. Cement setting time measuring equipment

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CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN OF PAVING MIXTURE

INTRODUCTION
The bituminous mix design aims to determine the proportion of bitumen, filler, fine aggregates, and coarse
aggregates to produce a mix which is workable, strong, durable and economical.

Coarse aggregates: Offer compressive and shear strength and shows good interlocking properties. (Granite)

Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the binder. (Sand, Rock dust)

Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. (Rock dust, cement, lime)

Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and gluing and offers impermeability. (Bitumen, Asphalt, Tar)

3.1. OBJECTIVES OF MIX DESIGN

The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by proportionating various components so as to
have:

 sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement,

 sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher temperature,
 sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional compaction by traffic,
 sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation,
 sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by traffic, and
 Sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks.

Types of Mixes
Well-graded mix: - Dense mix, bituminous concrete has good proportion of all constituents and are called
dense bituminous macadam, offers good compressive strength and some tensile strength
Gap-graded mix: - Some large coarse aggregates are missing and has good fatigue and tensile strength.
Open-graded mix: - Fine aggregate and filler are missing, it is porous and offers good friction, low strength
and for high speed.

3.2. FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS MIXES

Stability: the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load. Two examples offailure are (i)
shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas subject to severe acceleration and (ii) grooving
- longitudinal ridging due to channelization of traffic.

Stability depend on the inter-particle friction, primarily of the aggregates and the cohesion offered by the
bitumen. Sufficient binder must be available to coat all the particles at the same time should offer enough
liquid friction. However, the stability decreases when the binder content is high and when the particles are
kept apart.

Durability: the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Weathering causes hardening
due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains.
Typical examples of failure are (i) pot-holes, - deterioration of pavements locally and (ii) stripping, loss of
binder from the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder content
since they cause the mix to be air and waterproof and the bitumen _lm is more resistant to hardening.

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Flexibility: a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load and prevent cracking
of surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface (hairline-cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are
shrinkage and brittleness of the binder. Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging.
Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the surface due to traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will give
better exibility and less fracture.

Skid resistance: the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on the surface
texture and bitumen content. It is an important factor in high speed traffic. Normally, an open graded coarse
surface texture is desirable.

Workability: the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the required condition
and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its
type. Angular, aky, and elongated aggregates workability. On the other hand, rounded aggregates improve
workability.

The desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows:

 Stability to meet traffic demand

 Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
 Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
 Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season
 Sufficient workability for construction
 Economical mix

3.3. PAVEMENT MIX DESIGN

The mix design (wet mix) determines the optimum bitumen content. This is preceded by the dry mix design.
There are many methods available for mix design which vary in the size of the test specimen,
compaction, and other test specifications. Marshall method of mix design is the most popular one and is
discussed below.

Marshall Mix Design

The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance prediction measure for the Marshall mix
design method. The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load supported by the test
specimen at a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute. Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and the maximum
load is designated as stability. During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the specimen’s plastic
flow (deformation) as a result of the loading. The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments
at the same time when the maximum load is recorded. The important steps involved in marshal mix design
are summarized next.

Specimen preparation

Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175oC to 190oC. Bitumen is
heated to a temperature− of 121 125oC with the first trial percentage of bitumen (say 3.5 or 4% by
weight of the material aggregates) to the heated aggregates and thoroughly mixed at temperature of
154oC to 160oC . The mix is placed in a preheated mould and compacted by a rammer with 50 blows on
either side at temperature of 138oC to 149oC. The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of
the specimen may be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5+/-3 mm. Vary the bitumen
content in the next trial by +0.5% and repeat the above procedure. Number of trials are predetermined.
The prepared mould is loaded in the Marshall Test setup as shown in the figure below.

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Determine the properties of the mix

The properties that are of interest include the theoretical specific gravity G t , the bulk specific gravity
of the mix Gm , percent air voids Vv , percent volume of bitumen Vb , percent void in mixed aggregate VMA
and percent voids filled with bitumen VFB. These calculations are discussed next. To understand these
calculation a phase diagram is given in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Marshall Machine and Mould

Theoretical specific gravity of the mix (Gt)

Theoretical specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity without considering air voids, and is given by:

where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W 2 is the weight of fine aggregate in
the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of bitumen in the total mix, G 1
is the apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate, G 2 is the apparent specific gravity of fine
aggregate, G3 is the apparent specific gravity of filler and Gb is the apparent specific gravity of
bitumen,

Bulk specific gravity of mix ( Gm)

The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix Gm is the specific gravity considering air
voids and is found out by:

Where, Wm is the weight of mix in air, Ww is the weight of mix in water,

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Air v o i d s percent (Vv)

Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by:

Where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix, given by equation 1and Gm is the bulk or actual
specific gravity of the mix given by equation 2.

Percent volume of bitumen (Vb)

The volume of bitumen Vb is the percent of volume of bitumen to the total volume and given by:

Where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of fine aggregate in
the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of bitumen in the total mix, G b
is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen, and Gm is the bulk specific gravity of mix given by equation
above.

Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and is the sum of air voids
and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from

Where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix, given by equation above and Vb is percent bitumen content in
the mix, given by equation above.

Voids filled w i t h bitumen ( VFB)

Voids filled with bitumen VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with the bitumen, and is
calculated as:

Where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix, and VMA is the percent voids in the mineral aggregate.

Determine Marshall Stability and flow

Marshall stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce failure when the
specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test head and the load is applied at
a constant strain (5 cm per minute). While the stability test is in progress dial gauge is used to measure the
vertical deformation of the specimen. The deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is
called the Marshall Flow value of the specimen.
Apply stability correction

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It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly vary from the standard specification
of 63.5 mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to be corrected to those which would have
been obtained if the specimens had been exactly 63.5 mm. This is done by multiplying each measured
stability value by an appropriated correlation factors as given in Table below.

Table 3.1. Correction factors for Marshall Stability values

Prepare graphical plots

The average values of the above properties are determined for each mix with different bitumen content and
the following graphical plots are prepared:

 Binder content versus corrected Marshall Stability

 Binder content versus Marshall Flow
 Binder content versus percentage of void (Vv) in the total mix
 Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
 Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity (Gm)

Figure 3.2. Marshal graphical Plot

Determine optimum bitumen content

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Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value of the following three
bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in the previous step.

1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability

2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)
3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids (Vv ) in the total
mix (i.e. 4%)

The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked with Marshall mix design specification chart
given in Table below. Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not desirable as the
pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy moving loads.

Table 3.2. Marshall Mix design specification

3.4. CONSTRUCTION OF ASPHALT CONCRETE SURFACING

 The prime coat is to be sprayed on top layer of crushed stone base. The construction method is detailed
hereunder.

a. Preparation of the layer

o The surface shall be cleaned by means of mechanical broom or air compressor. Care shall be exercised
not to cause any damage to the layer.

o Before the application of the prime coat, a light spray of water shall be applied to sufficiently dampen
the surface, if required. When the spraying of water is over applied, the surface shall be allowed to
dry until damp surface is obtained.

b. Application of prime coat

o Application rate of 1 liter per m2 spraying of MC-30 shall be applied at a temperature between 45 to
60oC on the prepared surface of the dry or slightly damp crushed stone base.

o Excess asphalt prime which is not absorbed shall be blotted up by fine aggregate and excess fine shall
be swept before the application of the asphalt concrete surfacing.

