Research Compendium 0

A SUMMARY OF RESEARCH AND EXPERT OPINION
Written by Lois Bridges, Ph.D.

Copyright © 2018 by Scholastic Inc.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION: WHAT READING MAKES POSSIBLE...................................................................................................................... 3
How to Read the Compendium .................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1: READERS.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Early Readers........................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Adolescent Readers.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Student Engagement................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Learners of English as an Alternative Language (EAL)...................................................................................................................20
Diverse Learners............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Striving Readers.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
CHAPTER 2: READING......................................................................................................................................................................................................43
Volume, Stamina, and Avid, Independent Reading.........................................................................................................................44
Comprehension............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 53
Background Knowledge......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Vocabulary............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Fluency................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
CHAPTER 3: EQUITY........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Whole Child....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Social Justice.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Engagement and Motivation............................................................................................................................................................................... 81
The Power of Reading Choice, Time, and Pleasure........................................................................................................................85
New Literacies: Fan-Created Literary Content...................................................................................................................................... 91
CHAPTER 4: TEXT................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Access to Books.............................................................................................................................................................................................................98
The Summer Slide—or Reading Leap!......................................................................................................................................................102
Classroom Libraries..................................................................................................................................................................................................106
Home Libraries................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 111
Genre and Text Types.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 113
Authentic Texts and Text Complexity........................................................................................................................................................ 116
Nonfiction...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................122
Fiction.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 126
CHAPTER 5: TEACH........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 131

Interactive Read-Alouds in the Classroom........................................................................................................................................... 132
Guided Reading........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Text Sets..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................143
Book Clubs.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................148
Reading and Writing Connections..............................................................................................................................................................154
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LITERACY............................................................................................................................................................................. 161

Oral Language—The Foundation of Literacy....................................................................................................................................... 162
Speaking Two (or More) Languages Is Better Than One.......................................................................................................... 167
Home Reading Culture...........................................................................................................................................................................................170
The Read-Aloud and Reading Role Models Boost Learning................................................................................................174
LIFETIME BENEFITS: THE CASE FOR INDEPENDENT READING........................................................................................... 178

2 THE JOY AND POWER OF READING
Introduction
WHAT READING
MAKES POSSIBLE
Reading shapes lives; reading even saves lives. Consider the stories of our greatest
leaders across time, culture, and place. Almost all credit reading as an essential force that
catapulted them to success. Thomas Edison, for example, had little formal schooling but
was a “relentless autodidact” and profited mightily from reading books in his father’s home
library, as well as the Detroit public library (Walsh, 2010).
But Edison’s story has its basis in science; indeed, explicit, systematic cognitive research
gathered over many decades provides proof beyond dispute that reading not only builds
our brains, but also exercises our intelligence (Krashen, 2011).
Reading Makes Us Smart

Anne Cunningham, renowned cognitive psychologist at the University of California,
Berkeley, explains that reading is a “very rich, complex, and cognitive act” (2003) that offers
an immense opportunity to exercise our intelligence in ways we lose if we don’t read.
Hundreds of correlated studies demonstrate that the most successful students read the
most, while those who struggle read the least.
These studies suggest that the more our students read, the better their comprehension,
vocabulary, and fluency—and the more likely they are to build a robust knowledge of the
world. In short, reading provides us with a cognitive workout that transcends not only our
inherent abstract problem-solving abilities, but also our levels of education. Reading makes
us smart.
A childhood spent among books prepared

me for a lifetime as a reader.
—Carol Jago, past president of the National Council of Teachers of English
WHAT READING MAKES POSSIBLE 3

Consider These Facts:
• Reading builds a cognitive processing infrastructure that then “massively influences”
every aspect of our thinking, particularly our crystallized intelligence—a person’s
depth and breadth of general knowledge, vocabulary, and the ability to reason using
words and numbers. (Stanovich, 2003).
• Children between the ages of 10 and 16 who read for pleasure make more progress
not only in vocabulary and spelling but also in math than those who rarely read
(Sullivan and Brown, 2013).
• “Omnivorous reading in childhood and adolescence correlates positively with

ultimate adult success” (Simonton, 1988).
• Multiple studies have shown that avid readers demonstrate both superior
literacy development and wide-ranging knowledge across subjects
(Allington, 2012; Hiebert and Reutzel, 2010; Sullivan and Brown, 2013).
• Avid teen readers engage in deep intellectual work and psychological exploration
through the books they choose to read themselves (Wilhelm and Smith, 2013).
In addition to increasing intellectual prowess and expanding vocabulary, reading also

educates the imagination, “kindling the spirit of creativity in every human heart”
(Jago, 2010). And reading fiction, in particular, expands the heart, making us more
compassionate (Oatley, 2014).
The Reading Life

We’ve known for a long time that the best way to help our students succeed is to
encourage them to read. To that end, we want our students to discover themselves as
readers, to have a sense of their own unique, rich, and wondrous reading lives. What books
make their hearts race? What topics do they return to again and again? Dick Robinson,
president and CEO of Scholastic, sums it up: “You are what you read.” Effective teachers
work hard to help their students establish a reading identity that declares, “This is who I am
as a reader.”
This research compendium aims to showcase decades of reliable reading research to

support you in your ultimate aim as an educator and parent: to help all children become
proficient, avid readers who bring passion, skill, and a critical eye to every reading
encounter (Atwell and Merkel, 2016).
In this way, our students might grow to exemplify and embrace the words of Myra
Cohn Livingston, poet, musician, critic, educator, and author:
“Books have more than changed my life—

they have made it possible.”
4 INTRODUCTION: WHAT READING MAKES POSSIBLE

How to Read the Compendium
Start anywhere and read in any direction. Let your interests be your guide.
The compendium is organized around six sections:
• Readers: We profile early, adolescent, and boy readers—plus emerging bilinguals,

students from diverse backgrounds, and striving readers.
• Reading: High-volume readers build an expansive capacity to comprehend what

they read. They develop robust vocabularies, deep knowledge of the world, and a
proficient, fluid reading style.
• Equity: Avid readers are highly engaged and motivated. With stamina, self-efficacy,
and a can-do spirit, they understand the joy and power of reading.
• Texts: At school and in their homes, all children must have access to abundant texts
of all kinds (print and e-books, short texts, magazines, and more). Children also need
to develop a sense of genre, text structure, and reading purpose.
• Teaching: Students need daily time at school and at home to read and become
enthusiastic readers. They also need instructional support such as the interactive read-
aloud (reading aloud plus conversation about the book), guided reading, book clubs,
and the benefit of writing about reading.
• Family Literacy: Families with a rich reading culture—access to books and lots of
talk about books—are more likely to raise successful readers.
The compendium does not in any way represent a definitive treatment—the field of reading
is vast, varied, and vital. When we investigate reading, we explore cognition, linguistics,
psychological influences, and social-cultural traditions.
Instead, the compendium is meant to provide a brief introduction to the benefits of

independent reading, or free voluntary reading (Krashen 2011), and suggest some of the
pivotal research behind these benefits. It’s a place for you to begin your own exploration. As
our title suggests, we include both research and expert opinion so the references reflect a
range of formats—traditional research reports, as well as newspaper and professional journal
articles. Additionally, when appropriate, we link to the Scholastic anthology: Open a World of
Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading, a collection of essays authored
by some of the leading literacy experts in the country (Bridges, 2014).
Depending on the depth of your interest, you may want to use the references we cite as the
starting point for a deeper investigation. Note that some of the links are live, enabling you to
read the original research online or download a print copy.
HOW TO READ THE COMPENDIUM 5

Did you know?
Moll and Bus’s 2011 meta-analysis of 99 studies that focused on
the leisure-time reading of preschoolers, kindergarteners, students in
Grades 1–12, and college students found an upward spiral of casualty
between print exposure and oral language skills, reading comprehension,
and technical reading and spelling.
For each year of reading, students’ skills in these domains improved by:
34%
19% 20%
12% 13%
Preschool Primary Grades Middle School High School College
Many of the texts I read as a child have been

like roadmap markers, showing me a range
of life options … helping me define myself not
only as a reader but also as a human being.
—Dr. Alfred Tatum, dean of Curriculum and Instruction,

University of Illinois at Chicago

Chapter 1
READERS
> Early Readers
> Adolescent Readers
> Boys
> L
earners of English as
an Alternative Language
> Diverse Learners
> Striving Readers
CHAPTER 1: READERS 7
EARLY READERS
“Children exposed to lots of books during their early
childhood will have an easier time learning to read than
those who are not.”
—Dr. Henry Bernstein, Harvard Medical School
KEY FINDINGS
> “Learning to read represents the weaving together of multiple skills,

understandings, and orientations, many of which have their developmental origins
in infancy and toddlerhood” (Pinnell, 2018; Rohde, 2015; Snow and Juel, 2005;
Pinnell and Fountas, 2011).
> The American Academy of Pediatricians (AAP) recommends that pediatricians

encourage parents to read aloud daily, ideally multiple times throughout the day,
from birth on (2014). As noted in the APP policy, “Those 15-20 minutes spent reading
with a child can be the best part of the day. It’s a joyful way to build child-parent
relationships and set a child on the pathway to developing early literacy skills.”
> Children who are routinely read to day in and day out—and are immersed in rich
talk about books and the various activities in which they are engaged—thrive (AAP,
2014; Cunningham and Zilbulsky, 2014; Needlman, 2006, 2014; Bernstein, 2010).
> Children with less exposure to books and talk may face learning challenges in
school and beyond (AAP, 2014; Dickinson, McCabe, and Essex, 2006; Neuman
and Celano, 2012).
> Literacy development is less about a limited critical period and more about
“windows of opportunity” that extend across early childhood, culminating
perhaps around the age of 10 (Dickinson and Neuman, 2006).
> Educators and parents alike should feel a sense of urgency, as experiences with
books and reading aloud strengthen the neural systems. These systems, which
underlie auditory perceptions, attention, and language, develop rapidly during
the first five years of life (AAP, 2014; Dickinson, McCabe, and Essex, 2006; Mol and
Bus, 2011; Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014).
> Phonemic awareness and letter knowledge are the two best school-entry
predictors of how well children will learn to read during the first two years of
instruction (National Reading Panel).
8 CHAPTER 1: READERS
KEY FINDINGS
> To implement systematic phonics instruction, educators must keep the end in
mind and ensure that children understand the purpose of learning letter sounds
and that they are able to apply these skills accurately and fluently in their daily
reading and writing activities. (NRP, 2000).
> Reading is superficially visual. “Visually perceived sequences of letters are

translated by the brain into sounds, syllables, and words that link encoded
language with oral language, so that the words that are read are ‘heard’ in the
mind and connected to their meanings” (Liberman 1999).
> To break the code for reading a child must become “phonologically aware” that
words can be broken down into smaller units of sounds (phonemes) and that it is
these sounds that the letters represent (Tallal, 2012).
More to Know: The Miracle of Early

Reading Experiences
Earl Martin Phalen is the CEO of Reach Out and Read, a program that promotes early literacy
and school readiness in pediatric exam rooms nationwide by giving new books to children
and advice to parents about the importance of reading aloud. Phalen explains both the
advantages of early reading experiences, as well as what is lost when children are deprived:
The brain develops faster than any other time between the ages of zero and three.
Because of this, it’s important to foster literacy during the early stages of life. There’s
real opportunity in providing parents with books and encouragement to read to their
children regularly, sing with their children, and engage their children in conversation—
all of which prepares our next generation to be successful in school (2011).
Literacy development is less about a specific critical period and more about windows of
opportunity that extend across early childhood. So even if a child has limited access to
language and literacy experiences in the home, there’s much ground to be gained through
literacy-rich preschool programs, extended day programs, cross-age literacy partners, and the
like. During late infancy to late childhood, synaptic density reaches a plateau—this is the period
of maximal responsiveness to environmental input (Huttenlocker et al., 2002; Mol and Bus, 2011).
Pam Schiller (2010), an early childhood curriculum specialist, lists six key findings from the
imaging technology used in neurobiology and early brain development research:
EARLY READERS 9
• The brain of a three-year-old is two and a half times more active than that of an adult.
• Brain development is contingent on a complex interplay between genes

and the environment.
• Experiences wire the brain.
• Repetition strengthens the wiring.
• Brain development is nonlinear.
• Early relationships affect wiring.
Again, the “windows of opportunity” suggest especially fertile times when the developing
brain is most susceptible to environmental input and most able to “wire skills at an optimal
level.” Increasingly, we understand that an early, frequent exposure to print has benefits that
last a lifetime, including academic success and the prevention of reading challenges later
in a child’s life (Dickinson, McCabe, and Essex, 2006; Phillips, Norris, and Anderson, 2008).
The Mol and Bus (2011) comprehensive meta-analysis of print exposure lends scientific
support for the widespread belief that a deep engagement with books and repeated
exposure to print have a “long-lasting impact on academic success.” Mol and Bus explain:
Reading development starts before formal instruction, with book sharing as one of the
facets of a stimulating home literacy environment. Books provide a meaningful context
for learning to read, not only as a way of stimulating reading comprehension but also
as a means of developing technical reading skills even in early childhood. In pre-
conventional readers, we found that print exposure was associated moderately with oral
language and basic knowledge about reading. Reading books remained important for
children in school who were conventional readers… Reading routines, which are part of
the child’s leisure time activities, offer substantial advantages for oral language growth.
Interestingly, independent reading of books also enables readers to store specific
words from knowledge and become better spellers. Finally, college and university
students who read for pleasure may also be more successful academically.
How Literacy Develops and Predicts Later Academic Success

In 2008, the National Institute of Literacy issued a report, Developing Early Literacy:
Report of the National Early Literacy Panel, and, among its many findings, stated that the
foundational reading and writing skills that develop from birth to age five have a clear and
consistently strong relationship with later conventional literacy skills. Our understanding of
the power of early immersion in literacy has only grown. The state of Michigan—guided by
Nell Duke’s early literacy research (2016)—recommends 10 essential literacy practices that
prekindergarten children should experience every day. These include:
1. Intentional use of literacy artifacts in dramatic play throughout the classroom. Reading and
writing materials are not only present but used throughout the classroom environment.
2. R
ead-aloud with reference to print. Daily read-alouds include verbal and nonverbal
strategies for drawing children’s attention to print.
3. Interactive read-alouds with a comprehension and vocabulary focus. The teacher reads
aloud age-appropriate books and other materials, print or digital, including sets of texts
that are thematically and conceptually related and texts that are read multiple times.
4. P
lay with sounds inside words. Teachers help children develop phonological awareness
of sounds within language and especially phonemic awareness, which involves the
ability to segment and blend individual phonemes within words.
5. B
rief, clear, explicit instruction in letter names, the sound(s) associated with the letters,
and how letters are shaped and formed. Instruction that is effective in fostering
development of letter-sound knowledge is supported by tools such as cards with the
children’s names, alphabet books, and references throughout the day to letters and
sounds in the environment.
6. Interactions around writing. Adults engage in deliberate interactions with children

