Electrical Machines - Introduction

• Electrical Machines is a device that can convert either mechanical energy to electrical
energy or electrical energy to mechanical energy

• mechanical →→ electrical energy ⇒⇒ Generator

• electrical →→ mechanical energy ⇒⇒ motor

• Since EM can convert power in either direction it can be used either a generator or a
motor

• EM use magnetic field to perform power conversion

Transformers - Introduction

• Transformer is an electrical device that is closely related to EM

• It converts ac electrical energy at one voltage level to ac electrical energy at another

voltage level

• Transformers operate on the same principles as generators and motors, depending on

the action of magnetic field to accomplish the change in voltage level

Machines & Daily Life

• Electric devices are omnipresent in modern daily life

• At home motors run refrigerators, freezers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, air

conditioners, fans and many similar appliances

• At workplace, motors provide the motive power for almost all tools

• Generators supply power used by all these motors

Why electric motors and generators so common?

• Electric power is clean and efficient energy source

• It can be easily transmit over long distances and easy to control

 • Electric motor does not require constant ventilation and fuel the way that an internal-
combustion engine does

• Hence well-suited for environmental use

• Heat or mechanical energy can be transmitted over long distances to the place where
it is to be used and can be used cleanly in home, office or factory

• Transformers aid this process by reducing the energy loss between the points of
generation and use

Electro-Mechanical Energy Conversion

• Electrical energy:

o cheaper, easily transmitted, easy to control and efficient

o generated from natural resources such as water, coal, diesel, wind, atomic
energy, etc.

o Energy conversion: chemical ⇒⇒ mechanical ⇒⇒ electrical ⇒⇒ mechanical,

heat, light, etc.

• Electro–mechanical energy conversion devices: convert mechanical energy into

electrical energy and vice-versa

• Operation of all the electrical machines such as DC/AC machines and transformers
rely upon their magnetic circuits.

• Magnetic circuit: Closed path followed by magnetic lines of force.

• Operation of all electrical devices depends upon magnetism produced by their

magnetic circuits.

• Magnetic circuits of devices need to be designed carefully

Magnetic Field and its Significance

• Magnetic Field: region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or
repulsion
 • Existence of the magnetic field at a point around the magnet can also be determined
by placing a magnetic needle at that point

• Although magnetic lines of force have no real existence and are purely imaginary, yet
their concept is very useful to understand various magnetic effects.

Properties of magnetic lines of force

• direction from N-pole to the S-pole outside the magnet and from from S-pole to N-
pole inside the magnet

• form a closed loop

• tendency is to follow the least reluctance path

• act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten themselves

• never intersect each other

• repel each other when they are parallel and are in the same direction

• remain unaffected by non-magnetic materials

Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis

• Closed path followed by magnetic flux is called magnetic circuit

• Usually consists of magnetic materials having high permeability (e.g., iron, soft steel,
etc.).
magnetic flux starts from a point and finishes at the same point after completing its path

Conclusion: amount of flux set-up in the core

• ∝ N and I i.e. NI called magnetomotive force (mmf)

⇒ϕ increases if either of the two increases and vice-versa

⇒Reluctance: opposition offered to ϕ by the magnetic path

⇒lower reluctance higher will be ϕ and vice-versa

 Therefore,

• Note: This expression will have a strong resemblance to Ohm’s Law for electric
current (I=emf/resistance)

• referred to Ohm’s law of magnetic circuits

Important terms in magnetism

• Magnetic field: The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of
attraction or repulsion

• Magnetic flux (ϕ):

o The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic circuit

o unit is weber (Wb).

o analogous to electric current I in electric circuit

• Magnetic flux density (B): at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles to the flux
at that point

Permeability (μ): The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force through it

• greater the μ of a material, the greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of
force and vice-versa

• air or vacuum is the poorest represented μ0=4π×10−7 H/m

• Relative permeability (μr): The absolute (or actual) permeability of a magnetic

material is much greater than μ0.

• μr of a magnetic material is given in comparison with air or vacuum

 o Obviously, μr of air would be 1.

o μr of all the non-magnetic materials is also 1.

o However, its value is as high as 8000 for soft iron, whereas its value for
mumetal (alloy) (iron 22% and nickel 78%) is as high as 1,20,000.

• Magnetic field intensity (H): The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when
placed at a point in the magnetic field

• Magneto-motive force (mmf): The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to set-up
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit
o As per work law it may be defined as: The work done in moving a unit
magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic circuit

o analogous to emf in an electric circuit

• Reluctance (S or R): The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit

o analogous to resistance in an electric circuit

• Permeance: It is a measure of the ease with which flux can be set-up in the material.

o It is just reciprocal of reluctance of the material

o analogous to conductance in an electric circuit

• Reluctivity: It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric circuit

Dissimilarities: Magnetic & Electric Circuit

• Magnetic flux does not flow but it sets up in the magnetic circuit (basically molecular
poles are aligned)

• The electric current (electrons) flows in an electric circuit

• For magnetic flux, there is no perfect insulator. It can be set-up even in the non-
magnetic materials like air, rubber, glass etc. with reasonable mmf

• For electric current, there are large number of perfect insulators like glass, air, rubber,
etc., which do not allow it to follow through them under normal conditions.