The actual spray rate shall not deviate from the spray rate determined by the engineer by more than
0.05lt/m2.

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The bituminous surfacing is to be laid on top layer of the primed crushed stone base. The construction method
is detailed hereunder.

a. Production of the mixture

o The production of approved mixture is carried out using batch plant. Each fraction of aggregate;
filler and binder are measured separately by mass and mixed in the pug mill until a homogeneous
mixture is obtained. The mixing time shall be the shortest possible to obtain uniform
distribution of binder and homogeneous mix. Process control testing is also regularly conducted
to maintain the quality of the mixture.

b. Delivery of the mixture

o The mixture is transported from the mixing plant to the working place in suitable trucks
covered by waterproof canvas to avoid the contamination with dust and cooling down of the same
due to cold, rain and wind.

c. Placing and compaction

o The mixture once the temperature is checked it shall be placed with a self-propelled
mechanical paver. During this process, the adjustment of the various parts of the mechanical
paver, screed, tamping bars, feed screws , hopper feed are frequently checked to ensure
uniform spreading of the mix.

o Soon after laying of the mix, rolling shall commence with the combination vibratory and non-
vibratory steel rollers and pneumatic-tyred roller at a speed of 5km per hour. The sequence of
rollers shall be selected during laying of the trials section. Rolling shall be done in the direction
of the paving, starting from the low side of the pavement and proceeding toward the high side.
Final rolling shall continue until roller marks and checks are completely removed.

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CHAPTER FOUR

PAVEMENT DESIGN

Introduction

The two key components of pavement design are structural design and mix design. This section deals
with pavement structural design.

4.1. PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCESS

The process of pavement design passes through identifying the parameters of pavement thickness
design and determining the traffic volume passing the highway routes and using this trying to design a
pavement that can sustain all the constraints applied on the road.

4.2. PARAMETERS OF PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN

Design factors can be divided into four broad categories: traffic loading, environment, materials, and
failure criteria. In this section, the factors in each category will be described and how these factors
are considered in the design process will briefly be discussed.

4.2.1. ENVIRONMENT

The environmental factors that influence pavement design include temperature, and precipitation.
Different standards of pavement design consider the effects of these factors in various ways.

A) Temperature

The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that on concrete pavements.
Temperature affects the resilient modulus of bituminous layers and creates thermal stresses in
cement concrete slabs. In cold climates, the resilient modulus of unstabilised materials also varies with
freeze-thaw cycles.

The elastic and viscoelastic properties of bituminous materials are affected significantly by pavement
temperature. When the temperature is low, the bituminous layer becomes rigid and has less fatigue
life. The stiffness is also influenced by the condition of the mix and the hardness of the binder used.
To minimize thermal contraction cracking at low temperature, a relatively soft binder and high binder
content would be used, whereas for hot conditions the hardness of the binder would be increased and
the binder content reduced to minimize plastic flow in the material.

The warping stresses in rigid pavements are generated principally by temperature changes. Warping
stresses some times of the year or the day are additive to the traffic stresses and can influence the
slab thickness requirements. Shortening the slab length reduces the effect of these stresses.

Another effect of temperature on pavement design in cold climate is the frost penetration, which
results in a frost heave, and stronger subgrade in the winter but a much weaker subgrade in the spring.
Frost heave causes differential settlements and pavement roughness. The most detrimental effect of
frost penetration occurs during the spring period when the ice melts and the subgrade is in a
saturated condition. It is desirable to protect the subgrade by using non-frost-susceptible materials
or the design should take into account the weakening of the subgrade.

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B) Precipitation

Precipitation is important in the design, construction, and performance of reads in three main aspects:

 The construction of earth works

 Strength of pavement structure
 Surface water drainage

The construction of earthworks: The specification of earthworks is normally defined either directly
or in terms of a standard compaction test. The design engineer should ensure that the contractor
meets the requirements of such specification. Such requirements in areas where there are
considerable dry months, such as in arid regions, transporting water can considerably increase the
construction cost. In contrary, there are areas where excess rainfall over evaporation falls and cause
difficulty for earthworks, and attaining the specification will only be possible in few dry months.

Strength of pavement structure: The natural moisture content of the soil determines the subgrade
strength to be used in the design of the pavement structure. It is the responsibility of the design
engineer to estimate the natural moisture content and the corresponding strength of the subgrade and
ensure that this moisture content is maintained throughout the service life of the pavement structure.
Furthermore, if the surface of a pavement is not impervious, water in the form of rainfall percolates
easily and can degrade the structural performance of each layer of the pavement structure.

Surface water drainage: The maximum intensity of rainfall is required for the design of the surface
water drainage system of the road. This may include from open side ditches to crossing structures like
bridges. Minimum grades of roads are also decided based on the criterion of pavement drainage. The
link between rainfall and surface drainage is also important in the design and construction of roads.

4.2.2. MATERIALS

Pavement materials include soils, aggregates, bituminous binders, and cement. The properties of these
materials under traffic loading in a given environmental conditions is fundamental for the proper design
of pavement structures. Moreover, if economically constructed facilities are to be obtained, locally
available materials are to be used efficiently.

The materials used in the construction of a highway are of interest to the highway engineer to many
other branches of Civil Engineering where the engineer need not to be very deeply concerned with the
properties of the materials being used.

Site investigation, aggregates, binders, and mixtures. The properties of these materials is essential
whether we use empirical or mechanistic methods of design.

4.2.3. TRAFFIC LOADING

The loading applied by traffic is one of the major factors affecting the design and performance of
pavements. It is fundamental to estimate the structural wear produced by traffic quantitatively both
for the purposes of pavement design and maintenance and for making comparisons of the structural
effects of different traffic loading conditions. The configuration, magnitude, and repetitions of axle
loads are important aspects of traffic loading that are considered in the analysis and design of
pavements.

The principal function of pavement structure is to protect the subgrade from the loading imposed by
traffic. The primary loading factors that are important in the structural analysis and design of

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pavements are the magnitude, configuration, and repetition of traffic loading. The magnitude of
maximum loading is commonly controlled by legal load limits. Traffic surveys and load meter studies are
often used to establish the relative magnitude and occurrence of the various loadings to which a
pavement is subjected. Prediction or estimation of the total traffic that will use a pavement during its
design life is a very difficult but obviously important task.