around writing. Opportunities for children to write their name as well as informational,
narrative, and other texts that are personally meaningful to them are at the heart of
writing experiences. These deliberate interactions include interactive writing and
scaffolded writing techniques.
7. E
xtended conversation. Adults initiate open-ended conversations with children, sharing
stories of past events and discussing future events.
8. P
rovision of abundant reading material in the classroom. The classroom includes: a
wide range of books and other materials connected to children’s interests that reflect
their backgrounds and cultural experiences, including class- and child-made books,
recorded books, books that children can borrow to bring home and/or access digitally
at home, and comfortable places to look at books, frequently visited by the teacher(s)
and by adult volunteers recruited to the classroom.
9. O
ngoing observation and assessment of children’s language and literacy development
that informs their education.
Closing Thoughts
Even very young children acquire complex understandings about print when they have
been involved with innumerable print encounters and interactions—noticing print in the
environment, talking with adults about the functional print they use every day (e.g., the print
on kitchen appliances, on food products, on electronic gadgets, and so on), listening to
and discussing stories that are read aloud to them from a favorite storybook, playing with
language through riddles, rhymes, songs, and so forth (MacPhee, 2018; Cunningham and
Zibulsky, 2014; Bennett-Armistead, Duke, and Moses, 2005; Harwayne, 2009).
And as they engage with print, young children are not only learning about written language
and how it works, they are also learning about the world and how it works. The conceptual
knowledge they acquire and the background knowledge they build is cumulative and invaluable.
EARLY READERS 11
References
American Academy of Pediatricians. (2014). Needlman, R. (2014). “A Doctor Discovers Reading.”
Policy Statement. In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible:
Real Stories About the Joy and Power of
Bennett-Armistead, S., Duke, N., and Moses, A. Reading. New York: Scholastic.
(2005). Literacy and the Youngest Learner: Best
Practices for Educators of Children from Birth Needlman, R., Klass, P., and Zukerman, B. (2006).
to 5. New York: Scholastic. “A Pediatric Approach to Early Literacy.” In D.
Dickinson, and S. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of
Bernstein, H. (2010). “The Importance of Reading Early Literacy Research, Volume 2. New York:
to Your Child.” A Parent’s Life. Cambridge, MA: Guilford.
Harvard School of Medicine
Neuman, S. and Celano, D. (2012). “Worlds Apart:
Cunningham, A. and Zibulsky, J. (2014). Book One City, Two Libraries and Ten Years
Smart. How to Develop and Support of Watching Inequality Grow.” American
Successful, Motivated Readers. New York: Educator.
Oxford University Press.
Phalen, E. (2011). Reach Out and Read. Retrieved
Dickinson, D. and Neuman, S., (Eds.) (2006). from: www.reachoutandread.org/about-us/
Handbook of Early Literacy Research, 2. our-organization/national-center-leadership
New York: Guilford.
Phillips, L. M., Norris, S. P., and Anderson, J.
Dickinson, D., McCabe, A., and Essex, M. (2006). (2008). “Unlocking the Door: Is Parents’
“Cognitive and Linguistic Building Blocks of Reading to Children the Key to Early Literacy
Early Literacy.” in D. Dickinson and S. Neuman, Development?” Canadian Psychology:
(Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Canadian Psychological Association.
Volume 2. New York: Guilford.
Pinnell, G. (2018). “Oral Language as a Foundation
Harwayne, S. (2009). Look Who’s Learning to Read. for Literacy Learning.” In P. Scharer (Ed.),
New York: Scholastic. Responsive Literacy: A Comprehensive
Framework. New York: Scholastic.
Huttenlocker, P. R., et al. (2002). Neural
Plasticity: The Effects of Environment on Pinnell, G. S, and Fountas, I. (2011). Literacy
the Development of the Cerebral Cortex. Beginnings: A Prekindergarten Handbook.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
MacPhee, K. (2018). See: www.scholastic.com/ Rohde, L. (2015). “The Comprehensive Emergent
education/ookaisland/#/research Literacy Model: Early Literacy in Context.”
SAGE Open, January-March: 1–11
Michigan Association of Intermediate School
Administrators General Education Leadership Schiller, P. (2010). “Early Brain Development
Network Early Literacy Task Force (2016). Research: Review and Update.” Brain
Essential Instructional Practices in Early Development Exchange. November/
Literacy: Prekindergarten. Lansing, MI. December, 26-30.
Mol, S. and Bus, A. (2011). “To Read or Not to Sénéchal, M. and LeFevre, J. A. (2002), “Parental
Read: A Meta-Analysis of Print Exposure from Involvement in the Development of Children’s
Infancy to Early Adolescence.” Psychological Reading Skill: A Five-Year Longitudinal Study,
Bulletin. Vol. 137(2). Child Development. Vol. 73.
National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). “Developing Snow, C. and Juel, C. (2005). “Teaching Children
Early Literacy.” Jessup, MD: National Institute to Read: What Do We Know About How to Do
of Literacy. Retrieved from: www.nifl.gov It?” The Science of Teaching Reading:
A Handbook. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
ADOLESCENT READERS
“Teenagers want to read—if we let them. Students become
committed, passionate readers given the right books, time
to read, and regular responses to their reading.”
—Penny Kittle, Book Love: Developing Depth, Stamina, and Passion in Adolescent Readers
KEY FINDINGS
> Young people do more reading and writing today—on paper and online—than
ever before, although they may not always read the kind of texts that adults value
(International Literacy Association, 2012; Wilhelm and Smith, 2016; Moje et al.,
2008).
> Teens are reading a wide variety of texts including traditional print text and digital
(multimodal) text (International Reading Association, 2014, Moje et al., 2008; Burke, 2013).
> Youth use print texts in the context of other activities in their lives—often with
social, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual purposes (Wilhelm and Smith, 2013;
Ivey and Johnston, 2013; Moje et al., 2008).
> Adolescent reading and writing practices “foster communication, relationships,

and self-expression among peers and family members; support their economic
and psychological health; and allow them to construct … identities that offer them
power in their everyday lives” (Moje et al., 2008).
> Jeff Wilhelm and Michael Smith’s research (2013) on the nature and variety of
the pleasure avid adolescent readers take from their out-of-school reading
demonstrates that pleasure is not incidental to reading—it’s essential. The authors
explain, “We found that the young people with whom we worked spoke of their
reading pleasure with remarkable sophistication—and their pleasure supported
the intense and high-level engagement with texts that schools seek to foster.”
> Effective teachers understand the importance of adolescent choice and

ownership, as well as the aim to help teens develop a sense of their own reading
lives (Atwell and Merkel, 2016; Wilhelm and Smith, 2016; Kittle, 2013; Miller, 2009;
Tatum, 2013; Guthrie, 2008; Gallagher, 2009).
ADOLESCENT READERS 13
More to Know: Adolescents Crave Social Connection
Early adolescence and the shift to middle school represent a significant milestone for
most students. In addition to encountering more demanding literacy challenges across the
disciplines, middle school students experience a multi-faceted relationship with reading
and writing—both at school and at home.
Adolescents crave social connection. For young teens, literacy is shaped by popular culture,
family influences, and relationships with their peers (Ivey and Johnston, 2013; Moje, 2007;
Gruwell, 2014). Their texts include logos, music, magazines, websites, and popular and
classical literature—as well as the ubiquitous social media.
Engagement is a central force in adolescent literacy learning. It’s simple cause and
effect: adolescents who see something of value in school reading, read and enjoy
academic success. And those who don’t, don’t read and typically fall behind. John Guthrie,
education psychologist and literacy researcher, has been at the forefront of research on
reading engagement (2008). From his research and that of others, we know that reading
disengagement is more often than not the root cause of school failure and dropouts.
Today’s adolescents, given their 24/7 plugged-in status, texting, tweeting, and tinkering with
their digital profiles, might claim, “reading is my life.” A study by the Pew Research Center
(Lenhart, 2015) reports that a “typical teen sends and receives 30 texts per day. For older
girls, 15-17, the number climbs to 50 texts a day.” What’s more, aided by the convenience
of smartphones, “92% of teens report going online daily—including 24% who say they go
online ‘almost constantly.’”
As Krashen (2011) reminds us, all that digital reading and writing represents self-selected
“narrow reading,” which maximizes language and literacy development. Krashen explains
that “narrow reading means focusing on one topic, author, or genre according to the
reader’s interests.” Inviting kids to zero in on texts that hold the greatest interest nearly
“guarantees interest and comprehensibility because of the reader’s greater background
knowledge.” Series books represent a kind of narrow reading and often, for this reason,
offer a great source of pleasure for young or challenged readers. Over time, narrow
readers expand their interests.
What Adolescents Need

In 2012, the International Reading Association (IRA) issued a position paper on adolescent
literacy, defining it as “the ability to read, write, understand and interpret, and discuss
multiple texts across multiple contexts.” The IRA recognizes literacy as flexible and
multiple-dimensional; it may manifest as traditional print or fluid digital and appear as a
book, instant message, text, video game, or social media, “all of which can be used as tools
for understanding content as well as forming social relationships.”
Our 21st-century expansive world of literacy requires dynamic instruction to match. The IRA
position paper lists the following eight instructional supports that adolescents deserve:
• Content-area teachers who provide instruction in the multiple literacy strategies

needed to meet the demands of the specific discipline
• A culture of literacy in their schools with a systematic and comprehensive

programmatic approach to increasing literacy achievement for all
• Access to and instruction with multimodal texts
• Differentiated literacy instruction specific to their individual needs
• Opportunities to participate in oral communication when they engage in

literacy activities
• Opportunities to use literacy in the pursuit of civic engagement
• Assessments that highlight their strengths and challenges
• Access to a wide variety of print and non-print materials
Closing Thoughts
As the world around us becomes ever more interconnected and complex, the demands on
literacy increase. Today’s new tools and technologies demand ever-higher levels of processing
and performance. Access to high-level literacy is more important than ever. In 2014, Common
Sense Media issued “Children, Teens, and Reading,” a report suggesting that teens are pulling
away from reading. In 1984, 70 percent of 13-year-olds read weekly, compared with 53 percent
now. Forty-eight percent of 17-year-olds say they have read for pleasure only once or twice in
the last year, according to another study cited in the report. New Yorker writer David Denby,
musing over the demise of teen reading, offers this humorous spectacle:
A common sight in malls, in pizza parlors, in Starbucks, and wherever else American
teens hang out: three or four kids, hooded, gathered around a table, leaning over like
monks or druids, their eyes fastened to the smartphones held in front of them. The
phones, converging at the center of the table, come close to touching. The teens
are making a communion of a sort. Looking at them, you can envy their happiness.
You can also find yourself wishing them immersed in a different kind of happiness—
in a superb book or a series of books, in the reading obsession itself! You should
probably keep on wishing.
Yes, wish for a teacher like Nancie Atwell, Anne Merkel, Michael Smith, or Jeff Wilhelm,
all who know teens, know books, and understand the essential role of pleasurable, self-
selected reading—and the difference it makes for all readers. High school teachers Kelly
Gallagher and Penny Kittle (2018) sum up their teaching goals for their students:
We want to show our students the beauty that reading and writing can bring to their
lives. We do not want them to be indifferent; we want them to be empowered and
independent, curious, and passionate.
ADOLESCENT READERS 15
References
Atwell, N. and Merkel, A. (2016). The Reading Zone: Kittle, P. (2013). Book Love: Developing Depth,
How to Help Kids Become Skilled, Passionate, Stamina, and Passion in Adolescent
Habitual, Critical Readers, Second Edition. Readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
New York: Scholastic. Retrieved from: booklovefoundation.org
Burke, J. (2013). The English Teacher’s Companion, Krashen, S. (2011). Free Voluntary Reading. Santa
Fourth Edition. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Retrieved from: http://englishcompanion.com
Lenhart, A. (2015). Teens, Social Media
Common Sense Media (2014). “Children, Teens, and Technology Overview. Pew
and Reading.” www.commonsensemedia.org Research Center. Retrieved from:
www.pewinternet.org/2015/04/09/
Denby, D. (2016). “Do Teens Read Seriously teens-social-media-technology-2015.
Anymore?” New Yorker.
Miller, D. (2009). The Book Whisperer: Awakening
Gallagher, K. and Kittle, P. (2018). 180 Days. Two the Inner Reader in Every Child. San Francisco:
Teachers and the Quest to Engage and Jossey-Bass.
Empower Adolescents. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann. Moje, E, Overby, M., Tysvaer, N., and Morris, K.
(2008). “The Complex World of Adolescent
Gallagher, K. (2009). Readicide: How Schools Literacy: Myths, Motivations, and Mysteries.”
Are Killing Reading and What You Can Do Harvard Education Review. Vol. 78.
About It. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
National Council Teachers of English (NCTE).
Gruell, E. (2014). “A Legacy Lives On.” In L. Bridges (2007) Adolescent Literacy. A policy research
(Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real Stories brief produced by the National Council
About the Joy and Power of Reading. New Teachers of English.
York: Scholastic.
Retrieved from: pewinternet.org/Press-
Guthrie, J. (2008). Engaging Adolescents in Releases/2010/Teens-and-Mobile-Phones.
Reading. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. aspx
IRA Adolescent Task Force. (2012). “Adolescent Tatum, A. (2013). Fearless Voices: Engaging a New
Literacy: A Position Statement of the Generation of African American Adolescent
International Reading Association.” Delaware: Male Writers. New York: Scholastic.
International Reading Association.
Tatum, A. (2009). Reading for Their Life.
Ivey, G. and Johnston, P. (2013). “Engagement (Re)building the Textual Lineages of African
with Young Adult Literature: Outcomes and American Adolescent Males. Portsmouth, NH:
Processes.” Reading Research Quarterly. Heinemann.
Vol. 48(3).
Wilhelm, J. and Smith, M. (2016). “The Power of
Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. Pleasure Reading: What We Can Learn from
C., Salinger, T., and Torgesen, J. (2008). the Secret Reading Lives of Teens.” English
Improving Adolescent Literacy: Effective Journal. Vol. 105.
Classroom and Intervention Practices: A
Practice Guide, Washington, DC: National Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2014). “The Most
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Important Lesson Schools Can Teach Kids
Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, About Reading: It’s Fun.” The Atlantic.
U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from:
ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc. Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2013). Reading
Unbound: Why Kids Need to Read What They
Want and Why We Should Let Them. New
York: Scholastic.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
“The data from our study of boys and reading, in
fact, challenge us to rethink our answers to the most
fundamental questions we ask as teachers: Why do we
teach? What do we teach? How do we teach?”
—Dr. Michael W. Smith and Dr. Jeffrey D. Wilhelm, Reading Don’t Fix No Chevys
KEY FINDINGS
> Scholastic’s 2016 Kid and Family Reading Report surveyed more than 2,500 U.S.
children, aged 6-17, and found that only 52% of boys (versus 72% of girls) said they
liked reading books over the summer, while only 27% of boys (versus 37% of girls)
said they read books for fun at least five days a week. Forty-five percent of boys
(versus only 36% of girls) said they often have trouble finding books they like.
> Though these numbers are based on averages—there are boys, of course, who love
to read and may be reading above grade level—in general, in elementary school,
girls tend to be more verbal and get off to a faster start with reading than boys.
> What’s more, some boys seem to regard reading as a “feminine activity” and may
lack strong male reading models. This is a pattern that persists into adulthood, as
according to a 2016 Pew Research Study, “women are more likely to read books
than men.” Indeed, 32% of men (versus only 23% of women) surveyed said that
they hadn’t read a single book in the past year.
> The standardized NAEP test, known as the nation’s report card, indicates that
by the senior year of high school, boys have fallen nearly 20 points behind their
female peers in reading (Von Drehle, 2007).
> However, new evidence suggests that when boys are told that a reading
achievement test is a “game” (versus a test of their reading achievement) they
actually outscore the girls (Lukits, 2016).
> Eighty percent of high-school dropouts are boys, and fewer than 45% of students
enrolled in college are young men (Tyre, 2005).
> Seventy percent of children diagnosed with learning disabilities are male (Tyre,
2005). This means that boys are more than twice as likely as girls to be diagnosed
with learning disabilities.
BOYS 17
KEY FINDINGS
> In elementary school, boys are twice as likely to be placed in special education
classes as girls (Tyre, 2006).
> “More boys than girls are in special education classes. More boys than girls are
prescribed mood-managing drugs. This suggests that today’s schools are built
for girls, and boys are becoming misfits” (Von Drehle, 2007).
> Compared to 2010, in 2012 boys were more likely to think reading books for fun
was important (39% in 2010 vs. 47% in 2012), but they still lagged behind girls on
this measure (47% for boys in 2012 vs. 56% for girls in 2012) (Scholastic, 2013).
> Among children who have read an e-book, one in five says he or she is reading
more books for fun; boys are more likely to agree than girls (26% vs. 16%)
(Scholastic, 2013).
More to Know: Boys Lag Academically

When it comes to reading, girls seem to have the jump on boys. According to a 2010
study by the Center on Education Policy, boys are lagging behind girls on standardized
reading tests in all 50 states, and in some states, boys are trailing girls by as much as
10 percentage points (although note Lukits’s 2016 research and the achievement surge
boys demonstrated when they were told that the reading test was a “game”—then they
outscored the girls!).
In Virginia and New Hampshire, for example, middle school girls did better than boys in
reading proficiency by 15 percentage points. In New York, girls were 13 percentage points
ahead. Jack Jennings, the president of the Center on Education Policy, notes, “In the past,
boys did not do better in the first couple years of school. Girls did better. But then boys
caught up. The difference now is we’re finding that boys are not catching up.”
Of course, like most things in life, the reason for the reading achievement gap between
boys and girls is multifaceted. In Teenage Boys and High School English, Bruce Pirie (2002)
reminds readers of biological differences—for example, boys tend to develop language
skills more slowly than girls. And socially, female teachers and librarians typically shape
school reading. For some students, reading may be regarded as a “feminine, passive
activity,” with boys favoring more rugged and active pastimes such as sports or other
outdoor activities. Also, boys may not feel comfortable expressing their thoughts and
feelings about the books they read. No question it’s complicated, and in fact, Pirie cautions
that the challenge is best viewed as a gender continuum: “We must be prepared for the
likelihood that strategies intended to help boys will also benefit many girls” (2002).
Additionally, the acceleration of formal academic learning has hurt boys far more than girls:
Boys are far more likely to be held back a grade in fourth grade and then again in ninth
grade, an action that promotes a suspension rate for boys that is twice as high as that of
girls. This in turn leads to a male dropout rate of 32 percent compared to 25 percent for
females (Lamm, 2010).
Closing Thoughts
Pam Allyn, author of Best Books for Boys, notes that neither boys nor girls thrive with a lack
of engaging instruction and curriculum innovation. She suggests:
Let’s pay attention to the way our children learn best, at home, at school, and in the
world. Let’s embrace unique learning styles and use them to inform our teaching.
Let’s give our children options that intrigue them and tap into their natural curiosity.
Together we can help every child feel empowered in the classroom and beyond.
Finally, as children’s author Jon Scieszka reminds us, “The good news is that research
also shows that boys will read—if they are given reading that interests them.”
References
Allyn, P. (2011). Pam Allyn’s Best Books for Boys. Tyre, P. (2008). The Trouble with Boys: A Surprising
New York: Scholastic. Report Card on Our Sons, Their Problems at
School, and What Parents and Educators Must
Lamm, D. (2010). “Our Boys Are Falling Behind Do. New York: Crown.
in Education.” Denver Post. Retrieved
from: www.denverpost.com/opinion/ Tyre, P. (2005). “Boy Brains, Girl Brains.” Newsweek.
ci_14893585#ixzz1Mbtk6ame September 19. Retrieved from: www.newsweek.
com/2005/09/18/boy-brains-girl-brains.html
Lukits, A. (2016) Can Boys Beat Girls in Reading?
New York: Wall Street Journal. Von Drehle, D. (2007). “The Myth About Boys.”
Time.
Pew Research Center. (2016). Book Reading.
Pew Research Center. Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2002). Reading Don’t
Fix No Chevys: Literacy in the Lives of Young
Pirie, B. (2002). Teenage Boys and High School Men. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
English. Portsmouth, NH. Heinemann.
Scieszka, J. (2014). Guys Read: www.guysread.com
Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report. (2016).