• Reluctance of a magnetic circuit is not constant rather it varies with the value
of B because μr changes considerably with the change in B

• The resistance of an electric circuit is almost constant as its value depends upon the
value of ρ which is almost constant. However, the value of ρ and R may vary slightly
if temperature changes

• Once the magnetic flux is set-up in a magnetic circuit, no energy is expended.

However, a small amount of energy is required at the start to create flux in the circuit.

• Energy is expended continuously, so long as the current flows through an electric

circuit. This energy is dissipated in the form of heat.

eview of Electromechanical Energy Conversion

1. Introduction

Definition:

• Electromechanical energy conversion is the process of converting electrical

energy into mechanical energy or vice versa using devices known as
electromechanical converters. Common examples include electric motors,
generators, and actuators.

Principle:
 • The fundamental principle behind electromechanical energy conversion is the
interaction between magnetic fields and electric currents. When current flows
through a conductor placed in a magnetic field, a force (Lorentz force) is exerted
on the conductor, resulting in mechanical motion.

Types of Converters:

• Motors: Convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

• Generators: Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

• Transformers: Though primarily for voltage conversion, they involve magnetic

energy transfer but do not perform mechanical work.

2. Energy Conversion Process

Energy Flow:

• Input Energy: Can be electrical or mechanical, depending on the device.

• Conversion Process: Involves magnetic fields and mechanical forces. For motors,
electrical input creates a magnetic field that interacts with the rotor, producing
motion. For generators, mechanical input drives the rotor, inducing an
electromotive force (EMF) in the windings.

• Output Energy: The output is mechanical in motors (rotational or linear motion)

and electrical in generators.

Key Principles:

• Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: EMF is induced in a conductor

when it experiences a change in magnetic flux.

• Lorentz Force Law: A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

experiences a force proportional to the current and magnetic field.

3. Analysis of Energy Conversion

Magnetic Circuit:
 • Magnetic Flux (Φ): The total magnetic field passing through a surface. It is
central to the energy conversion process.

• Magnetomotive Force (MMF): The force driving magnetic flux through a circuit,
analogous to voltage in an electrical circuit.

• Reluctance (R): The opposition to magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit,

analogous to resistance in electrical circuits.

Electrical Circuit:

• Induced EMF: In a generator, the motion of the rotor relative to the stator
induces an EMF according to Faraday's Law. The magnitude of this EMF
depends on the speed of rotation, magnetic field strength, and the number of
windings.

• Torque Production: In a motor, the interaction between the current-carrying

conductors and the magnetic field produces torque, leading to mechanical
rotation.

Energy Equations:

• The energy conversion process can be expressed through power equations,

considering both electrical and mechanical power.
Pelectric=V×IP_{\text{electric}} = V \times IPelectric=V×I
Pmechanical=T×ωP_{\text{mechanical}} = T \times \omegaPmechanical=T×ω
where PelectricP_{\text{electric}}Pelectric is the electrical power, VVV is the
voltage, III is the current, PmechanicalP_{\text{mechanical}}Pmechanical is the
mechanical power, TTT is the torque, and ω\omegaω is the angular speed.

Energy Conversion Efficiency:

• Efficiency (η\etaη) is a critical aspect, defined as the ratio of useful output energy
to input energy. η=Output EnergyInput Energy×100%\eta = \frac{\text{Output
Energy}}{\text{Input Energy}} \times 100\%η=Input EnergyOutput Energy
×100%

• Losses occur due to factors like copper losses, iron losses, mechanical friction,
and windage.
4. Devices for Electromechanical Energy Conversion

1. Electric Motors:

• DC Motors:

o Operate on direct current.

o Types include series, shunt, and compound motors.

o Speed control is achieved by varying armature voltage or field current.

• AC Motors:

o Operate on alternating current.

o Includes induction motors (squirrel cage, wound rotor) and synchronous

motors.

o Speed control is typically achieved using frequency control (VFDs).

2. Generators:

• DC Generators:

o Convert mechanical energy into DC electrical energy.

o Used in applications like battery charging, welding, and electroplating.

• AC Generators (Alternators):

o Convert mechanical energy into AC electrical energy.

o Widely used in power generation.

3. Special Machines:

• Stepper Motors: Convert digital electrical pulses into discrete mechanical

movements.

• Linear Induction Motors: Produce linear motion rather than rotational motion,
used in maglev trains and conveyor systems.
5. Applications of Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Industrial Applications:

• Motors: Used in machinery, fans, pumps, conveyors, and robotics.

• Generators: Used in power plants, renewable energy systems (wind turbines),

and backup power systems.

Transportation:

• Electric Vehicles: Use motors for propulsion.

• Trains: Use both rotary and linear motors for propulsion.