A) Axle-loads and configurations

Axle loads affect primarily the stresses and strains developed in the lower layers of the pavement.
Although much publicity is given to the physical size and gross weight of vehicles, it is the individual
wheel or axle-load that is critical in pavement design and performance. Vehicle size and weight may
have a devastating effect on the environment but will not necessarily increase pavement wear. Heavier
loads are usually carried on a larger numbers of axles or wheels thereby maintaining or even reducing
the individual wheel or axle loads, although their number may be increased. Most countries limit, by
law, the maximum axle-load of vehicles that may use the roads without special permission. Some of
these limits are:

It has been found difficult to enforce such limits and considerable effort is being directed to the
development of:
 An on-board axle-load indicator, at reasonable cost, which could work in a similar way to the
tachograph;
 A relatively cheap axle-load measuring sensor to monitor the magnitude of dynamic axle-loads
at the roadside.

Table 4.1: Maximum axle-load of vehicles in Europe

Gross vehicle weight Maximum Axle load limit
Country
(tonnes) (tonnes)
France 38 12
Germany 38 10
Italy 44 12
United Kingdom 38 10. 2
EU proposal 44 11

Small vehicles use single axles with single wheels. Larger vehicles mostly have either dual wheels or
single wheels with 'super-single' tyres at each end of the non-steer single axles; still larger vehicles
may have tandem or multiple axles arrangements in which the successive axles are closely adjacent to
one another. The larger aircraft use quite complicated wheel arrangements because the total weight of
the aircraft has usually to be transmitted through two undercarriage legs, and many wheels are
necessary to obtain a reasonably low individual wheel load.

The spacing and configuration of wheels and axles vary with the purpose of the motor vehicle. The
arrangement of wheels and axles affect the stress distribution and deflection within and below the
pavement structure. Unless an equivalent single-axle or single-wheel load is used, the consideration of
multiple axles or multiple wheels is not a simple matter. Rholdes (1996) cites literatures to
substantiate the effect of multiple-axle and multiple-wheel loads. The AASHO Road Test showed that
an 80 KN single axle-load produced about the same level of pavement wear as a 142 kN tandem axle-
load. More recently, it has also been shown by Atkinson and Blackman that a single wheel load would
cause 2.5 times as much fatigue wear per wheel pass as a dual wheel applying the same total load. The
design may, thus, be unsafe if the tandem and tridem axles are treated as a group and considered as
one repetition. The design is too conservative if each axle is treated independently and considered as
one repetition. Similarly, if the pavement is to be designed for a fixed traffic, the case for airport
pavements or highway pavements with heavy wheel loads but light traffic volume, multiple wheels must

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be converted to an equivalent single wheel load. Methods for analyzing multiple-axle and multiple-wheel
loads are presented in Section.
B) Tyre pressure

For most problems, the wheel load is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. If a
given load is applied via a number of different tyre pressures, the structural effects in the upper
layers are affected, whereas those deeper in the pavement are relatively unaffected. This is due
primarily to the area of the tyre pavement surface contact patch varying with tyre pressure. As
indicated in Figure 4.1, the contact pressure is greater than the tyre pressure for low-pressure tyres,
because the wall of tyres is in compression and the sum of vertical forces due to wall and tyre
pressure must be equal to the force due to the contact pressure; the contact pressure is smaller than
the tyre pressure for high pressure tyres. However, in pavement design, the contact pressure is
generally assumed to be equal to the tyre pressure. Because, heavier axle loads have higher tyre
pressures and more destructive effects on pavements, the use of tyre pressure as the contact
pressure is therefore on the safe side.

Figure 4.1: Relationship between contact pressure and tyre pressure

As will be seen in the coming sections, it is only the commercial vehicle that is important in structural
pavement design and a typical tyre pressure would be 0.5 MN/m2. Aircraft tyres use pressures up to
nearly 3.0 MN/m2 which can cause serious problems in the design of the materials employed in the
upper layers of the pavement.

The approximate shape of contact area for each tyre, which is composed of a rectangle and two
semicircles with the dimensions shown Figure 4.2a. Based on the finite element analysis of rigid
pavements, a rectangular contact area is also assumed with a length of 0.8712L and a width of 0.6L,
which has the same area of 0.5227L2, as shown Figure 4.2b.

a) Actual contact area b) Equivalent contact area

Figure 4.2: Dimensions of tyre contact area

These contact areas are not axisymmetric and cannot be used with the layered theory. When the
layered theory is used for flexible pavement design, it is assumed that each tyre has a circular contact
area. This assumption is not correct, but the error incurred is believed to be small. To simplify the
analysis of flexible pavements, a single circle with the same contact area as the duals is frequently
used to represent a set of dual tyres, instead of using two circular areas. This practice usually results
in a more conservative design, but may become non-conservative for thin asphalt surface.

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C) Number of repetitions

A succession of loads has a cumulative effect on the behaviour of pavements. It is therefore

necessary to design the pavement for a specified number of years and to estimate the total number
and magnitude of loads that will be applied during the periods specified. A widely accepted procedure
of considering traffic load is the use of equivalent factor and convert each load into an equivalent 80
kN single axle load. The equivalency between two different loads depends on the failure criteria used.
Equivalent factor based on permanent deformation may be different from those based on fatigue
cracking. Generally, an empirical approximation of a single equivalent factor is used for practical
purposes.

D) Speed of traffic loading

Another factor related to traffic loading is the speed of traveling vehicles. Studies showed that the
stresses and deflections tend to decrease as the vehicle speed increases. Speed is directly used as the
duration of loading on pavements. Generally, the greater the speed, the larger the modulus, and the
smaller the strains in the pavement. Because of this, for a given volume of traffic, greater thickness
and quality of paving materials are required for pavements in urban areas than those in rural areas.
Similarly, such requirements are considered for uphill roads and bus stops.

4.2.3.1. TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

The deterioration of paved roads is caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the
individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. Hence, to design a paved
highway, it is necessary to consider not only the traffic volume or the total number of vehicles that
will use the road but also to predict the number of repetitions of each axle load group (or wheel load
group) during the design period. To convert the traffic volumes into cumulative equivalent standard
axle loads (ESAL or CESAL which is one design parameter in pavement design) equivalency factors are
used.

On the other hand, the mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of paved roads.
Design of thickness of gravel roads is directly related to the number of vehicles using the road rather
than the number of equivalent standard axles as that for paved roads. The traffic volume is therefore
used in the design of unpaved roads (gravel roads), as opposed to the paved roads which require the
conversion of traffic volumes into the appropriate cumulative number of equivalent standard axles.

In this section, method of determining the traffic volume and CESAL with reference to Ethiopian
Roads Authority (ERA) Pavement Design Manual will be discussed.

The following Parameters and Considerations/Steps are involved in Traffic Analysis for pavement
design.

Design Period

The length or duration of time during which the pavement structure is expected to function
satisfactorily without the need for major intervention (rehabilitation such as overlays or

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reconstruction) or the duration in time until the pavement structure reaches its terminal condition
(failure condition). Selecting appropriate design period depends on

 Functional importance of the road

 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic

Longer Design Period – for important roads, high traffic volume, roads in difficult location and terrain
where regular maintenance is costly and difficult due to access problems or lack of construction
material

Short Design Period – if there is problem in traffic forecasting, financial constraints, etc.