New York: Scholastic. Retrieved from:
http://mediaroom.scholastic.com/kfrr
BOYS 19
LEARNERS OF ENGLISH AS AN
ALTERNATIVE LANGUAGE (EAL)
“Reading in two languages allowed me to fall in love with
a different symphony of sounds and rhythms, landscapes,
characters, and behaviors. When I began to read in English,
I noticed not only a different grammar order, but different
life perspectives, too.”
—Dr. F. Isabel Campoy, award-winning language scholar and author
KEY FINDINGS
> Free voluntary reading or independent reading is one of the most powerful
tools we have in language education. Research suggests that the acquisition of
English as a second language is enhanced by native language use. Thus, effective
teachers, to the extent possible, provide emerging bilinguals with trade books in
both languages (Krashen, 2011; Goldenberg, 2011; Freeman et al. 2016).
> “Krashen, Lee, and McQuillan (2006) reported that more access to school libraries
of at least 500 books was associated with higher reading scores for 10-year-olds
in 40 countries, tested in their own language. This result held even when SES was
controlled” (Krashen, 2011)
> “Educational linguists have developed a theory of bilingualism that has significant
implications for teaching emergent bilingual students. The centerpiece of this
perspective is that bilingualism is no longer viewed as a mastery of two discrete
languages but instead as the ability to strategically and continuously weave in
and out of languages depending on the context and audience—a skill linguists
call translanguaging” (Garcia and Wei, 2014; Flores, nd).
> “Translanguaging is the discursive norm in bilingual families and communities”

(Garcia and Wei, 2014). In other words, bilinguals have one linguistic repertoire,
and when expressing themselves, draw from all the languages that they possess
in order to communicate.
> Learning to read in their native language capitalizes on what children already
know before their schooling begins. “When children enter school, they are
equipped with a working vocabulary and a general ability to communicate in
KEY FINDINGS
their mother tongue. By teaching in a language that children speak, think, and
understand, they are able to actively engage in the classroom. Children smoothly
transition between home and school—their culture and traditional knowledge
validated and reinforced in the classroom. After mastering their mother tongue
language, children are able to rapidly learn to read and write in a second
language” (Dhalla, 2012).
> We acquire language when we understand what we hear and what we read—also
known as “comprehensible input.” The ability to understand and use correct
grammar and vocabulary in a second language comes largely from reading and
listening. Students pay attention to this linguistic input when it’s so compelling
that it catches and engages their interest (Crawford and Krashen, 2007; Mah, 2014;
Mora, 2014; Moua, 2014; Rami, 2014; Wong Fillmore, 2014).
> When new and engaging reading materials were added to classroom libraries,
EAL students increased their independent reading and improved their
comprehension, oral language development, and vocabulary (Worthy and Roser,
2010; Elley, 1991).
> Though students who are learning English as an alternative language can typically
learn conversational English in two to three years, it can take five to eight years to
master the complex challenges of academic English (Cummins, 2008).
> A classroom culture of conversation is essential for all students, but especially so
for strivers and students who are just finding their way into English (Echevarria and
Goldberg, 2017).
LEARNERS OF ENGLISH AS AN ALTERNATIVE LANGUAGE (EAL) 21

More to Know: Translanguaging and Building
on Language Strengths
All students, even those with learning challenges, bring to school a deep knowledge of
and facility with their first language. The goal is always to build on linguistic strengths
of emerging bilinguals’ first language while supporting them as they learn their target
language, English. Learning to read in a second language requires a complex interweaving
of students’ cultural, linguistic, and cognitive development, understanding that all three
together are imperative for strong second-language growth (Freeman, et al., 2016).
Language expert Ofelia Garcia explains “translanguaging” as a practice that enables

“bilinguals to draw on their entire linguistic repertoire to make sense of their multilingual
worlds.” Here’s a powerful example of translanguaging in action:
Moll and his colleagues initiated a series of teaching-learning experiments in

which they asked children to read texts in English and then discuss what they had
read in Spanish. The results were compelling. Children who appeared to have
minimal comprehension of English texts when they were required to discuss these
texts in English, revealed rich comprehension when they were allowed to talk
about the texts using their native Spanish. Moll and his colleagues worked toward
creating a “bilingual zone” in which children were invited to draw on their Spanish-
language resources to comprehend and discuss texts they had read in English
(Compton-Lilly, 2014).
As Robert Jiménez of Vanderbilt writes, “The best teachers of English language learners
use what they know about literacy and what they know about their students to build
reading and writing skills. They learn about the role of reading and writing in different
cultures and communities; they use students’ backgrounds and linguistic skills as a
foundation for learning; and they give their students the tools they need to excel” (2014).
Claude Goldenberg of Stanford agrees that teaching students to read in their first
language (L1) promotes higher levels of reading in English; indeed, the research is
indisputable. Nearly three dozen experiments and five meta-analyses of the data have been
reported since the 1960s, and all reached the same conclusion:
Teaching students to read in their first language promotes reading achievement

in their target language (L2) in comparison to teaching students to read in the
L2 exclusively. The meta-analyses also concluded, not surprisingly, that primary
language instruction promotes higher levels of literacy in the primary language (2011).

It’s always important to keep in mind, however, each student’s unique learning profile and
socio/cultural/economic background. EAL learners vary by age, country of origin, mother
tongue, socioeconomic status, and degree of access and exposure to formal schooling.
Variations among these factors influence the extent to which instruction practices can
favorably impact learning to read in a second language” (Carlo, 2004; Olsen, 2010).
EAL learners need the following:
• Multiple Entry Points into English EAL learners benefit when they are able to draw on
the full linguistic support of all four language processes—reading, writing, speaking,
and listening—and all four language processes should be thoroughly integrated. EAL
learners benefit from extensive aural support (read-alouds and audiobooks) as well as
multiple opportunities to write. EAL learners should be encouraged to keep a reader’s
notebook, using it to write about the books they are reading. The full spectrum of
linguistic support through multiple language processes enables emerging bilinguals
to enjoy and make sense of the grade-level books they are reading (Gibbons, 2009).
• Supports for Academic Vocabulary Acquisition What about all-important

vocabulary? Second-language researcher Diane August (2006) notes the value of the
interactive read-aloud as a key instructional strategy that supports the acquisition of
linguistic skills by EAL learners. Vocabulary is primarily acquired incidentally, through
listening, speaking, and reading (Wong-Fillmore, 2014; Graves, 2006). Thus, teachers
need to immerse students in rich language environments where students have many
opportunities to use their target language (English) to learn rich content.
– Interactive shared reading successfully supports EAL learners as well as native

English speakers (Silverman, 2007). It exposes students to rich book language and
powerful vocabulary. Though many studies have been conducted with young
children, there is evidence that this technique can be effective with older learners
as well (Brabham and Lynch-Brown, 2002).
– Duke, et al. (2011) cite the high correlation between academic vocabulary and
comprehension and offer several strategies that students can use to lock down the
meaning of more sophisticated content words. These strategies include relating
words to themes and to other similar words. These word associations help build
networks of meaning that support reading comprehension.
• Thematic Networks of Meaning EAL learners benefit immeasurably from thematic

text sets that spiral in difficulty over the course of each school year, as well as
across grade levels (Freeman et al. 2016). Reading multiple texts on the same theme
automatically fosters close reading and deepens and refines subject knowledge. As
noted by literacy researcher Peter Johnston, “To understand a text deeply, we need
multiple perspectives. To understand a subject, idea, or concept more deeply, we
need multiple texts because each text offers another author’s perspective on the
subject” (2009).

• Narrow Reading Related to thematic text sets is the concept of “narrow reading.”
In narrow reading, students read multiple texts more narrowly focused on a specific
topic rather than a more expansive theme “to delve deeply into a relevant issue”
so that “key concepts and related high-utility words and phrases” are recycled,
“consolidating students’ background while increasing repetitive word knowledge”
(Krashen, 2004). The relationship between a given text and the texts surrounding
it is often known by the term “intertextuality.” As readers finish one book in either a
narrow or thematically related text set, they experience intertextuality as progressively
broadening knowledge. Each book offers a literacy experience that builds on
the previous one, providing a network of support for all students. This support is
especially helpful for students who are learning English as an alternative language as
they explore key themes or more specific topics across multiple texts, encountering
similar vocabulary and understandings that make it easier to learn and retain new
material. EAL learners get a leg up by developing the all-important background
knowledge that enables them to comprehend new books.
Evidence-Based Writing
Inviting EAL learners to write—which consolidates their views and understandings—also
helps drive their reading comprehension. Additionally, students learn to synthesize
information in their own words and use the text as the basis for putting forth an argument
or opinion, all of which provides EAL learners with invaluable support (Neuman and Roskos,
2012). Evidence-based writing calls on students to use passages from the text to support
their opinions, summations, and conclusions. Graham and Herbert (2010) and Graham and
Perin (2007) note that writing about a text enables students to crack it open and construct
meaning and knowledge in more effective and precise ways than would be possible if they
were simply reading and rereading the text, or reading and discussing it.
Reading as the Best Support for EAL Learners

In their classic study, Elley and Mangubhai (1983) found that reading significantly increased
the achievement of children. They studied 614 children (380 in the experimental groups
and 234 in the control group) in fourth- and fifth-grade classrooms in rural Fiji schools
with very few books. The researchers provided 250 high-interest illustrated storybooks
in English per classroom to the experimental groups. The control group continued to
use the ongoing English language program that put little emphasis on reading. Eight of
the 16 experimental classrooms had sustained silent reading (time set aside in class for
children to read books of their choice). The other eight experimental classrooms had
the shared book experience (also called shared reading, a teaching technique where the
teacher points to the print in full view of the children while reading to them). They found
that after eight months, the pupils in the two experimental groups progressed in reading
comprehension at twice the rate of the comparison group.
Closing Thoughts
When linguistic diversity is regarded and acted on as a resource for teaching and
learning, students thrive (Borrero and Bird, 2009). Students who are learning English as
an alternative language learn how to create meaning, communicate that meaning, and
extend meaning—in two or more languages—in ways that engage their intellectual abilities
and promote both academic and lifelong success. And again and again, the research
shows that one of the most efficient and effective ways to support EAL learners is through
wide, extensive reading.

References
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Vocabulary in English-Language Learners. Levels with Story Books: Evidence from the
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Borrero, N., and Bird, S. (2009). Closing the
Achievement Gap: How to Pinpoint Student Echevarria, J., and Goldenberg, C. (2017). Second
Strengths to Differentiate Instruction and Help Language Learners’ Vocabulary and Oral
Your Striving Readers Succeed. New York: Language Development. International Literacy
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Compton-Lilly, C. (2014). “The Hidden Strengths of
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DIVERSE LEARNERS
“By 2035, students of color will be a majority in our schools.
With increasing populations of children of immigrant
and migrant families expanding the presence of cultural
diversity in schools … teachers must adjust curriculum,
materials, and support to ensure that each student has
equity of access to high quality learning.”
—Dr. Carol Ann Tomlinson, University of Virginia
KEY FINDINGS
> “Half of U.S. children under age five are non-white. But only 10 percent of
children’s books in the last two decades featured multicultural characters. The
math doesn’t add up” (Hart, 2017).
> “Culturally responsive teaching” means using the “cultural characteristics,

experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for
teaching them more effectively” (Gay, 2002).
> Django Paris (2012) explains that “culturally sustaining pedagogy fosters linguistic,
literate, and cultural pluralism as part of democratic schooling.” To counter the
policies and practices that create a monocultural and monolingual society we
need equally explicit resistances that embrace cultural pluralism and equality.
> Trade books are powerful instructional tools for both celebrating and supporting
diverse learning styles and perspectives (Draper, 2014; Haddix, 2014; Parker, 2014;
Siu-Runyan, 2014; Sumida, 2014; Tatum, 2014).
> In our increasingly diverse nation and interconnected world, students need global
awareness and a deep understanding of, and respect for cultural equity and
diversity. We’re called upon to help our students understand other perspectives
and cultures (Miller and Sharp, 2017; ILA, NCTE 2014).
> Literature has always played a pivotal role in helping our students transcend
boundaries created by ethnic, cultural, and linguistic differences. “Literature
helps children develop their cultural identities as it allows them to understand
and appreciate the cultures of others.” It’s often the first step toward “eliminating
stereotyping and prejudice and helping students develop cultural identity”
(Craft Al-Hazza and Bucher, 2008).
KEY FINDINGS
> In “Mirrors, Windows, and Sliding Glass Doors,” Professor Rudine Sims Bishop
writes, “When children cannot find themselves reflected in the books they read,
or when the images they see are distorted, negative, or laughable, they learn a
powerful lesson about how they are devalued in the society of which they are a
part” (1990).
> “One important goal is for literature to offer readers a realistic and authentic mirror
of their own lives and experiences. If children recognize themselves reflected
accurately and sympathetically in the books they read, they may develop positive
self-images and sense of worth” (Lehman, Freeman, and Scharer, 2010).
> “Writing [is] a means to make sense of and critically shape [one’s] multiple
identities” (Muhammad, 2015).
> “It becomes vital to not simply advise the next generation of scholars, but to also
mentor them in ways that help to cultivate their minds so they are prepared to use
their voices in powerful ways to improve and advance the state of educational
progress.” (Muhammad, 2015).
More to Know: Value Students’ Literate Experiences