Consumer Electronics:

• Actuators: Used in devices requiring precise control of motion, like printers and
disk drives.

6. Challenges and Advancements

Efficiency Improvement:

• Advances in materials (e.g., superconductors) and design are aimed at reducing

losses and improving efficiency.

Control Techniques:

• Development of sophisticated control systems, including VFDs and digital

control for precise speed and position control.

Integration with Renewable Energy:

• Integration with renewable energy systems requires efficient and adaptable

converters, particularly in wind and solar power systems.

Conclusion: Electromechanical energy conversion is a cornerstone of modern

engineering, enabling the functioning of numerous devices and systems across
industries. Understanding the underlying principles and advancements in this field is
essential for developing efficient and innovative solutions in energy management and
mechanical systems.

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Rotating Magnetic Fields

Principle:

• A rotating magnetic field is the fundamental working principle behind AC motors,

particularly synchronous and induction motors.

• It is created when a three-phase current flows through the stator windings of an AC

motor.

• Each phase current is sinusoidal, separated by 120 degrees, resulting in a magnetic

field that rotates in space.

Production:

• For a three-phase system, if three coils are placed 120° apart around a stator and
connected to a three-phase power supply, each coil produces an alternating magnetic
field.

• The superposition of these three fields results in a single rotating magnetic field.

Mathematical Representation:

• The magnetic field vector at any point in time can be represented as the sum of the
individual fields created by each phase.

• If the supply frequency is fff, the speed of rotation (synchronous speed) of the
magnetic field is given by: Ns=120×fPN_s = \frac{120 \times f}{P}Ns=P120×f
where NsN_sNs is the synchronous speed in RPM, fff is the frequency in Hz, and PPP
is the number of poles.
2. Performance of DC Machines

Types of DC Machines:

• DC Generators: Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

• DC Motors: Convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Operating Characteristics:

• Torque-Speed Characteristics:

o Series motors have a high starting torque and are suitable for traction.

o Shunt motors have a relatively constant speed and are used where speed
regulation is crucial.

• Efficiency:

o Efficiency is typically lower in DC machines due to losses like copper loss,

iron loss, mechanical loss, etc.

o Load and operational conditions affect efficiency.

3. Methods of Speed Control of DC Machines

Speed Control of DC Motors:

• Armature Control Method: Varying the voltage applied to the armature.

o Provides a wide range of speed control.

o Effective for speeds below the base speed.

• Field Control Method: Varying the current in the field windings.

o Used for speeds above the base speed.

o The speed is inversely proportional to the field current.

• Ward-Leonard System: A combination of a motor-generator set is used for fine

speed control.

o Provides smooth speed variation over a wide range.

o High initial cost but used in applications requiring precise control.

4. Induction Motors

Working Principle:

• Operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction where the rotating magnetic

field produced by the stator induces a current in the rotor, which in turn produces
torque.

• Slip:

o The difference between synchronous speed and actual rotor speed.

o Defined as S=Ns−NrNsS = \frac{N_s - N_r}{N_s}S=NsNs−Nr, where

NsN_sNs is the synchronous speed and NrN_rNr is the rotor speed.

• Torque-Slip Characteristics:

o Torque is directly proportional to slip up to a certain point (breakdown torque)

and then decreases.

Performance Characteristics:

• Efficiency: Induction motors are generally efficient, typically ranging between 85-
97% under full load.

• Power Factor: Induction motors tend to have a lagging power factor, which improves
with load.

5. Methods of Speed Control of Induction Motors

Stator Voltage Control:

• Controlling the voltage applied to the stator windings.

• Suitable for small speed reductions.

Frequency Control:

• Varying the supply frequency using a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD).

• Provides a wide range of speed control with high efficiency.

Pole Changing Method:

• Altering the number of poles in the stator winding.

 • Used in applications where two or more distinct speeds are required.

Rotor Resistance Control:

• Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit (for wound rotor motors).

• Provides good speed control but is inefficient due to power loss in resistors.

6. Linear Induction Motors (LIMs)

Principle of Operation:

• A linear induction motor operates on the same principles as a rotating induction

motor, but it produces linear motion instead of rotational motion.

• Construction:

o Consists of a primary part (stator) that produces a traveling magnetic field and
a secondary part (reaction plate) that acts as the rotor.

• Applications:

o Used in applications requiring linear motion such as maglev trains, conveyors,

and some types of actuators.

Performance Characteristics:

• Thrust-Speed Characteristics:

o Analogous to the torque-speed characteristics of a rotary induction motor.

o Thrust decreases as speed increases.

• Efficiency: Generally lower than rotary induction motors due to end effects and other
losses.

Speed Control:

• Similar methods as for rotary induction motors, primarily through varying supply
frequency or adjusting the input voltage.

Conclusion: Understanding the rotating magnetic field is fundamental to grasping the

operation of AC motors, while DC machines have distinct methods of speed control based on
the type of motor. Induction motors, both rotary and linear, rely on electromagnetic principles
to function and offer a range of performance characteristics and control methods suitable for
various industrial applications.

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