Table 4.2. ERA recommended: Design Period

Road Classification Design Period (years)

Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10

A) DETERMINE TRAFFIC VOLUME (ADT, AADT)

i) Vehicle classification
 Small axle loads from private cars and other light vehicles do not cause significant pavement damage.
 Damage caused by heavier vehicles (commercial vehicles)
 Hence, important to distinguish
 the proportion of vehicles which cause pavement damage (commercial vehicles) from total
traffic
 To do this, we need to have a vehicle classification system –
 To distinguish between commercial vehicles and small cars
 Distinguish between the different types of commercial vehicles and group them according to
their type, size (loading), configuration, etc.

Table 4.3: ERA Vehicle Classification

Vehicle
Type of Vehicle Description
Code
Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger seats), taxis, pick-
1 Small car
ups, and Land Cruisers, Land Rovers, etc.
2 Bus Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger seats
3 Medium Truck Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7 tons load
4 Heavy Truck Trucks above 7 tons load
5 Articulated Truck Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker Trailers

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ii) Traffic Count

Traffic Count necessary

 To assess the traffic-carrying capacity of different types of roads

 Examine the distribution of traffic between the available traffic lanes
 In the preparation of maintenance schedules for in-service roads
 In the forecasting of expected traffic on a proposed new road from traffic studies on the
surrounding road system

Traffic volume data determined from

 Historical traffic data available in relevant authorities (ERA conducts regular 3 times a year
(Feb., Jul., Nov.) traffic counts on its major road network) and/or
 By conducting classified traffic counts:
 On the road to be designed – if the road is an existing road and the project is Upgrading,
Rehabilitation, Maintenance, reconstruction, etc.
 On other parallel routes and/or adjacent roads – for new roads
 Traffic volume data may vary daily, weekly, seasonally.
 Hence to avoid error in traffic analysis and capture the average yearly trend, minimum 7 days
count recommended

 ERA recommended procedure - Conduct 7 days classified traffic count with 5 days for 16 hrs.
and minimum 2 days for 24 hrs. (One week day and one weekend).

 For long projects, there may be large difference in traffic volume along the road and hence it
is necessary to make the traffic counts at several locations.

iii) ADT (Average Daily Traffic)

ADT is determined from the traffic count data as follows

 Adjust the 16hrs traffic count data into 24hr data by multiplying with the average night
adjustment factor
Night adjustment factor = (24hr traffic)/ (16hr traffic):- obtained from the two days 24hr
count data.
(ADT)o = the current Average Daily Traffic= Average of the 7 days 24 hr traffic volume data

iv) (AADT)o (Annual Average Daily Traffic = total annual traffic in both directions divided by 365)

 In order to capture the average annual traffic flow trend, adjustment must be made for
seasonal traffic variation,
 Hence traffic count as above must be made at different representative seasons (ERA conducts
traffic counts on February, July and November)
 Make adjustment to (ADT)o – based on the season at which the current traffic count belongs
to and based on seasonal adjustment factors for the road (or similar roads) derived from
historic traffic data (ERA or other regional/national sources)

(AADT)o = (ADT)o adjusted for seasonal variation

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B) Traffic Forecast – determining traffic growth rate over the design period

 Very uncertain process

 Requires making analysis and forecast of past and future traffic growth trends, social and
economic development trends, etc
 In forecasting, Traffic categorized into the following:

 Normal Traffic: Traffic that would pass along the existing road or track even if no new or
improved pavement were provided.
o Forecasted by extrapolating data on traffic levels and assume that growth will
remain either
 Constant in absolute terms i.e. a fixed number of vehicles per year, or
 Constant in relative terms i.e. a fixed percentage increase.
o Growth rate can also be related linearly to anticipate Gross Domestic Product
(GDP).
 Diverted Traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin
and destination.
o Origin and destination surveys (O/D survey) should preferably be carried out to
provide data on the traffic diversions likely to arise.

 Generated Traffic:

o Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or improvement of the

road.
o It may arise either because a journey becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or
time reduction or because of the increased development that is brought about by the
road investment.
o Generated traffic is also difficult to forecast accurately and can be easily
overestimated.
 From thorough analysis of economic, social and development trends, determine overall growth rate r
for all vehicle categories or separate growth rate ri for each vehicle category.

Axle Load Survey

 Carried out together with the traffic count
 Portable vehicle(wheel) weighing devices or weigh in motion (WIM) devices can be used for
survey
 Each axle of the vehicle is weighed and EALF computed for each axle
4.5
L  = [Axle Load(Kg)/8160]4.5
EALF   x 
 80 

 Each axle of a tandem axle or tridem axle assembly is considered as one repetition and EALF
calculated for each axle i.e. a tandem axle constitutes 2 load repetitions and a tridem axle
constitutes 3 load repetitions. (according to ERA Pavement design manual)

 AASHTO pavement design procedure considers each passage of a tandem or tridem axle
assembly as one repetition and EALF calculated correspondingly.

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Truck factor

 Truck factor can be computed for each vehicle by summing up the number of ESAL per vehicle
 Average truck factor can be computed for each vehicle category (for example for Buses, Light
Trucks, Medium Trucks, etc.), by summing up the ESAL of all the vehicles in each category and
dividing by the number of vehicles (of that category) weighed:
n

 ESAL
j 1
j

TFi 
n

Where TFi = Truck factor for the ith vehicle category

n = number of vehicles weighed (of the ith vehicle category) during the axle load survey
ESALj = number of equivalent standard axle loads for the jth vehicle

C) Design Traffic Loading

The data and parameters obtained from the studies discussed in the preceding sections can now be
used to estimate the design cumulative design traffic volume and loading.

i) Adjustment for Lane and Directional Distribution of Traffic – the AADT should be adjusted
as follows

Lane Distribution Factor (P): accounts for the proportion of commercial vehicles in the design
lane. For two lane highways, the lane in each direction is the design lane, so the lane distribution
factor is 100%. For multilane highways, the design lane is the heavily loaded lane (outside lane).

Table 4.4: Lane Distribution Factors (ERA/AASHTO)

Number of Lanes Percent Traffic (ESAL)

in each direction in design Lane
1 100
2 80 – 100
3 60 – 80
4 50 – 70

Directional Distribution Factor (D): factor that accounts for any directional variation in total
traffic volume or loading pattern. It is usually 0.5 (50%). However, could be adjusted based on
actual condition (if there is directional tendency to commercial vehicle distribution (volume or
loading); for example if the heavy vehicles in one direction are loaded and come back empty in the
other direction).

ii) Calculating (AADT)1

 AADT1 = Annual Average Daily Traffic (both directions) at year of Road Opening (year at which
construction works are completed and the whole road is made open for traffic).
 If time between traffic count year (design time) and estimated year of road opening = x, then

AADT1 = AADT0 (1+r)x

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Note: that AADT1 is used as the Design Traffic Parameter for Gravel Roads (ERA Pavement Design
Manual)

iii) Cumulative Traffic Volume (T) – can be computed for all traffic (T) or for each vehicle class (Ti)

Ti = 365 (P) (D) AADT1i [(1+ri)N – 1] / ( ri )

Where:
Ti = cumulative volume of traffic for the ith commercial vehicle class in the design lane over the
design period (adjusted for lane distribution and direction).
ri = annual growth rate for the ith commercial vehicle class
P = Lane distribution factor; D = Directional distribution factor
N = Design Period in years

iv) Design Traffic (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Load - CESAL) – is computed by
multiplying the total traffic volume for each vehicle category (T i) by its corresponding truck
factor (TFi)

Design Traffic Load = CESAL=∑(Ti x TFi)

Where: TFi= (Axle Load/8160)4.5

v) The CESAL is used to determine the traffic class to be employed for pavement design.