Typically, school literacy centers around reading, writing, listening, and speaking—and
traditional texts and textbooks. Spears-Bunton and Powell (2009) suggest that this view of
literacy is narrow; as a result, students who experience alternative literate experiences in their
homes and communities—which aren’t valued by the school—may be viewed as “at risk.”
For example, though some children may not routinely enjoy a bedtime story, they may
participate in a rich, complex literate experience in their church and choir. It’s essential
that educators work to understand and value the literate experiences every child brings to
school. As Phyllis Hunter (2012) reminds us:
What do we consider reading? If we’re talking Hamlet or the Federalist Papers,

kids may not be reading as much. But if we recognize the time they spend on the
Internet and with social media as opportunities for reading and writing, then the
number of minutes kids these days spend on both is not declining.
DIVERSE LEARNERS 29
Effective teachers of reading understand that children from culturally diverse backgrounds
learn best when the classroom environment is respectful of their linguistic, social, and
cultural heritage. These teachers surround their students with culturally appropriate and
relevant trade books that capitalize on the background knowledge and experiences that
their students bring to school. By connecting these children with meaningful, culturally
responsive books, they can relate to, teachers validate and build on their students’ cultural
and world knowledge. For this reason, the literacy director of Chicago Public Schools, Jane
Fleming, maintains that we need more books that depict positive images of urban life to
engage our growing populations of urban students and bolster their literacy development
(Fleming et al., 2016).
In this poignant example, trade author Jewell Parker Rhodes (2015) helps us understand the
need for books that reflect all the children in a class:
I was a junior at Carnegie Mellon when I saw, on the library’s new fiction shelf, Gayl
Jones’s Corregidora. Black women wrote books? It was a revelation. I switched
my major the very next day. In my creative writing class, I was the only person of
color. My classmates would say, “Why didn’t you tell me your characters were
black?” “Why didn’t you tell me yours were white?” But truth be told, the experience
confirmed that I, too, “read white” unless an author told me differently.
A rich classroom collection of culturally responsive trade books acknowledges the

background experience of culturally diverse students, bridges the gap between home and
school, and enhances their engagement in reading. As Lehman, Freeman, and Scharer
note, “As technology advances and opportunities for global communication expand, the
value and importance of international children’s books will continue to grow” (2009).
Dr. Alfred Tatum promotes what he calls enabling texts, books that are deeply significant
and meaningful to all adolescents, but especially important for our diverse students living
in high poverty urban environments. Enabling texts, at times authored by writers who have
overcome adversity themselves, form a textual lineage that speaks to the rich possibilities
of a life both thoughtful and well lived. Tatum believes these books offer their readers a
roadmap to life as they strive to develop their own “plan of action” and a “healthy psyche”
(Tatum, 2009).
Drawing from his work with disengaged adolescents in Chicago, Tatum saw the need for
texts that were provocative and relevant, stories that spoke to the essential questions of
students’ lives. He also insisted that his students write, not just to develop skills, but as a
process of self-discovery and a means of empowerment across four intellectual platforms
that enable students to think deeply about their own human development. As he says, “It’s
not just about literacy. It’s about their lives” (2009, 2013).
• Define Self: What are your passions, your values, and your goals?
• Become Resilient: How do you stay strong when life puts obstacles in your way?
• Engage with Others: How do you work with other people to make a difference?
• Build Capacity: What can you do to make the world a better place?
Closing Thoughts
Phyllis Hunter (2012) writes, “Every child should find her or himself in the pages of a book.”
As teachers work to bring in culturally responsive children’s and YA books that will appeal
to their diverse classrooms, they would do well to ask the following of each book they are
considering. Does this book:
• Reflect the values, strengths, and ideals that a cultural group considers vital?
• Accurately represent the characters’ countries of origin?
• Address complex issues with sensitivity and nuance?
• Portray characters as problem-solvers?
• Feature the diversity most typical in different regional areas?
By bringing the world into our classrooms and homes through culturally responsive literature,
we open windows of understanding (Draper, 2014; Dybdah and Ongtooguk, 2014; Haddix,
2014; Parker, 2014).
We have the power to know more through the books we read and through the stories
we hear. And as educators, we also have the power to change what our students know.
We can bring books to our students that will push them beyond their limits and out into
understanding the world as it truly exists. We can give them access to more empathy and
more understanding by giving them access to the kinds of books that accurately represent
the diversity of the people with whom we share this world (Lifshitz, 2018).
DIVERSE LEARNERS 31
References
Al-Hazza, T. and Bucher, K. (2008). Books about the Muhammad, E. (2015). African American Muslim
Middle East: Selecting and Using Them with Girls Reading and Writing for Social Change.
Children and Adolescents. Columbus: Linworth. Vol. 32(3).
Bishop, R. S. (1990). “Mirrors, Windows, and Sliding Muhammad, E. (2015). “”I Know What the Caged
Glass Doors.” Perspectives: Choosing and Using Bird Feels, Alas!”: Reflections on Mentoring
Books in the Classroom. Vol. 6(3). Columbus: and Scholarship in the Academy.” Journal of
The Ohio State University. Education. Vol. 195(2),15.
Draper, S. (2014). “My Journey from Reader to Writer.” Paris, D. (2012). Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy. A
In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Needed Change in Stance, Terminology, and
Real Stories About the Joy and Power of Change. Educational Researcher. Vol. 41(3).
Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Parker, P. (2014). “Black Boys Who Read.” In L.
Dybdahl, C., and Ongtooguk, P. (2014). “From Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possibl: Real
Norwich to Nome: Reading in America.” In L. Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading.
Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real New York: Scholastic.
New York: Scholastic. Rhodes J. P. (2015). “Diversity and Character-Driven
Stories.” Keynote. American Booksellers.
Fleming, J., Catapano, S., Thompson, C., and Association.
Carriillo, S. (2016). More Mirrors in the Classroom.
Using Children’s Urban Literature to Increase Siu-Runyan, Y. (2014). “Hope, Breath and Light.” In
Literacy. New York: Rowman and Littlefield L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real
Publishers. Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading.
Gay, G. (2002). “Preparing for Culturally Responsive
Teaching.” Journal of Teacher Education. Vol. Spears-Bunton, L. and Powell, R. (2009). Toward
53(2). a Literacy of Promise: Joining the African
American Struggle. New York: Routledge.
Haddix, M. (2014). “The Year I Met Carrie White,
Miss Celie and Ponyboy Curtis.” In L. Bridges Sumida, A. (2014). “Solving a Mystery.” In L. Bridges
(Ed.). Open a World of Possible: Real Stories (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real Stories
About the Joy and Power of Reading. New York: About the Joy and Power of Reading. New York:
Scholastic. Scholastic.
Hart, M. (2017). “We Need Diverse Books.” Tatum, A. (2014). “Defined by Book.” In L. Bridges
The Writer. (Ed.), Open a World of Possible. Real Stories
About the Joy and Power of Reading. New York:
Hunter, P. (2012). It’s Not Complicated: What I Scholastic.
Know for Sure About Helping Students of
Color Become Successful Readers. New York: Tatum, A. (2013). Fearless Voices: Engaging a New
Scholastic. Generation of African American Adolescent
Male Writers. New York: Scholastic.
Lehman, B., Freeman, E., and Scharer, P. (2010).
Reading Globally, K-8: Connecting Students to Tatum, A. (2009). Reading for Their Life. (Re)
the World Through Literature. Thousand Oaks, building the Textual Lineages of African
CA: Corwin. American Adolescent Males. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Lifshitz, J. (2018). “Access to Books Is Access to the
Lives of Others.” In Miller, D. and Sharp, C. (Ed.). Trilling, B., and Fadel, C. (2009). 21st Century Skills:
Game Changers! Book Access for All Kids. New Learning for Life in Our Times. San Francisco:
York: Scholastic. Jossey-Bass.
Miller, D. and Sharp, C (2018). Game Changers! Book

Access for All Kids. New York: Scholastic.
STRIVING READERS
“There’s no such thing as a kid who hates reading. There are
just kids who love reading, and kids who are reading the
wrong books. We need to help them find the right books.”
—James Patterson, award-winning novelist and founder of ReadKiddoRead
KEY FINDINGS
> “Children must have easy—literally fingertip—access to authentic texts that

provide engaging, successful reading experiences throughout the calendar year
if we want them to read in volume (Klein, 2018; Johnston, 2010).
> Authentic texts—unlike contrived texts that are put together to teach a skill—allow
students to think and feel about what they read. Students discover favorite books
while developing a love for reading. In addition to the benefits of motivating learners,
arousing their interest, and exposing them to the language that they will encounter in
the real world, authentic materials enable successful language learning (Bridges, 2018;
Miller and Sharp, 2018; Klein, 2018; Scharer et al., 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017).
> Teachers play a pivotal role in helping their students find the will to read and
the thrill of succeeding (Duke et al., 2011). Successful teachers, without fail, do
three things:
• Provide their students with the instructional scaffolding they need
to succeed—most effectively delivered in small group or one on one
(Richardson and Lewis, 2018; Scharer et al., 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017).
• Match their students with books that they can read with enjoyment and deep
comprehension (Klein, 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017). Hooking students with
terrific content isn’t just fun—it’s the key to our students’ success. As Duke,
Pearson, and Billman (2011) remind us, “Motivation is highly correlated with
learning in general and reading comprehension, in particular.”
• Balance text complexity with task complexity. When students tackle a new
genre, structure, or topic, provide more scaffolding for the complex text but
also set an easier reading response task for them. If students are reading their
preferred genre or reading about their favorite topic, challenge them to read
a book at a higher text level but also suggest they take on a more challenging
reader’s response task (Klein, 2017).
STRIVING READERS 33
KEY FINDINGS
> Students, even those who find reading challenging, thrive in classrooms that are
filled with books at different levels, where the teacher celebrates books—creating
colorful book displays and giving book talks that promote favorite titles—and
students are given the choice of what they read, as well as time and support to
read it (Miller and Sharp, 2018; Scharer et al. 2018; Allington, 2012).
> Walczyk and Griffin-Ross (2007) found that striving readers benefit from some
say in what they read and how they read it. In other words, they benefit when they
are allowed to choose books they want to read, slow down their reading, and
implement compensatory strategies, such as reading out loud, back tracking and
rereading, pausing, skipping words they don’t know, using onset rime patterns
(Zinke, 2017), analogizing to a known word, or using context to predict what word
might come next (Hiebert, 2018).
> Guthrie (2004), commenting on the results of two large national and international
sets of data examining the relationship between reading engagement and
achievement, writes, “Based on this massive sample, this finding suggests the
stunning conclusion that engaged reading can overcome traditional barriers to
reading achievement, including gender, parental education, and income.”
> The Kids Count report Early Warning! Why Reading by the End of Third Grade
Matters makes clear what’s at stake when primary students fail to thrive as
confident readers: “Reading proficiently by the end of third grade (as measured by
NAEP at the beginning of fourth grade) can be a make-or-break benchmark in a
child’s educational development” (2010).
> Researchers Catherine Snow et al. maintain that “academic success, as defined
by high school graduation, can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by
knowing a student’s reading skill at the end of third grade. A child who is not
at least a modestly skilled reader by that time is unlikely to graduate from high
school” (1998).
> Students who are assigned to the “slow” reading group often feel stupid. “Our
first experience with reading influences our perceptions of our intelligence, even
as adults …If you ask an adult, ‘Do you consider yourself above average, about
average, or below average?’ most of them have a clear picture of where they fall
on the intelligence spectrum—based on the years when they were learning to
read” (Johnson, 2011).
KEY FINDINGS
> McGill-Franzen et al. (2016) showcase the research of Rosalie Fink (1995, 1997), who
demonstrated that curiosity and a “pursuit of passionate interests” can drive the
kind of reading practice that ultimately helps even so-called dyslexics overcome
reading challenges. Fink interviewed 60 highly successful adult professionals
who attended prestigious universities and became award-winning scientists,
professors in medicine, neuroscientists, and lawyers, and yet as children all had
been identified as dyslexic. Nevertheless, all became accomplished professionals
by immersing themselves in “massive amounts of technical reading” about their
topic of interest. In the process, these striving readers developed:
• “Deep background knowledge, schema familiarity, and contextual
understanding. Familiarity with domain-specific vocabulary, themes, and
typical text structures provided the scaffolds that supported their
development of increasingly sophisticated literacy skills” (Fink, 1997;
cited in Franzen, 2016).”
> In a similar fashion, Krashen (2011) promotes “narrow reading”—the practice of

delving deeply into a particular topic of interest, and scaffolded by the familiar
vocabulary, text structures, and concepts, consuming vast qualities of texts with
relative ease.
> Although some children may require more intense reading interventions, focused
instruction in English, and/or special education services, all children need and
deserve an active reading life fueled by caring teachers (Harvey and Ward, 2017;
Beers and Probst, 2017; Howard, 2018; Routman, 2018).
STRIVING READERS 35
More to Know: Successful Reading by Third Grade
Failure to achieve reading proficiency by third grade disproportionately affects children from
high-poverty households and communities. Typically, this developmental lag is the result of
differences in resources and opportunities for healthy physical, linguistic, cognitive, social,
emotional, and behavioral development. Children who live with the challenges of poverty
have a higher incidence of health problems that interfere with learning, and, what’s more, as
their parents work overtime to put food on the table, they may miss rich book-based verbal
interactions with their families (Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014), access to books (Neuman
and Celano, 2001, 2012), and the daily read-aloud (Adams, 1990).
In her seminal Beginning to Read (1990), Marilyn Adams notes that children from families
of means often arrive at school with 1,000 hours of read-aloud time under their belts. In
stark contrast, children from high-poverty households may not have experienced a single
read-aloud—or, if they have, it more typically adds up to just 25 hours’ worth.
In his 2012 study, “Double Jeopardy: How Third-Grade Reading Skills and Poverty Influence
High School Graduation,” researcher Donald Hernandez notes that third grade is a pivotal
point: “If you haven’t succeeded by third grade it’s more difficult to [remediate] than it
would have been if you started before then.” Drawing from the data of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics’ National Longitudinal Study of Youth, Dr. Hernandez examined the reading
scores and later graduation rates of 3,975 students born between 1979 and 1989. His
findings, as reported in the Annie B. Casey Report, are convincing:
“He found 16 percent overall did not have a diploma by age 19, but students
who struggled with reading in early elementary school grew up to comprise 88
percent of those who did not receive a diploma. That made low reading skills an
even stronger predictor than spending at least a year in poverty, which affected
70 percent of the students who didn’t graduate. In fact, 89 percent of students in
poverty who did read on level by third grade graduated on time, statistically no
different from the students who never experienced poverty but did struggle with
reading early on. By contrast, more than one in four poor, struggling readers did
not graduate, compared with only two percent of good readers from wealthier
backgrounds. Mr. Hernandez found that gaps in graduation rates among white,
black, and Hispanic students closed once poverty and reading proficiency were
taken into account. “If they are proficient in reading, they basically have the same
rate of graduation,” above 90 percent, Mr. Hernandez said. “‘If they did not reach
proficiency, that’s when you see these big gaps emerge.’”
The best way to prevent failure to thrive as a proficient reader is to marshal the support
of all involved: families, schools, and communities (Mapp et al, 2017). When everyone
works together to give children meaningful literacy experiences and closely monitor their
progress, students are more likely to enter the third grade as confident, capable readers
who will continue to excel in school and graduate from high school. Early literacy, in other
words, is the gift that keeps on giving, providing benefits that extend well beyond the
primary grades and carrying students all the way through a successful school career to
on-time high school graduation.
Books and Strategic Intervention for Reluctant Readers
“When classroom teachers provided students with

easy access to a wide range of interesting texts, the
effects on comprehension and motivation to read
were enormous.”
—Richard Allington
Response to Intervention (RTI) originated in 2004 with the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA). THough its intent was noble—to provide a thoughtful program of
sensitive support for striving readers inside the comfort of their own classrooms—it has,
as outlined by Sparks (2015), failed to live up to its promise. It seems that the line between
core instruction (Tier I) and intervention (Tier II) has been blurred—with too many children
targeted for intervention and thus deprived of what they most need: meaning-focused,
uninterrupted time with books they love to read.
Easy Access to Good Books