Table 4.5: ERA Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design

Traffic Range (106 ESAs)

classes
T1 <0.3
T2 0.3 – 0.7
T3 0.7 – 1.5
T4 1.5 – 3
T5 3–6
T6 6 – 10
T7 10 – 17
T8 17 – 30

4.3. PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE CRITERIA

Pavements are normally designed and constructed to provide, during the design life, a riding quality
acceptable for both private and commercial vehicles with acceptable maintenance. The assumption is
often made that road pavements begin to deteriorate as soon as they are open to traffic, particularly,
when they are under designed. But, where the design life is of the order of 20 years or more, there
should no visible deformation for the first five years.

Fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking are the three principal types of distress generally
considered for flexible pavement design. The fatigue cracking of flexible pavements is due to the
horizontal tensile strains at the bottom of bituminous layer. Rutting is a permanent deformation that
occurs on flexible pavements along the wheel path. Thermal cracking includes low-temperature and
thermal fatigue cracking. Low-temperature cracking is usually associated with flexible pavements in
cold regions where temperature fall below –23oC. Thermal fatigue cracking can occur in much milder
regions if an excessive hard bituminous binder is used or the binder becomes hardened duet ageing.

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Different methods of pavement design consider these pavement failures as design criteria, but
differently. In the AASHTO method of pavement design, a rating system known as the present
serviceability index (PSI) is used to account for performance of pavements. Others, such as the
Asphalt Institute and Shell relate the allowable number of load repetitions to control fatigue cracking
and permanent deformation. Several models are also available to estimate cumulative damage of
thermal cracking for a specified time after construction.

Fatigue cracking, pumping and other distresses such as faulting and joint deterioration are recognized
failures in rigid pavements. Fatigue cracking is most likely caused by the edge stress at the mid slab.
It has long been considered the major criterion for rigid pavement design. Although permanent
deformation is not considered in rigid pavements design, the resilient deformation under repeated
wheel loads causes pumping. The resulting corner deflection has been used as a criterion in addition to
the fatigue.

4.4. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN CATALOG

Description of the Catalog

The design of flexible pavements, as given in this manual, is based on the catalog of pavement
structures of TRL Road Note 31 (Ref. 1). Before the catalog is used, the traffic and subgrade should
be considered. Simultaneously, the information regarding availability, costs and past experience with
materials should be gathered. The catalog offers, in eight different charts, alternative pavement
structures for combinations of traffic and subgrade classes. The various charts correspond to distinct
combinations of surfacing and road base materials, as shown in Table below.

Table 4.6: Summary of Material Requirements for the Design Charts

All the charts provide alternate pavement structures for all subgrade classes (S1 through S6). They
are not however suitable for all classes of traffic, as some structures would be neither technically
appropriate nor economically justified.

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Use of the Catalog

Although the thicknesses of layers should follow the design charts whenever possible, some limited
substitution of materials between sub-base and selected fill is allowable based on the structural
number principles outlined in the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (Ref. 6). Where
substitution is allowed, a note is included with the design chart.

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4.5. STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

4.5.1. Stresses in Homogeneous Mass

Boussinesq formulated models for the stresses inside an elastic half-space due to a concentrated load
applied on the surface. A half-space has an infinitely large area and an infinite depth with a top plane
on which the loads are applied. The simplest way to characterize the behaviour of a flexible pavement
under wheel loads is to consider the subgrade, the subbase, base, and the surfacing layers to form a
homogeneous half-space. If the modulus ratio between the pavement and the subgrade is close to
unity, as exemplified by a thin asphalt surface and a thin granular base, the Boussinesq theory can be
applied to determine the stresses, strains, and deflections in the subgrade.

Figure 4.3 shows a homogeneous half-space subjected to a circular load with a

radius a and a uniform pressure q. The half-space has an elastic modulus E and a Poisson ratio, v. A
small cylindrical element with centre at a distance z below the surface and r from the axis of
symmetry is shown. Due to axisymmetry, there are only three normal stresses, z, r, and t, and one
shear stress, rz, which is equal to rz. These stresses are functions of q, r/ a, and z/ a.

Figure 4.3: Stresses under axisymmetric circular loading

Foster and Ahlvin have developed charts as provided here from Figure 4.4 to
Figure 4.8 for determining vertical stress z, radial stress r, tangential stress t, shear stress rz,
and vertical deflection w, assuming the half-space is incompressible with a Poisson ratio of 0.5.
After the stresses are obtained from the charts, the strains can be computed from

z 
1
E
 
 z    r   t 

r 
1
E
 
 r    t   z 

t 
1
E
 
 t    z   r 

If the contact area consists of two circles, the stresses and strains can be computed by superposition.

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Figure 4.4: Vertical stresses due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

Figure 4.5: Radial stresses due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

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Figure 4.6: Tangential stresses due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

Figure 4.7: Shear stresses due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

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Figure 4.8: Vertical deflections due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

When a wheel load is applied over a single contact area, the most critical stress, strain, and deflection
occur under the centre of the circular area on the axis of symmetry, where rz = 0 and r = t, so z
and r are the principal stresses.

The stresses, strain, and deflection on the axis of symmetry of a wheel load applied to a pavement,
which is similar to a load applied to a flexible plate with radius a and a uniform pressure q, can be
computed by:

 z3 
 z  q 1  1.5 
 
a2  z2  

q  21   z z3 
r  1  2  2  
2  a  z2 0.5
a2  z2    1.5


z 
1   q 1  2 
2z

z3 
 
E  a 2
 z2 
0.5
a 2
 z2  1.5


r 
1   q 1  2  21   z

z3 
 
2E  a 2
z 
2 0.5
a 2
z 
2 1.5


w
1   qa 
 2

a
 0.5

1  2

a2  z2 
0.5
z 
E a z a
2

When  = 0.5, the equation is simplified to

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3qa 2
w

2E a 2  z 2 
0.5

On the surface of the loaded half-space, z = 0, the deflection is

All the above analyses are based on the assumption that the flexible pavement is homogenous, isotropic
and semi-infinite, and that elastic properties are identical in every direction throughout the material.

With these assumptions, Bousinesq theory has the following drawbacks:

(1) Flexible pavements are multilayered structures each layer with its own modulus of
elasticity.
(2) The pavement layers and the subgrade soil are not perfectly elastic.
(3) The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may not be true.

4.5.2. Stresses in Layered Systems

In actual case, flexible pavements are layered systems with better materials on top and cannot be
represented by a homogeneous mass. Various multilayer theories for estimating stresses and
deflections have been proposed. However, basic theories that utilize assumptions close to actual
conditions in a flexible pavement are those proposed by Burmister. Burmister first developed solutions
for a two-layer system and then extended them to a three-layer system with the following basic
assumptions:

1. Each layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic with an elastic modulus E and a
Poisson ratio, .
2. The material is weightless and infinite in the lateral direction, but of finite depth, h,
whereas the underlying layer is infinite in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
3. A uniform pressure q is applied on the surface over a circular area of radius a.
4. The layers are in continuous contact and continuity conditions are satisfied at the layer
interfaces, as indicated by the same vertical stress, shear stress, vertical displacement,
and radial displacement.

4.5.2.1. Two-Layer Systems

The exact case of a two-layer system is the full-depth asphalt pavement construction in which a thick
layer of hot-mix asphalt is placed directly on the subgrade. If a pavement is composed of three layers
(e.g., surface course, base course, and subgrade) the stresses and strains in the surface layer can be
computed by combining the base course and the subgrade into a single layer. Similarly, the stresses
and strains in the subgrade can be computed by combining the surface course and base course.

Vertical stress: The stresses in a two-layer system depends on the modulus ratio E1/E2, and the

thickness-radius ratio h1/a.

Figure 4.9a shows the effect of pavement layer on the distribution of vertical stresses under the

centre of a circular loaded area when the thickness h1 of layer 1 is equal to the radius of contact area,

or h1/a = 1 and a Poisson ratio of 0.5 for all layers.

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Figure 4.9b also shows the effect of pavement thickness and modulus ratio on the vertical stress, c,

at the pavement-subgrade interface.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.9 :(a) Vertical stress distribution in a two-layer system (Burmister, 1958) and (b)
effect of pavement thickness and modulus ratio on pavement–subgrade interface vertical
stresses (Haung, 1969)

Deflection: Surface and interface deflections have been used as criteria of pavement design.
The surface deflection, w0, under a uniformly circular loaded area is given in terms of the
deflection factor F2 as:
1.5qa
w0  F2
E2
The deflection factor, F2, can be obtained from Figure 4.10 for the corresponding E1/E2 and
h1/a.

Figure 4.10: Vertical surface deflection for two-layer system (Burmister, 1943)

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The interface deflection, w, between the two layers is expressed in terms of the deflection
factor F as:

qa
w F
E2
The deflection factor, F, is different from F2 and provided in Figure 4.10 as a function of
E1/E2, h1/a, and r/a, where r is the radial distance from the centre of loaded area.

Figure 4.11: Vertical inteface deflection for two-layer systems (Haung, 1969)

Figure 4-11: (Continued)

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Critical tensile strain: The tensile strains at the bottom of the asphalt layer have been used as
a design criterion to prevent fatigue cracking. The critical tensile strain, e, at the bottom of the
first layer for a two-layer system can be determined by

q
e Fe
E1

Figure 4-121: Strain factor for single wheel (Haung, 1973)

Where, Fe is the strain factor that can be obtained in Figure 4.12 as a function of E1/E2, and
h1/a. The critical tensile strain under dual wheels or dual-tandem wheels is obtained from the
same equation, but the strain factor needs to be corrected.

4.5.2.2. Three-Layer System

With quick computational facilities available, the analysis of three or more layers is no more a
difficult task. The three-layer system can be conceived as follows:
1. Top layer, representing all the bituminous layers taken together,

2. Second layer, representing the unbound base and subbase courses, and

3. Third layer, representing the subgrade.

Figure 4-11 shows a three-layer system and the stresses at the interfaces on the axis of
symmetry.

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z1 = vertical stress at interface 1

z2 = vertical stress at interface 2

r1 = radial stress at bottom of layer 1

’r1 = radial stress at top of layer 2

r2 = radial stress at bottom of layer 2

‘r2 = radial stress at top of layer 3

Figure 4-13: Stresses at interfaces of a three-layer system under a uniform circular load

At the axis of symmetry, tangential and radial stresses are identical and the shear stress is
equal to 0.
Jones has developed a series of tables for determining the stresses in a three-layer system for
the following dimensionless parameters:

E1 E2
k1  k2 
E2 E3

a h1
A H
h2 h2

Part of Jones’s tables is presented here as Table 4.6, from which four sets of stress factors,
ZZ1, ZZ2, ZZ1-RR1, and ZZ2-RR2, can be obtained. The product of these factors and the
contact pressure gives the stresses as:

 z1  qZZ1

 z 2  qZZ 2

 z1   r1  qZZ1  RR1

 z 2   r 2  qZZ 2  RR2
From the continuity of horizontal displacement at the interfaces, ’r1 and ’r2 can be computed
from

 z1   r 1
 ' r 1   z1 
k1

 z2   r2
 'r 2   z 2 
k2
Once the stresses at the interfaces are calculated, strains can be computed from the equations
of strains.

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Table 4-7: Stress factors for three-layer systems (Jones, 1962)

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Table 4-7: (Continued)

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4.5.3. STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Stresses in rigid pavements result from variety of sources, of which the applied vehicle loads, changes in
temperature of the slab, friction between the slab and the subgrade or base course are the most important.
These factors tend to result in deformations of the concrete slab, which cause tensile, compression, and
flexural stresses of varying magnitude.

4.5.3.1. Stresses Due to Vehicle Loading

Three methods can generally be used to determine the stresses and deflections in concrete pavements due to
vehicle loading:
1. Westergaard’s formulas

2. Influence charts

3. Finite element analysis

Here, Westergaard’s formulas derived to examine three critical conditions of loading: corner loading, interior
loading, and edge loading far from any corner are described.
Westergaard’s assumptions:
 The concrete slab acts as a homogenous isotropic, elastic solid in equilibrium.
 The reactions of the subgrade are vertical only and they are proportional to the deflections of the slab.
 The thickness of the concrete slab is uniform.
 The load at the interior and the corner is distributed uniformly over a circular area of contact and the
circumference of the contact area at the corner is tangent to the edges of the slab.
 The edge loading is distributed uniformly over a semi-circular area, the diameter of the semi-circle
being at the edge of the slab.

Corner Loading: when a circular load is applied near the corner of the concrete slab, the stress, c, and the
deflection, c, at the corner are given by

3P   a 2  
0.6

 c  2 1    
h   l  
 

P   a 2 
c     
kl 2 
1.1 0.88  l 
 
 Eh 3 
l
In which P is the load, l is the radius of relative stiffness defined as
  
12 1   k 
2
0.25, k is the modulus of
the subgrade reaction, and a is the contact radius.

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Modulus of subgrade reaction, k, is the constant that defines the subgrade in classical works of rigid
pavements.
p  k
Where, p is the reactive pressure, and  is the deflection of the slab. The value of k is determined by means of
the plate-loading tests.