Getting the right books into kids’ hands is the key that opens the way to strategic
intervention that works (Klein, 2018; Richardson and Lewis, 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017;
Howard, 2018), as well as the ultimate goal—high volume, engaged readers (Guthrie, 2008).
In What Really Matters in Response to Intervention (2012), Allington reports on the striking
findings of Guthrie and Humenick (2004): “When classrooms provided students with easy
access to a wide range of interesting text, the effects on comprehension and motivation to
read were enormous.” Easy access to books that students enjoyed reading had a profound
impact on both reading comprehension (effect size 1.6) and motivation to read (effect size
1.5). To put this in perspective, an effect size of 1.0 moves achievement from the 16th to the
50th percentile rank. That’s hugely significant. As Allington notes, “No other features of
classroom instruction were as powerful in improving both reading comprehension
and motivation.”
STRIVING READERS 37
Guthrie (2008) explains in no uncertain terms what’s needed to help older striving readers:
In the end, if we truly want struggling readers to improve their reading skills, schools
and teachers must take drastic measures. School districts must begin to put money
into texts. By allocating funds for high-interest books and by adjusting curricula to
allow for the teaching of such novels, they can take the first step in this important
process. Individual teachers must recognize that it is more beneficial to have every
student in a class reading a book—despite its content and reading level—than it is
to teach Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar to half of a class while the other half becomes
more certain that reading is not for them..
Karen Tankersley (2005) notes that by the time striving readers enter middle school, they
have endured many years of frustration and failure. As a result, they are often “skilled
evaders who try to either ‘hide out or act out’ so they can avoid reading in front of their
peers.” They also typically suffer from a crushing lack of self-confidence with little
motivation to engage in an activity that they associate with embarrassment and failure.
Motivation is highest when students feel competent, have sufficient autonomy, set
worthwhile goals, receive specific feedback, and are affirmed by others (Harvey and Ward,
2017). Conversely, learning theorists John Hattie and Gregory Yates (2013) maintain that
when students suffer “public humiliation, devastating test results, conflicts with teachers
or peers, and ability grouping with very little chance of promotion,” they are likely to feel
deflated and disengage with the work at hand with self-destructive results (Johnson, 2011).
As researcher John Guthrie (2008) reminds us, “Reading engagement and reading
achievement interact in a spiral. Higher achievers read more, and the more engaged these
students become, the higher they achieve. Likewise, lower achievers read less, and the
less engaged decline in achievement.” It’s the Matthew Effect—the rich get richer and the
poor get poorer (Stanovich, 1986). For this reason, it’s imperative to maintain the highest
expectations for all students and provide the exemplary instruction and rich, wide-ranging
content that fosters intellectual curiosity and enables all students to achieve high academic
and personal success.
To this end, reluctant readers often thrive with thematically related text sets or series
books. Students benefit from reading across a set of books that are conceptually linked;
text sets or series books about the same set of characters automatically create a network
of shared meaning that serves as a safety net for those students most in need. They more
easily learn the big ideas and shared vocabulary related to a specific unit of study, and
that, in turn, enables them to more easily read, write, and talk about the books they are
reading. Ultimately, dramatically increasing the volume of free voluntary reading by striving
readers—providing the books and magazines that will catch their attention and lure them
into reading, and providing the instructional scaffolding they need to move forward with
confidence—is the best way to help them overcome their challenges (Howard, 2018; Klein,
2018; Richardson and Lewis, 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017).
Closing Thoughts
Learning to read is typically defined as learning to control a specific set of skills. And
though it’s certainly true that children must learn to orchestrate a complex set of strategic
actions that enable comprehension, it’s equally true that learning to read is a social-cultural
event. In other words, learning to read is more than simple skill building. Children become
readers when they are immersed in a community of readers, surrounded by rich book talk
and animated demonstrations of reading, and provided with the social-emotional support
that enables them to develop identities as readers and become members of the “literacy
club” (Smith, 1987; Allyn and Morrell, 2016; Harvey and Ward, 2017). Thus, at the same time
we’re helping students acquire the technical skills necessary for proficient reading, we
also work to help children develop the confidence to take the risks needed to propel their
learning. Learning to read, like any human endeavor, requires practice, perseverance, and
persistence to push through the challenges to proficiency.
STRIVING READERS 39
References
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STRIVING READERS 41
Did you know?
If teachers followed the guidelines in third-grade core
reading program implementation guides...
how much reading practice would kids actually get?
The mean reading volume of these programs was about...
15
minutes a day
or
17%
of the time
allotted for a 90-minute reading/ELA block.
Reading for me is like DNA woven into

the strands of my life.
—Marva Allen, Novelist, Hue-man Book Store Owner

Chapter 2
READING
> V
olume, Stamina, and Avid,
Independent Reading
> Comprehension
> Background Knowledge
> Vocabulary
> Fluency
CHAPTER 2: READING 43
VOLUME, STAMINA, AND AVID,
INDEPENDENT READING
“The amount and frequency with which one reads, or
one’s reading volume, has profound implications for the
development of a wide variety of cognitive capabilities,
including verbal ability and general knowledge.”
—Dr. Anne Cunningham and Dr. Jamie Zibulsky, Book Smart: How to Develop
and Support Successful, Motivated Readers
KEY FINDINGS
> Volume of reading is critical in the development of reading proficiency (Johnston,

2011). Volume is defined as a combination of the time students spend reading plus
the numbers of words they actually consume as they read (Miller and Sharp, 2018;
Beers and Probst, 2017; Harvey and Ward, 2017; Allington, 2012; Guthrie, 2004).
> The U.S. Dept. of Education (2005) maintains that avid, independent reading is a
widely recognized precursor to:
• Better skills acquisition
• Superior grades
• Desirable life related to income, profession, employment, and other attributes
> It is during independent reading practice that students consolidate their reading
skills and strategies and come to own them. Without extensive reading practice,
reading proficiency lags (Scharer, 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017; Allington, 2012;
Hiebert, 2014; Krashen, 2011).
> Students who read widely and frequently are higher achievers than students who
read narrowly and rarely regardless of their family income; so students from lower
income families who read a lot score higher on reading achievement tests than
do their more privileged peers who don’t read (Guthrie 2012; Brozo, et al., 2008).
> “Independent reading is an essential practice, one that develops background
knowledge, improves fluency and comprehension, heightens motivation,
increases reading achievement, and helps students broaden their vocabulary
(Miller and Sharp, 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017; Miller and Moss, 2013).
> The volume of independent, silent reading that students do in school is
significantly related to gains in reading achievement. (Swan, Coddington, Guthrie,
2010; Hiebert and Reutzel, 2010; Cunningham and Stanovich, 2003).
44 CHAPTER 2: READING
KEY FINDINGS
> “Students who read a lot score better on every imaginable test—the NAEP, the SAT,
and the ACT. One of the best ways of doing this is to allow students to read habitually,
and in ways that literate people the world over read ... Watch your strong readers.
What is one factor they all have in common? They read a lot” (Calkins, et al., 2012).
> “Most American students do not read a great deal. In the typical classroom,
students spend less than 20% of the reading/language arts block reading”
(Brenner and Hiebert, 2010). “Even a little more reading time can go a long way. In
fact, as little as an additional seven minutes of reading per day has been shown to
differentiate classrooms in which students read well from those in which students
read less well” (Kuhn and Schwanenflugel, 2009; cited in Hiebert, 2014).
> “Frequent readers are defined as children who read for fun five to seven days a
week. Frequent readers ages 12-17 read an average of 39.6 books a year, while
infrequent readers in this age group read an average of only 4.7 books a year
> There are three powerful factors that can predict whether a child across ages
6-17 will be a frequent reader:
• Children’s level of reading enjoyment
• Parents who are frequent readers
• A child’s belief that reading for fun is important
Additional factors predict reading frequency for students ages 6-11 include:
• Being read aloud to 5-7 days a week before kindergarten
• Being read aloud to currently
• Spending less online computer time
Predictors for kids ages 12-17 include:
• Having time for independent reading during the school day
• Reading more since starting to read e-books
• Having 150 or more print books in the home
(Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report: Fifth Edition)
> Reading stamina refers to students’ ability to focus, engage with texts, and read
independently for periods of time without being distracted. “A strong silent
reading habit (of which stamina is a part) depends on the experiences that their
teachers provide them. …If students haven’t had the kind of support that develops
solid silent reading habits by the time that they are in third grade, changing
direction and developing appropriate habits may require instructional programs
that are particularly well designed” (Hiebert, 2014).
VOLUME, STAMINA, AND AVID, INDEPENDENT READING 45

More to Know: Proficient Readers Read a Lot
When it comes to the role of books and reading in increasing reading achievement, the
facts are indisputable. Extensive and intensive reading—also known as avid, high-volume
reading—supports not only high scores on reading achievement tests, but also a fulfilling and
productive life. “For the majority of young people, enthusiastic and habitual reading is the single
most predictive personal habit for the ability to achieve desirable life outcomes” (Bayless, 2010).
Effective and enthusiastic reading does, as Dick Robinson maintains, “create a better life.”
Avid, voluminous reading (Atwell and Merkel, 2016) is the most reliable path to the
development of proficient readers; indeed, there’s no other way to become a proficient
reader. No matter what we’re trying to get proficient at—ping-pong, programming, or
paddle boarding, we have to practice for many, many hours. No surprise, then, that students
who read voluntarily and extensively both at school and at home become proficient
readers. Indeed, research demonstrates a strong correlation between high reading
achievement and hours logged inside a book. Effective reading programs include time
for independent reading of a wide variety of reading materials, including abundant trade
books across genres (Harvey and Ward, 2017; Scharer et al., 2018).
How important are time and engagement with books? The difference they make is nothing
short of miraculous—engaged readers spend 500 percent more time reading than do their
peers who aren’t yet hooked on books—and all those extra hours inside books they love
gives them a leg up in everything that leads to a happy, productive life: deep conceptual
understanding of a wide range of topics, expanded vocabulary, strategic reading ability,
critical literacy skills, and engagement with the world that’s more likely to make them
dynamic citizens drawn into full civic participation. As Mary Leonhart, author of 99 Ways to
Get Kids to Love Reading (1997), notes:
The sophisticated skills demanded by high-level academic or professional work—

the ability to understand multiple plots or complex issues, a sensitivity to tone, the
expertise to know immediately what is crucial to a text and what can be skimmed—
can be acquired only through years of avid reading.”
Elfrieda Hiebert and D. Ray Reutzel (2010) note that the opportunity to read (OTR) is
associated with literacy performance:
Foorman et al. (2006) used hierarchical linear modeling to examine the relationship
between various instructional practices and the impact on reading achievement for
1,285 first-graders. Time allocated to reading was the only variable that significantly
explained gains on any of the post-test measures, including word reading, decoding,
and passage comprehension. Other time factors, such as time spent on word,
alphabetic instruction, and phonemic awareness instruction, did not independently
contribute to growth in reading achievement.
Although the best predictor of reading success is the actual time students spend inside
books, reading achievement is also influenced by the diversity of their reading. Avid readers
are well acquainted with the joys of a good novel, but they also enjoy reading for a variety of
purposes—exploring informational texts, absorbing information to perform a task, or sharing
poetic texts through a range of social media (Beers and Probst, 2017).
Sixth-grade teacher Donalyn Miller asks her students to read 40 books a year. Many of
them read more than the required 40, and her classroom, bursting at the seams with
her wrap-around-the-classroom-and-out-the-door library (Donalyn stores her overflow
books in a storage closet across the hall from her classroom), fosters both avid reading
and outstanding test scores. In The Book Whisperer (2009), which chronicles her
dedication to classroom libraries, student reading choice, and independent reading,
Miller describes an instance during one of her speaking engagements when she was
asked by a skeptical audience member how she can justify to her principal the hours of
class time she dedicates to students’ reading. Her answer was simple: she showed her
students’ outstanding test scores. But she also explains: “Pointing to my students’ test
scores garnered gasps from around the room, but focusing on test scores or the numbers
of books my students read does not tell the whole story …You see, my students are not just
strong, capable readers; they love books and reading.”
In a classic 1988 study, “Time Spent Reading and Reading Growth,” Taylor, Frye, and
Maruyama found that the amount of time children spend reading is significantly related to
their gains in reading achievement. They asked 195 fifth- and sixth-grade children to keep
daily logs of their reading at home and at school over a four-month period. They found that
the amount of time spent reading during reading period in school contributed significantly
to gains in students’ reading achievement as measured by reading comprehension
scores on the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test (p<.039), while time spent reading at home
approached significance (p.068).
Brandon Dixon, a Harvard sophomore and winner of the Gates Millennium Scholarship,
attributes much of his academic success to his voluminous reading. Brandon grew up in
low-income household, the son of a single mother, who encouraged him to read daily and
work hard. Dixon (2015) writes:
When I answer the question, “How did you get smart?” by pointing to a long list of
books I have read since I began devouring them sometime around second grade,
[my peers] give me incredulous glances and sneer at the concept of “simple reading”
being the key to academic success. It is a shame that they do not believe me,
because when I examine my intellectual growth throughout the past 12 years, I credit
more than 50% of my knowledge to what I gleaned while reading a book.

In one of the most extensive studies of independent reading yet conducted, Anderson,
Wilson, and Fielding (1988) traced reading growth to an array of activities related to
independent reading. They found that the amount of time students spent in independent
reading was the best predictor of reading achievement and also the best predictor of the
amount of gain in reading achievement made by students between second and fifth grade.
Miller and Moss (2013) explain the key finding: students who read independently an hour
a day scored at the 98th percentile on standardized tests, while students who read only
4.6 minutes daily scored at the 50th percentile, and students who did no out-of-school
reading scored at the second percentile.
Variation in Amount of Independent Reading

(Readers and Words per Year)
Percentile For Minutes of Words

Amount of Reading Reading per Day Read per Year
98 67 4,733,000
90 33 2,357,000
80 25 1,697,000
70 17 1,168,000
60 13 722,000
50 9 601,000
40 6 421,000
30 4 251,000
20 2 134,000
10 1 51,000
2 0 8,000
Three Reading Stances: Responsive, Responsible, and Compassionate
Beers and Probst (2017) suggest that for every text we read, we assume three stances: the
responsive reader, the responsible reader, and the compassionate reader.
• Responsive When the text matters to us, when it influences our world somehow, we
are on our way to becoming responsive readers. But the text won’t matter to us unless
it touches us emotionally and intellectually. We readers must be aware not only of the
text, but also of the effects that the text has upon us. When we pay attention in this
way we are acting as responsive readers.
• Responsible In a book study, we necessarily pay close attention to the text. But
the responsibility we show when attending to the text implies and requires a
responsibility to ourselves as well. That responsibility consists not only of a
willingness to acknowledge and defend our own thoughts and values, but also to
change our thinking when evidence or reason dictates.
• Compassionate Developing more compassionate citizens is a desirable goal in

general. But we also think that compassion is a necessary characteristic of readers.
The more compassionate our students are, the more likely they will be able to read
well. Why? Compassion sharpens the reader’s ability to see other points of view and
other perspectives, and to imagine the feelings of those who hold them. It should
enable readers to take, if only momentarily, the standpoint of someone else and thus
better understand his or her motivations and thinking.
But for that to happen, we must be willing to enter the text with an open heart and mind,
even if we suspect that it contains ideas we’re predisposed to reject. And by entering into a
dialogue with the text, we learn how to enter into conversations with those who confirm our
thinking, offer us another perspective, or present us with an idea we may be reluctant
to hear, but may change us in some way.