(a) (b)

Figure 4-2: (a) Definition of subgrade reaction, k, (b) plot of plate loading test to determine subgrade reaction

Interior Loading: The formula developed by Westergaard for the stress in the interior of a slab under a
circular loaded area of radius a is

31   P  l 
i   ln  0.6159
2 h 2  b 
in which l is the radius of relative stiffness and

b=a when a  1.724h

b  1.6a 2  h 2  0.675h When a < 1.724h

The deflection due to interior loading is

P 
 1  a  a 
2


i  1   ln  0.673  
8 kl 2  2
  2l  l  


Edge Loading: The stresses and deflections due to edge loading as formulated by Westergaard are:
For circular contact area

31   P  Eh 3  4v 1  v 1.181  2v a
e   ln   1.84   
3   h 2  100ka
4
 3 2 l

2  1.2vP  0.76  0.4v a 

e  1  
E h3k  l 
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For semicircular contact area

31   P  Eh 3  4v 1  2v a
e   ln   3.84  
3   h 2  100ka
4
 3 2l

2  1.2vP  0.323  0.17v a 

e  1  
E h3k  l 
When a load is applied over a set of dual tyres, the equations can be used after converting the contact area of
the dual tyres into a radius, a, of equivalent circular contact area as:
1/ 2
0.8521Pd S d  p d 
a   
q   0.5227q 
Where, Pd is the load on dual tyres, q is the contact pressure, S d is the spacing of the tyres.
Ned by the allowable bond stress.

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CHAPTER FIVE

HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION

Highway pavements, once constructed, will not last forever. After a time, signs of wear will appear. These signs
include cracking, rutting and polishing of the road’s surface. Maintenance and rehabilitation of highway
pavements are ongoing activities, critical for prolonging the life of highways. Methods for performing these
tasks vary from region to region and depend on the type of pavement.

Maintenance of Asphalt Pavement activities are divided into two categories, preventive and corrective
maintenance. Preventive maintenance is that group of activities performed to protect the pavement and
decrease the rate of deterioration of the pavement quality. Corrective maintenance is that group of activities
performed to correct a specific pavement failure or area of distress.

5.1. PAVEMENT DEFECT TYPES

An inventory of highway condition data is updated on a routinely regular basis in order to determine the
condition of the pavement and whether its level of deterioration is such that remedial action is necessary. The
data compiled will allow trends in the structural condition of a pavement to be established.

The three major types of routine assessment are (HD 30/99) (DoT, 1999):

Visual condition surveys: These record defects that remain undetected by machine-based methods. As the
method is slow and laborious, it is usually targeted on specific areas in particularly poor condition. The surveys
provide factual information for deciding on the most appropriate structural treatments, and identify sections
of highway suitable for remedial treatment. Planning for long-term treatment can thus be undertaken, with
performance of the pavements being monitored and priorities for treatment being established on the basis of
the database compiled.

High speed road monitor: The high speed road monitor (HRM) measures parameters such as riding quality,
texture and rutting. It consists of a van and 4.5 m-long trailer fitted with four laser sensors along the
nearside wheel path. It allows the condition of the highway’s surface to be assessed under conditions of normal
traffic with speeds up to 95 km/h.

Deflectograph: The deflection beam is a widely accepted instrument for assessing the structural condition
of flexible highway surfacing. Originated by Dr A.C. Benkleman and developed by the Transport Research
Laboratory (Kennedy et al., 1978a), it involves applying a load to the pavement’s surface and monitoring its
consequent vertical deflection. As a loaded wheel passes over the pavement surface, the deflection of the slab
is measured by the rotation of a long pivoted beam touching the surface at the point where the deflection is to
be determined. The deflection that occurs at the time and position of application of the load is termed the
maximum deflection. The deflection that remains after the load is removed (permanent deflection) is termed
the recovery deflection. It is the cumulative effect of the latter type of deflection that leads to cracking,
rutting and ultimately failure of a pavement.

5.1.1. DISTORTIONS OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS and MAINTENANCE

A distortion is a change of a pavement from its original shape. Asphalt pavements can suffer from a variety of
distortions that can cause cracking and other adverse conditions. The principal forms of pavement distortions
are channeling (rutting), corrugations, shoving, depressions, and upheaval. Channeling is a lengthy depression
formed in wheel tracks. Corrugation (wash boarding) is the plastic movement of an asphalt surface that causes
formation of ripples across the pavement. Shoving is plastic movement that results in a localized bulge in the

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pavement. Upheaval is the localized upward displacement of a pavement brought on by swelling of the subgrade
or other portion of the pavement structure.

Cracking of Asphalt Pavements

This has many causes and takes a variety of forms, such as alligator, edge, joint, reflection, slippage,
transverse, longitudinal, and diagonal cracking.

Alligator Cracking
Cracks that form small interlocking rectangular shapes having the appearance of alligator skin are known as
alligator cracks. These usually are initiated by failure of an untreated granular base or by a soft subgrade
layer. Such conditions often arise from excessive saturation of pavement base or subgrade. Maintenance
generally involves removal of all wet material and patching with a full-depth hot mix asphalt. To prevent future
occurrence of alligator cracking, new drainage facilities should be installed or existing drainage facilities
should be improved.

Edge Cracking
Located at or near the edges of pavements, edge cracking extends longitudinally, nearly parallel to the
centerline of the roadway. This type of cracking may be accompanied by transverse cracks, nearly
perpendicular to the roadway centerline. Causes of edge cracking include settlement of the pavement,
inadequate support for the pavement, inadequate drainage, and frost heave. Repair of edge cracks requires
filling the cracks with asphalt-emulsion slurry or cutback asphalt mixed with sand. If settlement has occurred,
it may be necessary to bring the roadway surface to grade through use of hot-mix asphalt patching.

Joint Cracking
This occurs at the interface between a pavement and adjacent shoulder. Joint cracking can be initiated by
deformational loads due to thermal expansion and contraction or alternate wetting and drying. It also can be
caused by intrusion of water as a result of inadequate drainage. A crack between two adjacent paving lanes is
known as a lane-joint crack. It typically is caused by inadequate bond or a poor seam between adjoining
sections of pavement. Repair of joint cracks requires filling of the cracks with an asphalt-emulsion slurry. In
addition, poor drainage conditions should be corrected.

Reflection Cracking
This is a crack that forms in an asphalt overlay and reflects the pattern of the underlying pavement surface.
Reflection cracking can be induced by horizontal or vertical movements in the pavements beneath the overlay.
These movements are generally caused by traffic loads, earth movement, or temperature. Reflection cracks
typically occur in asphalt over- lays placed on top of a portland cement concrete or cement-treated base.
Cracks less than in wide may either be ignored or, if intrusion of water is a concern, filled, with the use of a
squeegee, with emulsified or cutback asphalt covered with sand. Cracks more than ¼ in wide should be filled
with an asphalt-emulsion slurry or a light grade of cutback asphalt and fine sand.

Shrinkage Cracking
This is evidenced by interconnected cracks that create a series of large blocks with sharp corners or angles.
Shrinkage cracks are usually associated with a volume change in the pavement asphalt mix, base, or subgrade.
They also may result from aging of the pavement. The constant exposure of the pavement materials to thermal
expansion and contraction, may cause them to lose some of their elasticity or resiliency and bring about
shrinkage cracking.