Closing Thoughts
To grow as readers, students need to read a lot—both at school and at home (children spend
the majority of their time outside of school, and those hours should be filled with reading). For
those who engage in voluminous reading, the benefits are immeasurable. Avid readers:
• Expand their vocabularies—Learn thousands of new words incidentally through

reading. Students with robust vocabularies are successful readers and learners.
• Deepen and broaden their background knowledge and expand their capacity to
comprehend—Read more, learn more, know more—and thus, comprehend more
with every book they read. Voluminous reading puts children on an upward spiral for
continuous growth.
• Become fluent readers—Learn the music of language—phrasing, prosody, rhythm,

and rate.
• Develop awareness of text structure and format—Become familiar with different

kinds of genres, both literary and informational, as well as the structure, format, and
elements of texts; learn that genre serves the purpose of the text.
• Master the foundational conventions of language—Develop critical understandings

about how written language is organized and assembled: letters, sounds, and how
they work together to create the sound system of written language.
• Absorb critical information about how to write—Learn to write and control all the
foundational skills such as spelling, grammar, and punctuation—every time students
open the pages of a book they receive a lesson in how to structure a sentence, a
paragraph, or a whole texts, how to begin a piece and end it. It’s no surprise that our
best writers are also our strongest readers.
• Know themselves as readers—Build rich reading lives. Students who are readers can
talk about their favorite authors, topics, themes, and genres. They understand the joy
of reading, deeply and profoundly.
• Become confident readers with a growth mindset—Develop a can-do spirit and

growth mindset about their reading abilities. It’s easy to feel confident and believe in
yourself as a capable learner when you’re supported by the wide-ranging knowledge
that reading makes possible.
• Achieve the goals of higher ELA standards—Meet the goals of rigorous English
language arts standards and beyond; avid readers do all that and more with every
book they read.
References
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for Guthrie, J. (2004). “Teaching for Literacy
Struggling Readers. Designing Research- Engagement.” Journal of Literacy Research.
Based Programs. Boston: Pearson. Vol. 36(1).
Anderson, Richard C., Wilson P. T., Fielding, L. G. Guthrie, J. T., Schafer, W. D., and Huang, C. (2001).
(1988). “Growth in Reading and How Children “Benefits of Opportunity to Read and Balanced
Spend Their Time Outside of School.” Reading Instruction for Reading Achievement
Reading Research Quarterly, No. 23. and Engagement: A Policy Analysis of State
NAEP in Maryland.” Journal of Educational
Atwell, N. and Merkel, A. (2016). The Reading Zone: Research. Vol. 94(3)..
How to Help Kids Become Skilled, Passionate,
Habitual, Critical Readers, Second Edition. Harvey, S. and Ward, A. (2017). From Striving to
New York: Scholastic. Thriving: How to Grow Confident, Capable
Readers. New York: Scholastic.
Bayless, C. (2010). “Growing a Reading Culture:
Just for Parents.” Retrieved from: www. Hiebert, F. (2019). The Vocabulary Revolution.
slideshare.net/ThroughtheMagicDoor/ New York: Scholastic.
growing-a-reading-culture-1647123.
Hiebert, F. (2014). Frank Views on Literacy and
Beers, K. and Probst, R. (2017). Disrupting Thinking: the Common Core. Santa Cruz, CA: The Text
Why How We Read Matters. New York: Project. Retrieved from: textproject.org/library/
Scholastic. books/frank-views-on-literacy-learning-and-
the-common-core
Brenner, D., and Hiebert, E. H. (2010). “The Impact
of Professional Development on Students’ Hiebert, F. (2014). “The Forgotten Reading
Opportunity to Read. In E. H. Hiebert and D. Proficiency: Stamina in Silent Reading.”
Ray Reutzel (Eds.), Revisiting Silent Reading: Santa Cruz, CA: TextProject, Inc.
New Directions for Teachers and Researchers.
Newark, DE: IRA. Johnston, P. (2011). “RTI in Literacy—Responsive
and Comprehensive.” The Elementary School
Brozo, W. Shiel, G., and Topping, K. (2008). Journal. Vol. 111(4).
“Engagement in Reading: Lessons Learned
from Three PISA Countries.” Journal of Kuhn, M. R., and Schwanenflugel, P. J. (2009).
Adolescent and Adult Literacy, Vol. 51(4). “Time, Engagement, and Support: Lessons
from a Four-Year Fluency Intervention.” In E. H.
Calkins, L., Ehrenworth, M., and Lehman, C. (2012). Hiebert (Ed.), Reading More, Reading Better.
Pathways to the Common Core: Accelerating New York, Guilford Press. 141-160.
Achievement. New York: Scholastic.
Learned, J., Stockdill, D., and Moje, E. (2011).
Cunningham, A. and Stanovich, K. (1998) “What “Integrating Reading Strategies and
Reading Does for the Mind.” American Knowledge Building in Adolescent Literacy
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What Research Has to Say About Reading
Dixon, B. (2015). “Reflections: Love of Books Leads Instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading
to Academic Success.” In Other Words. ILA. Association.
Foorman, B. Schatschneider, C., Eakin, M, Fletcher, Marzano, R. (2004). Building Background
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Psychology, Vol. 31(1). Miller, D. and Sharp, C. (2018). Game Changer!
Book Access for All Kids. New York: Scholastic.

References
Miller, D. and Moss, B. (2013). No More Shelebine, 2001. “Volume, Academic Vocabulary.”
Independent Reading without Support. New York: Scholastic: Retrieved from:
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/
john-shefelbine
the Inner Reader in Every Child. San Francisco: Swan, E., Coddington, C. and Guthrie, J. (2010).
Jossey-Bass. “Engaged Silent Reading. Revisiting Silent
Reading.” In Hiebert, E. and Reutzel, R., (Eds.),
Noguera, P. (2014). “Reading Saved My Life.” In L. Revisiting Silent Reading: New Directions
Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real for Teachers and Researchers. Newark, DE:
Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading. International Reading Association.
Taylor, B. M., Frye, B. J., and Maruyama, G. M. (1990).
Routman, R. (2014). Read, Write, Lead. “Time Spent Reading and Reading Growth.”
Breakthrough Strategies for Schoolwide American Educational Research Journal.
Success. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Vol. 27(2).
Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report: Sixth
Edition (2016). Commissioned by Scholastic
and conducted by YouGov.
COMPREHENSION
“The more that you read, the more things you will know.
The more that you learn, the more places you’ll go.”
—Dr. Seuss
KEY FINDINGS
> Comprehending is a dynamic process of meaning making. “Comprehension

is always the product of two elements: what we knew before we read and what
we are able to assimilate or accommodate to enhance and expand on that
knowledge” (Goodman, Fries, and Strauss, 2016).
> “The brain actually constructs a mental text—we call it the reader’s text—based on
the published text. Remember what you are seeing as you read is not meaning
but patterns of ink. You as the reader must construct from them a meaningful
text and make sense of it. It is this reader’s text that the reader comprehends”
(Goodman, Fries, and Strauss, 2016).
> The more we read, the more we know—and, therefore, the more expansive our
capacity to comprehend (Kintsch, 2004).
> Comprehension is the “ability to understand the meaning of what is said, or read,
as well as its intent” (Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014).
> Proficient reading—which entails high-level comprehension—is a complex

process, involving an intricate orchestration of multiple skills, strategies, and
conceptual understandings also known as systems of strategic actions
(Fountas and Pinnell, 2017).
> Text comprehension requires the involvement of many different components,

relying upon many different kinds of information and yielding complex mental
representations … However, text comprehension is not simply the sum of the
activity of these various processes, but arises from their coordinated operation
as a system” (Kintsch and Rawson, 2005).
> Each reader builds a system for processing texts that begins with early reading
behaviors and becomes a network of strategic activities for reading increasingly
complex texts. Reading is thinking: within the text, about the text, and beyond the
text (Fountas and Pinnell, 2017).
COMPREHENSION 53
More to Know: The Construction-Integration
Model of Comprehension
Duke et al. (2011) provides a cogent explanation of Walter Kintsch’s widely cited theoretical
model of comprehension, Construction-Integration (2004):
We bring knowledge to the comprehension process, and that knowledge shapes

our comprehension. When we comprehend, we gain new information that changes
our knowledge, which is then available for later comprehension. So, in that positive,
virtuous cycle, knowledge begets comprehension, which begets knowledge, and
so on. In a very real sense, we literally read and learn our way into greater knowledge
about the world and greater comprehension capacity.
Kintsch’s own explanation follows this logical line of thinking: When we read, we draw on
our knowledge of the world together with our perceptions of what we believe the text is
about to construct a mental representation of what we think the text means. Learning is a
matter of merging or integrating our mental representations with our stored knowledge.
Thus, every time we read, we learn more.
Kintsch suggests there are two aspects of reading that must merge for comprehension to
occur: 1) the text base—what the text says; and 2) the situation model—what the text means.
The text base (words, sentences, paragraphs) requires an accurate reading of the text for the
purpose of getting the key ideas from the text into working memory. The situation model,
on the other hand, integrates information from the text base with relevant prior knowledge
retrieved from long-term memory, which is then folded into an emerging situation model
of meaning of the text. Duke et al. (2011) sum it up:
In our classrooms, comprehension begins with learning language in connection

with experiences with text—hearing written language read aloud and engaging
with and talking about books. In this regard, reading is not just a skill we help our
students acquire but an integral part of the way they learn to use their minds—to
think deeply within the text, beyond the text, and about the text—and engage in the
quality, high-level comprehension that the new, more rigorous standards remind us
is necessary if our students are to graduate from high school as proficient readers.
What’s more, the ability to engage in sustained comprehension and sophisticated
thinking and reflection is the hallmark of a successful, literate life (Scharer et al., 2018;
Beers and Probst, 2017).
Expand Knowledge and Enrich the Imagination

Every day, we want our students to stretch themselves intellectually— to explore new
concepts, topics, and themes, to try out new ways of thinking about books, to extend their
vocabularies and increase their control over language. We also want them to challenge
themselves through wide, varied reading, precise, focused writing, and as always, deep
thinking and invigorating conversation. In this way, our students will develop both the
conceptual and literary knowledge they need to open wide fiction and informational texts
and to read with high-level, quality comprehension. As literacy expert Janet Angelillo
reminds us, “Learning to think powerfully about books is one of the great truths students will
learn in school.”
Closing Thoughts
It’s not always easy to understand the complex challenge of reading comprehension, but
we can observe what readers do, chart their “miscues” (Goodman, et al., 2014), and draw
conclusions about what constitutes effective comprehension (Duke and Pearson, 2002):
• Readers are active.
• Readers have clear goals in mind for their reading. They constantly evaluate whether
the text, and their reading of it, is meeting their goals.
• Readers typically look over the text before they read, noting such things as the structure
of the text and text sections that might be most relevant to their reading goals.
• Readers frequently make predictions, as they read, about what is to come.
• Readers read selectively, continually making decisions about their reading—what to

read carefully, what to read quickly, what not to read, what to reread, and so forth.
• Readers construct, revise, and question the meanings they make as they read.
• Readers think within the text; they try to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words
and concepts in the text and deal with inconsistencies or gaps as needed.
• Readers think beyond the text; they draw from, compare, and integrate their prior
knowledge with material in the text.
• Readers think about the text; they think about the authors of the text, their style, beliefs,
intentions, historical milieu, and so forth.
• Readers monitor their understanding of the text, making adjustments in their reading
as necessary.
• Readers evaluate the text’s quality and value and react to the text in a range of ways,
both intellectually and emotionally.
• Readers read different kinds of texts differently.
• Readers, when reading narrative, attend closely to the setting and characters.
• Readers, when reading informational texts, construct and revise summaries

of what they have read.
• Readers understand that text processing occurs not only during reading, but also during
short breaks during reading and afterward.
• Readers understand that comprehension is a continuous and complex activity, but it is

always satisfying and productive.
COMPREHENSION 55
References
Angelillo, J. (2003). Writing About Reading: From Goodman, Y., Martens, P., and Flurkey, A. (2014).
Book Talk to Literary Essays, Grades 3-8. The Essential RMA: A Window into Readers’
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Thinking. Katonah, NY: Richard Owens
Publishers, Inc.
Beers, K., and Probst, R. (2017). Disrupting Thinking:
Why How We Read Matters. New York: Kintsch, W., and Rawson, K. A. (2005).
Scholastic. “Comprehension.” In M. J. Snowling and
C. Hulme (Eds.), The Science of Reading: A
Cunningham, A., and Zibulsky, J. (2013). Book Handbook. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Smart. How to Develop and Support
Successful, Motivated Readers. New York: Kintsch, W. (2004) “The Construction-Integration
Oxford University Press. Model of Text Comprehension and Its
Implications for Instruction.” In R. Ruddell
Duke, N., Pearson, D., Strachan, S., and Billman, A. and N. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical Models
(2011). “Essential Elements of Fostering and and Processes of Reading. Fifth Edition.
Teaching Reading Comprehension.” In International Reading Association.
J. Samuels and A. Farstrup (Eds.), What
Research Has to Say About Reading RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for
Instruction, Fourth Edition. Newark, DE: Understanding: Toward an R&D Program
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CA: RAND Corporation.
Duke, N., and Pearson, D. (2002). “Effective
Practices of Developing Reading Scharer, P., (Ed.). (2018). Responsive Literacy. A
Comprehension.” In A. E. Farstrup and S. Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Samuels, (Eds.). What Research Has to Say Scholastic.
About Reading Instruction, Third Edition.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Stephens, D., Harste, J., and Clyde, J. A. (2019).
The Real Reading Strategies Book: Strategies,
Fountas, I., and Pinnell, G. S. (2017). Guided Structures, and Solutions by 30 Award-
Reading: Responsive Teaching Across the Winning Experts. New York: Scholastic.
Grades, K–8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Goodman, K., Fries, P., and Strauss, S. (2016).

Reading: The Grand Illusion. How and Why
People Make Sense of Print. New York: Taylor
and Francis.
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
“When students do not have the knowledge necessary to
comprehend a particular text, such knowledge needs to be
built; one cannot activate what is not there, and one cannot
strategize about things one does not know.”
—Dr. Julie Learned, Dr. Darin Stockdill and Dr. Elizabeth Moje, Integrating Reading
Strategies and Knowledge Building in Adolescent Literacy Instruction
KEY FINDINGS
> The most important factor in determining how much readers will comprehend
about a given topic is their level of knowledge about the topic (Routman, 2018;
Dochy, Segers, and Buehl, 1999).
> Prior knowledge of a subject is fundamental to acquiring new knowledge; it is

fundamental to comprehending texts (Hampton and Resnick, 2008; Allington and
Cunningham, 2007).
> Providing students with information relevant to a text or making students aware of
already-known, relevant information (also known as “frontloading”) improves their
comprehension (Routman, 2018).
> “Excellent teachers at every grade level and in all content areas use frontloading
to optimize learning success for all students … Frontloading begins by consciously
building a strong foundation of knowledge, processes, and strategies that will
enable the learner to do the inquiry, problem solving, task writing, reading, and so
on, with minimal guidance and support” (Routman, 2018).
> The more children read, the more they build their background knowledge that
strengthens their ability to comprehend. Effective teachers of reading facilitate
the expansion of background knowledge by providing frequent and varied
opportunities for their students to interact with a variety of trade books (Scharer et
al., 2018; Harvey and Ward, 2017).
> Fleming (2016) argues that we need more children’s literature set in urban settings
to mirror the experiences of the vast numbers of children who live in urban
communities (one-third of all elementary school children)—so unlike the pastoral
settings featured in many children’s books. To fully engage and comprehend,
children need to see and hear the language and experiences of their own
personal lives.
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE 57
KEY FINDINGS
> ReLeah Lent (2012) offers a cogent explanation: “A person’s background

knowledge, often called prior knowledge, is a collection of ‘abstracted residue’
(Schallert, 2002) that has been formed from all of life’s experiences. We
all, whether as a toddler or a centenarian, bring diverse bits of background
knowledge—consciously or subconsciously—to every subsequent experience,
and we use them to connect or glue new information to old. Background
knowledge is an essential component in learning because it helps us make sense
of new ideas and experiences.”
More to Know: Background Information—

Essential for Comprehension
Many of us—even as adults—have experienced reading something that we had trouble
understanding because we lacked the background knowledge to comprehend it—technical
programming manuals, tax documents, or medical results all come to mind. If we’re not
computer programmers, tax lawyers, or physicians, we may falter in our attempts to fully
absorb and understand them. But the failure to comprehend has nothing to do with
our intelligence or reading ability—it has everything to do with our lack of background
knowledge.
The most important factor in determining how much readers will comprehend writing
about a given topic is their level of knowledge about the topic (interest in the topic is
also important but is often related to prior knowledge). Up to 81 percent of the variance
in post-test scores is explained by prior knowledge (Dochy, Segers, and Buehl, 1999). The
importance of prior knowledge to comprehension is part of all modern theories of reading
(Allington, 2012; Smith, 2012; Duke et al., 2011; Anderson and Pearson, 1984; Spivey, 1996).
Prior knowledge about a topic creates a schema—a framework or structure—that supports

thinking and helps readers process new information about the topic. However, if we’ve had
no experience with or exposure to a particular topic that we encounter in a text, we won’t
have the schema to help us process and understand the new topic. Because comprehension
is dependent on prior knowledge, children without knowledge of a particular topic may not
be able to comprehend much of what they read about that topic. Readers who don’t possess
the knowledge that the writer assumes they have may fill in the blanks with knowledge the
author had not intended , or not fill in the blanks at all (Fleming, 2016; Santman, 2005).
How to Build and Activate Background Knowledge
Fortunately, there’s an easy and effective solution: provide students with the background
knowledge they need comprehend the books they are reading, and help them activate
what they do know.
Before students start reading, they benefit immeasurably from a quick overview of the
reading journey ahead—easily and efficiently accomplished through quick two- to three-
minute teacher book talks, picture walks through a book with illustrations, DVD clips,
slide shows, vocabulary introduction and definitions, and interactive discussion. (“What
do we already know about this topic?”) All of these strategies can play a role in helping
students fill knowledge gaps, enabling them to create the schema they need to process
and comprehend new information (Duke, et al., 2011). Additionally, if students are facing
particularly challenging content, a history textbook for example, reading historical trade
books first may help. The easier, engaging reading builds background knowledge that will
ease students’ way into the more challenging textbook.
The Benefits of the “Think Aloud”