Slippage Cracking
These are crescent shaped cracks generated by traffic-induced horizontal forces. Slippage cracks are caused
by insufficient bond between the surface layer and the underlying course. Dust, dirt, and oil atop the
underlying course during placement of the surface course can contribute to this lack of bond. Also, omission of
a tack coat during construction can lead to formation of slippage cracks. This type of cracking is repaired by

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removing the surface layer around the crack to locations where an adequate bond is present. The area from
which the surface course was removed is then patched with a hot-mix asphalt.

Rutting
Ruts are depressions which occur in the pavement’s wheel path as a result of traffic loads. Some negligible
amount of rutting occurs in HMA surfaces due to the continued densification under traffic after initial
compaction during construction. In fact, it is quite common for void content of HMA surfaces to be reduced
from 6 to 8 percent after construction down to 3 to 5 percent due to densification.

Shoving and Corrugation

Shoving and corrugation are caused by shear flow of the mixture or slippage between the layers. The shear
flow may be a result of an unstable mixture, i.e., void content too low for stable behavior or the applied loads
too high forcing aggregate particles to move over each other.

5.2. Maintenance of Portland Cement–Concrete Pavements

Deterioration of a Portland cement–concrete pavement (PCC) is evidenced by distortion and various forms of
cracking. Consequently, much maintenance work is concerned with filling of cracks and expansion joints. For
this purpose, asphalt is often used. It is suitable for sealing joints and cracks, filling small cavities, and raising
sunken slabs. A more extreme alternative in maintaining PCC pavements is to cover deteriorated pavement with
a thin asphalt course (overlay).

5.2.1. Distortions of PCC Pavements

Major forms of distortion in PCC pavements are faults and pumping. A fault is a physical difference in elevation
between two slabs located at a joint or a crack. Pumping is the upward and downward movement of a slab under
traffic loads. This may occur when pavements overlay very wet sand, clay, or silt. Pumping typically takes place
at transverse and longitudinal joints and edge cracks. It may be corrected by inserting asphalt or portland
cement grout under the slab and improving the drainage.

Cracking of PCC Pavements

This has many causes and takes a variety of form, such as transverse, longitudinal, and diagonal cracking.

Transverse Cracking
Extending roughly perpendicular to the pavement centerline, transverse cracking may be caused by overloading
of the pavement, pumping of slabs, and failure of a soft foundation, frozen joints, lack of joints, excessively
shallow joints, or concrete shrinkage. Repair usually requires that the cracks be cleaned of all loose material by
routing, compressed air, or sandblasting and then filled with a rubber-asphalt sealer. Cracks generated by
pumping should be provided with an asphalt under seal.

Longitudinal Cracking
This extends roughly parallel to the pavement centerline. Longitudinal cracking can be caused by shrinkage of
the concrete, especially in wide pavements without a longitudinal joint. Other conditions that can create
longitudinal cracking are pumping or an expansive subbase or subgrade. Repair of longitudinal cracks in PCC
pavements is the same as that for transverse cracking. For pumping-induced cracks, a high-softening point
asphalt may be used to fill the voids under the pavement slab.

Diagonal Cracking
These run diagonally to the pavement centerline. They are induced by traffic loads on an unsupported end of
the pavement slab. Repair of the cracks is like that described for transverse and longitudinal cracking. As may

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be done for pumping-type cracks, an asphalt underseal may be applied to the slab and followed by filling of the
crack with a rubber-asphalt sealing compound.

5.3. Pavement Management Systems (PMS)

Constant exposure to the elements, combined with wear and tear from traffic, make highways extremely prone
to deterioration. As a result, they must be repaired or replaced if they are to serve as intended. Highway
maintenance and rehabilitation, however, is not limited just to application of the remedial measures.

Responsible for maintenance of immense lengths of roadway and associated appurtenance facilities,
transportation agencies frequently have to decide which sections of highway need immediate attention and
which can be deferred. A variety of factors influence this decision, and highway design is only one of these
factors, albeit an important one. Economic, political, and a host of other factors must be evaluated before
project selection may be made. The main objective of a pavement management system (PMS) is to assist in
making this decision. The human component of a PMS is essential in the decision-making process, but proper
use of computer software can play an important role in the decision-making process.

The basic components and associated products of a PMS are as follows: inventory database, maintenance
database, budgetary information, project selection methods, and costing models.

The inventory database of a PMS details pavement conditions throughout the entire highway network. There
are many ways to define the state of a section of pavement. One method is to rate the pavement in terms of
various forms of pavement distress, such as edge cracking and rutting, as described in Arts. 16.30 and 16.31.
The length of the pavement section to be rated depends on the detail desired.

Use of small lengths, however, does not necessarily translate into a more accurate picture of pavement
condition. Typically, information on pavement condition is stored in a computerized database management
system (DBMS) for both querying and modeling. The data may also be tied into a geographic information
system (GIS), which allows excellent visualization of data. Historical data contained within the maintenance
database describe what work has been performed on the pavement sections. The data are helpful in
determining both the results of individual remedial methods and associated costs. Budgetary information may
be derived from the inventory and maintenance databases. Based on the data thus made conveniently available,
project selection and cost analysis methods can be applied to assist in selection of the sequence in which
projects are to be implemented and formulation of highway maintenance and rehabilitation budgets.

5.3.1. Project and Network Level Analyses

A PMS can function using a project or network level analysis approach, or both. Project level analysis deals with
individual sections of pavement and the remedial measures to be taken to correct deficiencies. Associated cost
estimating can be performed and ramifications of various remedial measures can be predicted with the
objective of determining which method and level of repair will yield the best results in terms of both economy
and safety. Network level analysis is applicable to a group of projects comprising various sections of
noncontiguous highway. This analysis permits formulation of alternatives based on the maintenance and
rehabilitation needs not only of specific highway sections but also of the highway network as a whole.

Example,
One section of the network may require patching of alligator cracking and another may show evidence of
subsurface drainage inadequacies. If funds are insufficient for correcting both conditions, the PMS could
assist in the decision whether to correct the drainage condition, which if ignored could lead to failure of the
pavement, or to patch the cracking, which should not be ignored but may be deferred for a short time without
serious consequences. While this is a relatively simple example, it serves to illustrate the basic concepts
behind network level analysis.

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In addition to providing analysis, the PMS offers valuable support information in the form of cost and record
data and ancillary backup information that can be used not only for formulating but also for justifying
maintenance plans. Development of a PMS builds upon methods and information currently in use in an effort to
create an integrated system for planning and performing pavement maintenance and rehabilitation.

5.3.2.Predicting Future Pavement Condition

In addition to assisting in selection of projects for repair, a PMS may be used to predict the future condition
of pavement. Predictions are typically based on one of the following assumptions: no repair work is performed;
partial, interim remedial measures are taken; or full repairs are made to correct all deficiencies.
The estimates of future pavement conditions provide maintenance planners with a more accurate picture of
the ramifications of various options than could otherwise be obtained. This information is also useful in
developing long-range plans and estimating future costs.

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