Students may not relate to texts that they encounter in school or believe that these
texts belong to them. Students may view school texts, remote from their experience or
knowledge, as something they must memorize and then forget. Sadly, this view hinders
simple comprehension because successful readers must connect their personal knowledge
to every text. A simple way to encourage students to connect their background to text is
to model a think aloud. Teachers demonstrate think alouds by reading the text aloud as
they normally would, and then pausing now and then to ask themselves questions about
the text. When students observe teachers asking questions and demonstrating a reflective
demeanor, they begin to realize what it is to read. It is more than words on a page; it is one’s
interaction with the text that makes reading come to life. Teachers may ask the students to
think aloud in pairs, teams, or, as they gain confidence as reflective readers, as individuals.
It can be slow, but students see between the lines, insert themselves into the scene, and
discover reading. This constant use of background knowledge is a vital enabler of reading
comprehension (Scharer et al., 2018; Yudowitch, Henry, and Guthrie, 2008; Wilhelm, 2012).
Closing Thoughts
Helping students acquire the information they need to process a new text often happens
most effectively during pre-reading. Providing students with information relevant to a
text or making students aware of already known, relevant information improves their
comprehension (Shanahan, 2012). As Hampton and Resnick (2008) note, “In the subjects
studied in school, prior knowledge of the subject is fundamental for acquiring new
knowledge. It is fundamental to comprehending texts.”
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE 59
References
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for Lent, R. (2012). “Background Knowledge. The Glue
Struggling Readers. Designing Research- That Makes Learning Stick.” Overcoming
Based Programs. Boston: Pearson. Textbook Fatigue. Alexandria, VA. ASCD.
Allington, R., and Cunningham, P. (2007). Schools Pressley, M., Wood, E., Woloshyn, V. E., Martin, V.,
That Work: Where All Children Read and Write. King, A., and Menke, D. (1992). “Encouraging
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Mindful Use of Prior Knowledge: Attempting
to Construct Explanatory Answers Facilitates
Anderson, R. C., and Pearson, P. D. (1984). “A Learning.” Educational Psychologist. Vol. 27.
Schema-Theoretic View of Basic Processes in
Reading.” In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, Routman, R. (2018). Literacy Essentials:
and P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Engagement, Excellence, and Equity for All
Research. White Plains, NY: Longman. Learners. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
Beers, K., and Probst, B. (2018). Disrupting Thinking: Routman, R. (2014). Read, Write, Lead:
Why How We Read Matters. New York: Breakthrough Strategies for Schoolwide
Scholastic. Literacy Success. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Duchy, F., Segers, M., and Buehl, M. M. (1999). “The Santman, D. (2005). Shades of Meaning:
Relation Between Assessment Practices and Comprehension and Interpretation in Middle
Outcomes of Studies: The Case of Research School. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
on Prior Knowledge.” Review of Educational
Research, Vol. 69(2). Scharer, P. (2018). Responsive Literacy: A
Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Duke, N., Pearson, D., Strachan, S., and Billman, A. Scholastic.
(2011). “Essential Elements of Fostering and
Teaching Reading Comprehension.” In J. Smith, F. (2012). Understanding Reading: A
Samuels and A. Farstrup (Eds.), What Research Psycholinguistic Analysis of Reading and
Has to Say About Reading Instruction, Fourth Learning to Read, Sixth Edition. New York:
Edition. Newark, DE: International Reading Routledge Education.
Association.
Spivey, N. N., and King, J. R. (1989). “Readers as
Fleming, J., Catapano, S., Thompson, C., and Writers Composing from Sources.” Reading
Carrillo, (2016). More Mirrors in the Classroom: Research Quarterly, Vol. 24.
Using Urban Children’s Literature to Increase
Walther, M. (2014). “Reading: Experience It!” In L.
Literacy. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
Bridges, (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real
Fuhler, C. (1991). “Add Sparkle and Sizzle to Middle Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading.
School Social Studies.” Social Studies. Vol. 82. New York: Scholastic.
Harvey, S., and Ward, A. (2017). From Striving to Wilhelm, J. (2012). Improving Comprehension with
Thriving: How to Grow Confident, Capable Think-Aloud Strategies. Modeling What Good
Readers. New York: Scholastic. Readers Do. New York: Scholastic.
Hampton, S., and Resnick, L. (2008). Reading Yudowitch, S., Henry, L., and Guthrie, J. (2008).
and Writing with Understanding. Newark, DE: “Building Confident Readers.” In J. Guthrie (Ed.),
International Reading Association. Engaging Adolescents in Reading. Thousand
Oaks, CA.: Corwin.
Learned, J., Stockdill, D., and Moje, E. (2011).
“Integrating Reading Strategies and
Knowledge Building in Adolescent Literacy
Instruction.” In J. Samuels and A. Farstrup (Eds.),
What Research Has to Say About Reading
Instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
VOCABULARY
“How does one learn the language of literature that is
so different from everyday spoken language except by
reading books?”
—Professor Emerita Lilly Wong Fillmore, University of California at Berkeley
KEY FINDINGS
> “On average, 90% of the words in a text are drawn from 2,500 complex word
families (e.g., help, helping, helps, helped, helper, but not helpless or helpful). The
other 10% of the words in texts come from the remaining 300,000 (or more) words
in the English language” (Hiebert, 2015).
> Developing the core vocabulary (i.e., the 2,500 complex word families) through
voluminous reading (the best and most effective way to develop vocabulary)—
together with instructional strategies that spotlight the core vocabulary—enables
students to successfully tackle new and unique words they might encounter in
text (Hiebert, 2016, 2019).
> The more children read, the more their vocabularies grow (Hiebert, 2019;
Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014; Kuhn et. al., 2006; Allington, 2012, 2009; Baumann,
2009). Conversely, reading comprehension is impacted by the depth and breadth
of the reader’s vocabulary (Wong Fillmore, 2014).
> Incidental word learning accounts for a large percentage of all new words learned.
Estimates are that each year children learn on average 3,000 words, only about 300
of which are explicitly taught to them in school (Krashen, 2011; Massaro, 2016; Beck
and McKeown, 1991).
> Still, children benefit from both implicit and explicit instruction. For example,
children are more likely to remember new words in a read-aloud when teachers
offer a brief definition of the words before or during the read-aloud (Neuman and
Taylor, 2013).
> Vocabulary, in particular, is very highly correlated with reading comprehension in

the upper elementary years (Hiebert, 2019; Duke and Carlisle, 2011; Baumann, 2009;
Wagner, Muse and Tannenbaum, 2007). What’s more, vocabulary demand is the
feature of text complexity that is likely the greatest challenge (Nelson et al., 2012).
VOCABULARY 61
KEY FINDINGS
> “Gains in oral vocabulary development predict growth in comprehension and later
reading performance” (Elleman, Lindo, and Compton, 2009; cited by Neuman and
Taylor, 2013).
> Teachers can make Tier II words (the more sophisticated words that typically
appear in more challenging texts) accessible to their students by building
background knowledge in book talks, explaining the words, using them in
conversation, and prompting students to use them as well (Beck et al., 2003).
> Based on a comparison of effect sizes, Stahl and Fairbanks concluded that
the most effective vocabulary teaching methods include both definitional
and contextual information in their programs, involved the students in deeper
processing, and gave the students more than one or two exposures to the to-be-
learned words (Wright, Cervetti, 2017).
> The results of the current study provide preliminary evidence that there is
potential for knowledge to be built during English Language Arts through a focus
on conceptual coherence in the design of reading experiences for students. It
also suggests that we should be concerned about ensuring that students have
regular opportunities to develop their discipline-specific and general world
knowledge (Cervetti, Wright, and Hwang, 2016).
> We believe that such research can contribute to models of vocabulary learning
and instruction and comprehension that, over time, could increase the robustness
and efficacy of curriculum and instruction. Ultimately, digital databases and tools
hold promise for addressing the vocabulary gap and providing instructional
solutions that could enable many more students to enter workplaces and
communities with the literacy levels required for the 21st century (Hiebert,
Goodwin, and Cervetti, 2018).
> Providing students with even brief explanations of word meanings prior to reading
boosted passage comprehension compared to peers who did not receive this
instruction (Carney et al., 1984). Likewise, using technology to give students access
to glosses (i.e., to provide basic information about word meanings) while reading
online boosted comprehension and may be an efficient and practical strategy for
supporting students’ reading (Türk and Erçetin, 2014).
> The use of computers in vocabulary instruction was found to be more effective
than some traditional methods in a few studies. It is clearly emerging as a
potentially valuable aid to classroom teachers in the area of vocabulary instruction
(NRP Report, 2016).
KEY FINDINGS
> Morphological instruction that was sustained and integrated with other literacy
instruction over an extensive period of time may show greater transfer (Bowers,
Kirby, and Deacon, 2010).
• Introducing morphology as an organized system that links words even
when pronunciation shifts appear irregular (e.g., heal/health, sign/signal) may
motivate struggling students to study words more closely (Bowers, Kirby, and
Deacon, 2010).
• With a foundation of morphological knowledge gained with the support
of instruction from the start, it is possible that many students who fail in
response to typical instruction could achieve much stronger success (Bowers,
Kirby, and Deacon, 2010).
> Vocabulary is one of the most obvious other areas of literacy instruction to
integrate with morphological instruction. Despite the importance of vocabulary
instruction cited by National Reading Panel (2000), there is a growing recognition
that vocabulary instruction has received insufficient attention in classroom
instruction and literacy research (Beck et al., 2002; Biemiller and Boote, 2006).
> Morphological interventions hold promise, especially for students who

face challenges in language learning and literacy, but additional research is
needed to provide a basis for informed decisions about the design of effective
morphological interventions. And morphological knowledge does indeed
contribute to literacy achievement for students in kindergarten through sixth
grade (Carlisle, Goodwin, and Nagy (2013).
> If students are to develop a deep understanding of vocabulary in literary texts,

instruction needs to uncover the underlying uses of language in narratives. The
Vocabulary Megaclusters provide a framework for teachers, publishers, and
curriculum developers to select vocabulary and design instruction around critical
concepts within narratives (Elfrieda H. Hiebert TextProject, 2011).
> Overall, morphological instruction showed a significant improvement in literacy

achievement. Specifically, its effect was significant on several literacy outcomes
such as phonological awareness, morphological awareness, vocabulary, reading
comprehension, and spelling (Goodwin and Ahn, 2010).
VOCABULARY 63
More to Know: Students Read Their Way into a
Robust Vocabulary
According to the research, the majority of vocabulary growth occurs not as a result of direct
instruction, but as the result of reading voluminously (Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014).
Effective teachers of reading know that for students to own a word, they need to see it used
in meaningful contexts multiple times. By reading voluminously, students are frequently
exposed to words in meaningful contexts, thus increasing their opportunities to learn
new words. Even a moderate amount of daily independent reading of trade books has a
positive impact on vocabulary growth. Students at all levels who read independently acquire
thousands of new words as the result of reading more. Cunningham and Zibulsky explain:
It is estimated that an 18-month-old learns an average of five new words a day in

order to develop a receptive vocabulary of around 8,000 words by the time the child
is six years old. At the time of high school graduation … the average student knows
approximately 40,000 words. In order for a child to increase his vocabulary from 8,000
to 40,000 words in roughly 12 years, he needs to learn approximately 32,000 words
between first grade and twelfth grade (i.e., seven words a day, every day of the year for
12 years) … When we consider that the average school program of direct vocabulary
instruction covers only a few hundred words and word parts per year, it seems evident
that the type of vocabulary development that is necessary for skilled reading is
beyond the scope of even the most intensive programs of vocabulary instruction.
Effective teachers of reading know that encouraging their students to read trade books, both
in and out of school, is the best way to bolster their vocabulary. As books are rich in academic
language, the extended reading of trade books not only increases vocabulary in terms of quantity,
but it also enhances vocabulary in terms of quality. “Written language, including the language
found in children’s books, is far more sophisticated and complex than is spoken language, even
that of college educated adults” (Scharer, 2018; Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014; Allington, 2012;
Hayes, 1988). Compared to written language, spoken language is “lexically impoverished.”
Decontextualized Language
Why is written language so different from conversational language? Shelebine (2001) provides
two primary reasons that involve differences in function and degree of contextualization:
• Though a common purpose of conversational language entails “the negotiation of

interpersonal relationships,” written language more often seeks to communicate
novel or cognitively demanding information (Snow, 1991).
• The task of written communication is further complicated because it is

decontextualized. Writers do not know their readers, are not speaking to them in
person, cannot use contextual cues such as gestures and intonation, and cannot
negotiate meaning interactively; therefore, written language in general, and
vocabulary, in particular, must be explicit.
The Role of Vocabulary Instruction
Beck found that words are learned best in the context of reading followed by rich
discussion in the classroom. One of her most significant contributions is organizing
words into three tiers based on their usefulness and frequency of use. Beck and McKeown
(2002) suggest that for instructional purposes, teachers should concentrate on Tier II
words—also known as academic vocabulary—that:
• Reflect mature language use and appear frequently across a variety of contexts.
• Lend themselves to instruction, helping students build in-depth knowledge of these

words and their connections to other words and concepts.
• Provide precision and specificity in describing a concept for which the students
already have a general understanding.
Duke and Carlisle (2011) also cite the high correlation (0.86) between academic vocabulary
and comprehension, and they offer several strategies that students can use again and
again to lock down the meaning of more sophisticated content words, including relating
words to themes and to similar words. These word associations help build networks of
meaning that support reading comprehension. In addition, Scott, Skobel, and Wells (2008)
recommend creating a “word conscious” classroom where language is discussed and
relished daily, and students delight in an exploration of words.
Closing Thoughts
Increased vocabulary knowledge helps students understand what they read, and reading
comprehension is enhanced when students understand the meaning of words. Thus, there
is a reciprocal benefit to independent reading of trade books. One of the best-established
relationships in the field of reading is the connection between vocabulary development and
achievement in reading (Kuhn, 2006; Hiebert, 2015). Independent reading is the major source
of vocabulary acquisition beyond the beginning stages of learning to read (Christ and Wang,
2010). Students who read widely learn the meanings of thousands of new words each year.
VOCABULARY 65
References
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for Hayes, D. P. (1988). “Speaking and Writing: Distinct
Struggling Readers. New York: Pearson. Patterns of Word Choice.” Journal of Memory
and Language, Vol. 27.
Baumann, J. F. (2009). “Vocabulary and Reading
Comprehension: The Nexus of Meaning.” In Hiebert, E. (2019). The Vocabulary Revolution.
S. E. Israel and G. G. Duffy (Eds.), Handbook of New York: Scholastic.
Research on Reading Comprehension. New
York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Hiebert, E. (2016). Core Vocabulary. Santa Cruz, CA:
TextProject.
Baumann, J., and Kameenui, E. (1991). “Research
on Vocabulary Instruction: Ode to Voltaire.” Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., Morris, R. D.,
In J. Flood, J. J. Lapp, and J. R. Squire (Eds.), Morrow, L. M., Woo, D., Meisinger, B., et al.
Handbook of Research on Teaching the (2006). “Teaching Children to Become Fluent
English Language Arts. New York: MacMillan. and Automatic Readers.” Journal of Literacy
Research. Vol. 38(4).
Beck, I., McKeown, M., and Kucan, L. (2002).
Bringing Words to Life. New York: Massaro, D. (2016). “Two Different Communication
The Guilford Press. Genres and Implications for Vocabulary
Development and Learning to Read.” Journal
Biemiller, A. (2006). “Vocabulary Development of Literacy Research.
and Instruction: A Prerequisite for School
Learning.” In D. Dickinson and S. B. Neuman Nagy, W. (1988). Teaching Vocabulary to Improve
(Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research. Reading Comprehension. ERIC Clearinghouse
New York: Guilford. on Reading and Communication Skills.
Christ, T. and Wang, C. (2010). “Bridging the Nelson J., Perfetti, C., and Liben D. Measures of
Vocabulary Gap: What the Research Tells Text Difficulty: Testing Their Predictive Value
Us About Vocabulary Instruction in Early for Grade Levels and Student Performance.
Childhood.” Young Children. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State
School Officers.
Cunningham, A. and Zibulsky, J. (2014). Book Smart.
How to Develop and Support Successful, Neuman, S., and Wright, T. (2013). All About Words.
Motivated Readers. New York: Oxford New York: Teachers College Press.
University Press.
Scharer, P. (2018). Responsive Literacy: A
Deedy, C. (2014). “How Reading Changed My Life: Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Owning the Written Word.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Scholastic.
Open a World of Possible: Real Stories About
Scott, J., Skobel, J., and Wells, J. (2008). The
Word-Conscious Classroom: Building the
Scholastic.
Vocabulary Readers and Writers Need. New
Duke, N. and Carlisle, J. (2011). “The Development York: Scholastic.
of Comprehension.” In M. Kamil, D. Pearson, E.
Snow, C. (1991). “The Theoretical Basis for
Moje Birr, and P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook
Relationships Between Language and Literacy
of Reading Research Volume 4. New York:
in Development.” Journal of Research in
Routledge.
Childhood Education. Vol. 6.
Fillmore, L. (2014). “Learning the Language of
Wagner, R. K., Muse, A., and Tannenbaum, K.
Literature.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World
(Eds.), (2007). Vocabulary Acquisition and Its
Implications for Reading Comprehension.
New York: Guilford Press.
Graves, M. (2006). The Vocabulary Book: Learning
and Instruction. New York: Teachers College
Press.
FLUENCY
“Fluent readers raise and lower the volume and pitch of
their voices, they speed up and slow down at appropriate
places in the text, they read words in meaningful groups
or phrases, they pause at appropriate places within the
text. These are elements of expression, or prosody—the
melody of language.”
—Dr. Timothy Rasinski, professor of literacy education, Kent State University
KEY FINDINGS
> The research of the past two decades clearly demonstrates a robust correlation
between expressive oral reading and silent reading comprehension That is,
students who read orally with good expression are more likely to comprehend
deeply when reading silently. So we see fluency as a critical bridge between word
recognition and comprehension. If students are unable to develop that bridge,
they will likely have difficulty in achieving necessary levels of comprehension
when reading (Rasinski and Cheesman Smith, 2018).
> Successful reading requires readers to process the text (the surface level of
reading) and comprehend the text (the deeper meaning). Reading fluency refers
to the reader’s ability to develop control over surface-level text processing so that
he or she can focus on understanding the deeper levels of meaning embedded
in the text” (Rasinski, 2004, 2018).
> Voluminous, independent reading is the primary source of reading fluency

(Allington, 2012).
> Unless children read substantial amounts of print, their reading will remain
laborious, lacking fluency and limited in effectiveness (Allington, 2012).
> Fluency is not a stage of development. For any reader, fluency varies with the
complexity of the text, the purpose for reading, the genre, the reader’s familiarity
with the text, and the like (Fountas and Pinnell, 2006).
> “The fluent reader is demonstrating comprehension, taking cues from the text
and taking pleasure in finding the right tempo for the text” (Newkirk, 2011).
FLUENCY 67
KEY FINDINGS
> Quick ratings of third-, fifth-, and eighth-grade students’ oral reading correlated
significantly with their overall reading proficiency on standardized silent-reading
comprehension tests (Rasinski, 2010).
> Fluency develops as a result of many opportunities to practice reading with a high
degree of success (Armbruster, Lehr, and Osborn, 2001).
More to Know: The Role of Text

Students who relish and read trade books are typically fluent readers. Effective teachers
of reading know that fluency develops from an abundance of reading practice with books
that readers can read with success. It’s a simple formula: Students who read many books at
their independent reading level become more fluent at reading and gain competence and
confidence as readers.
A well-stocked classroom library (Scholastic recommends at least 1,500 titles) provides

students with access to trade books representing a variety of genres, topics, authors, and
reading levels—ensuring that each student has the opportunity to experience reading
success (McGill-Franzen and Botzakis, 2009). Effective teachers of reading understand that
when reading to develop fluency, students need to read books that are neither too hard nor
too easy for them. Texts that are too hard may impede comprehension, and texts that are
too easy may not promote vocabulary growth. Effective teachers know the interests and
reading levels of their students and the reading levels of the trade books in their classroom,
so that they can match their students to texts that can be read with success.
Poetry and songs that highlight prosody and the music of language are also “ideal for
teaching reading fluency” (Rasinski, 2010). There are numerous instructional strategies,
including choral reading, reader’s theater, poetry coffeehouses, repeated reading, and book
buddies, that foster oral reading and help children develop both the ear and confidence
for fluent reading (Rasinski and Cheesman Smith, 2018). As Rasinski (2010) notes, “Choral
reading builds fluency as well as a sense of community. The daily reading of a school
motto, song, or other communal text unites students under a common sense of purpose.”
Closing Thoughts
Effective teachers of reading recognize that fluency varies with the type and readability
of the text. These teachers strive to provide their students with a wide range of reading
experiences with books representing a variety of genres and writing styles. A large and
varied classroom library supports students’ interaction with diverse books.
References
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for Pressley, G. M., Duke, N. K., and Hilden, K. (2004).
Struggling Readers. New York: Pearson. “Reading Comprehension Difficulties.” In B.
Shulman, K. Apel, B. Ehren, E. R. Silliman, and
Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., and Osborn, J. M. (2001). C. A. Stone (Eds.), Handbook of Language and
Put Reading First: The Research Building Literacy Development and Disorders. New
Blocks for Teaching Children to Read. York: Guilford Press.
Washington, DC: The National Institute for
Literacy. Rasinski, T., and Cheesman Smith (2018). The
Megabook of Fluency: Strategies and Texts
Laminack, L. (2014). “Finding the Magic of Reading.” to Engage All Readers. New York: Scholastic.
In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible:
Real Stories About the Joy and Power of Rasinski, T. (2014). “Fluent Reading: The power of
Reading. New York: Scholastic. Rhythm and Music.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a
World of Possible: Real Stories About the Joy
McGill-Franzen, A. and Botzakis, S. (2009). and Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
“Series Books, Graphic Novels, Comics and
Magazines: Unauthorized Texts, Authorized Rasinski, T. (2010). The Fluent Reader: Oral and
Literacy Practices.” In E. H. Hiebert (Ed.), Silent Reading Strategies for Building Fluency,
Reading More, Reading Better. New York: Word Recognition and Comprehension. New
Guilford. York: Scholastic.
Newkirk, T. (2011). The Art of Slow Reading. Rasinski, T. (2004). “Creating Fluent Readers.”
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Educational Leadership. Vol. 61(6).
FLUENCY 69
Did you know?
Kids who choose their own books rather than read teacher-selected books
read more...
and student-selected reading is
twice as powerful
as teacher-selected reading in developing reading
engagement and comprehension.
Finding the right book and the right time

can light an emotional spark within children
that motivates them to read more, understand
more, and read joyfully. When that happens,
the world opens. Everything becomes possible.
—Richard Robinson, CEO and president of Scholastic

Chapter 3
EQUITY
> Whole Child
> Social Justice
> E
ngagement and Motivation
> T
he Power of Reading Choice,
Time, and Pleasure
> N
ew Literacies:
Fan-Created Literary Content
CHAPTER 3: EQUITY 71
WHOLE CHILD
“Schools must be concerned with the total development
of children.”
—Dr. Nell Noddings, professor emerita, Stanford University
KEY FINDINGS
> Clearly, we’re experiencing a much-needed shift from a single focus on standards
and skills to a broader perspective that centers on the whole child and social-
emotional well-being, honors cultural and linguistic diversity, and recognizes the
need for school connectedness and family and community engagement.
> The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) requires that states report at least one
new measure of student progress, beyond the traditional academic ones—
drawing from “social-emotional” or “noncognitive” skills such as persistence,
creativity, self-control, kindness, respect, and tolerance—that manifest in multiple
ways throughout our lives.
> Social-emotional traits and abilities are “linked to academic achievement,

productivity and collegiality at work, positive health indicators, and civic
participation, and are nurtured through life and school experiences. Developing
these skills should thus be an explicit goal of public education” (Garcia and
Weiss, 2016).
> Much of the recent social-emotional learning (SEL) interest can be linked to
two seminal studies. In 2011, a meta-analysis published in the journal Child
Development showed an 11-percentile gain in academic achievement for
students who participated in a well-implemented SEL program versus students
who didn’t (Durkak et al., 2011).
> In 2015, the economist Clive Belfield and colleagues at Teachers College,
Columbia University, published a study in the Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis
that demonstrated a roughly $11 benefit for every $1 spent on a rigorous SEL
program. Just about every way to measure student success shows that SEL can
work. At one high school in Texas, discipline referral rates have been cut in half,
and graduation rates are at an all-time high.
72 CHAPTER 3: EQUITY
KEY FINDINGS
> A 2015 national study published in the American Journal of Public Health found
statistically significant associations between SEL skills in kindergarten and key
outcomes for young adults years later in education, employment, criminal activity,
substance use, and mental health (Jones, Greenberg, and Crowley, 2015).
> When one looks at the research literature across the different fields of inquiry,
three characteristics stand out as helping young people feel connected to school
while simultaneously encouraging student achievement: (1) high academic
standards coupled with strong teacher support; (2) an environment in which adult
and student relationships are positive and respectful; and (3) a physically and
emotionally safe school environment (Miller and Sharp, 2018; Mapp et al., 2017;
Routman, 2018; Klem and Connell, 2004).
> Students who experience school connectedness like school, feel that they
belong, believe that teachers care about them and their learning, believe that
education matters, have friends at school, believe that discipline is fair, and have
opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities (Mapp et al., 2017; Klen
and Connell, 2004).
> Most experts agree that children “need balance in their school day, and the notion
of teaching for the test and trying to cram full the day with only academic work
is limited.” It seems reasonable to embrace mindfulness and SEL simply for the
benefit of “taking time out of a busy school day, and just remembering to breathe”
(Resnick, 2017).
> Five cognitive strategy and skill areas—phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency,
vocabulary, and comprehension—were recommended by the NRP to be the focus
of reading instruction because they “currently reflect the central issues in reading
instruction and reading achievement.” A key conclusion of the NRP report was
that strategies and skills should be the focus of reading instruction and reading
assessment (Afflerbach, 2016).
73
WHOLE CHILD 73
More to Know: We Can Help Our Students
Develop Academic Perseverance
Carol Dweck, a Stanford University psychologist, writing in her book Mindset: The New
Psychology of Success (2007), introduces her readers to two mental constructs: fixed
mindset and growth mindset. As the labels suggest, people with a fixed mindset believe
they come into the world with a fixed amount of intellectual firepower. They accept failure
as an inevitable reflection of their cognitive limitations. People with a growth mindset,
on the other hand, refuse to be limited by real or imagined deficiencies of any sort. They
believe that with enough hard work, perseverance, and practice, success is inevitable.
Ryan and Deci (2006) suggest that we are mostly motivated not by the material
consequences of our actions but by the inherent enjoyment and meaning that those
actions bring us, a phenomenon known as intrinsic motivation. They identified three key
human needs: 1) our need for competence; 2) our need for autonomy; and 3) our need for
relatedness (personal connection). A growth mindset and intrinsic motivation develop
when these three essential needs are sustained.
In a similar way, educators Pam Allyn and Ernest Morrell (2016) speak of the “seven strengths”
which include belonging, curiosity, friendship, kindness, confidence, courage, and hope. In
combination, the seven strengths help to build “super readers” who develop strong identities
as readers together with the mindset to control and monitor their own reading destinies.
Closing Thoughts
Garcia and Weiss (2016) explain the policy implications of acknowledging the social-
emotional skills that enable our students to lead more fulfilling and productive lives. What
does this mean for the ways in which we go about designing high-quality education for our
students? Garcia and Weiss explain that we need to:
Better Define and Measure These Skills

“Integrating social-emotional skills into the education policy agenda requires, first, the
identification of a satisfactory and concrete list of these skills, and systems or scales to
measure them. Measurement and methodological research are required to validate a
complete and accurate list of education-related noncognitive skills, and to provide metrics
that are both reliable and usable.”
Broaden the Curriculum

“The identification of those noncognitive skills that play important roles in education
should prompt a discussion of how to design broader curricula and specific instructional
strategies to promote those skills, including promoting school and classroom
environments conducive to them.”
Enhance Teacher Preparation, Training, and Support
“Fully integrating noncognitive skills into the curriculum also requires that teachers’
preparation and professional support are geared toward the development of these skills
in their students, as well as an emphasis on the importance of relationships.”
Revisit School Disciplinary Policies

“Many current disciplinary measures used to combat student misbehavior are at odds
with the goal of nurturing noncognitive skills. Disciplinary measures should be rooted
in schools’ efforts to support and promote better behavior, and in the prevention of
misbehavior, rather than simply or mainly in punishing wrongdoing.”
Broaden Assessment and Accountability

“Accountability practices and policies must be broadened to make explicit the expectation
that schools and teachers contribute to the development of noncognitive skills and to
make the development of the whole child central to the mission of education policy.”
References
Allyn, P., and Morrell, E. (2016). Every Child a Super Klem, A., and Connell, J. (2004). “Relationships
Reader: Seven Strengths to Open a World of Matter: Linking Teacher Support to Student
Possible. New York: Scholastic. Engagement and Achievement” Journal of
School Health. Vol. 74(7).
Belfield, C., Bowden, A., Klapp, A., Levin, H., Shand,
R., and Zander, S. (2015). “The Economic Value Mapp, K., Carver, I., and Lander, J. (2017). Powerful
of Social and Emotional Learning.” Journal of Partnerships: A Teacher’s Guide to Engaging
Benefit-Cost Analysis. Vol. 6(3). Families for Student Success. New York:
Scholastic.
Dweck, C. (2007). Mindset: The New Psychology
of Success. New York: Ballantine Books. Miller, D., and Sharp. C. (2018). Game Changer!
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B.,
Taylor, R. D., and Schellinger, K. B. (2011). “The Resnick, B. (2017). “Is Mindfulness Meditation
Impact of Enhancing Students’ Social and Good For Kids? Show Me the Evidence.”
Emotional Learning: A Meta-Analysis of Retrieved from: www.vox.com/science-and-
School-Based Universal Interventions.” Child health/2017/5/22/13768406/mindfulness-
Development. Vol. 82(1). meditation-good-for-kids-evidence
Garcia, E., and Weiss, E. (2016). “Making Whole- Routman, R. (2018). Literacy Essentials:
Child Education the Norm. How Research Engagement, Excellence, and Equity for All
and Policy Initiatives Can Make Social and Learners. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
Emotional Skills a Focal Point of Children’s
Education. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Ryan, R., and Deci, E. (2006). “Self-Regulation
Institute. and the Problem of Human Autonomy: Does
Psychology Need Choice, Self-Determination,
Jones, D., Greenberg, M., and Crowley, M. (2015). and Will?” Journal of Personality. Vol. 74(6).
“Early Social-Emotional Functioning and
Public Health: The Relationship Between
Kindergarten Social Competence and Future
Wellness.” American Journal of Public Health.
75
WHOLE CHILD 75
SOCIAL JUSTICE
“Educators play a vital role in teaching about social injustice
and discrimination in all its forms with regard to differences
in race, ethnicity, culture, gender, gender expression, age,
appearance, ability, national origin, language, spiritual belief,
sexual orientation, socioeconomic circumstance, and
environment.”
—NCTE policy statement, 2010
KEY FINDINGS
> “More than 16 million children in the United States—22% of all children—live in
families with incomes below the federal poverty level—$23,550 a year for a family
of four. Research shows that, on average, families need an income of about twice
that level to cover basic expenses. Using this standard, 45% of children live in
low-income families” (Jiang et al., 2016).
> Across the country, more than seven million students are missing enough days of
school to be academically at risk. Chronic absence—missing 10 percent or more
of school days due to absence for any reason, whether for excused, unexcused
or absences and suspensions—can translate into third-graders unable to master
reading, sixth-graders failing subjects, and ninth-graders dropping out of high
school (Chang and Leong, 2018).
> As Stephen Krashen’s research (2011) has demonstrated time and again, access
to books is as strong a factor in school success as poverty is a detriment. In other
words, if children have access to books in their schools (Miller and Sharp, 2018;
Krashen, Lee, and McQuillan, 2010) and in their homes (Schubert and Becker,
2010; Evans, Kelley, Sikora, and Treieman, 2010), they can read their way out of the
ravages of poverty (Sweeney, 2014).
> If all students in low-income countries left school with basic reading skills, 171
million people could be lifted out of poverty, which would be equivalent to a 12
percent cut in world poverty (Sweeney, 2014).
KEY FINDINGS
> The National Board of School Psychologists, dedicated to helping students thrive,
defines social justice as “both a process and a goal that requires action.” The aim
is “to ensure the protection of the educational rights, opportunities, and well-
being of all children, especially those whose voices have been muted, identities
obscured, or needs ignored. Social justice requires promoting non-discriminatory
practices and the empowerment of families and communities … to enact social
justice through culturally-responsive professional practice and advocacy to create
schools, communities, and systems that ensure equity and fairness for all children
and youth” (NASP, 2017).
> Psychologist Walter Gilliam (2014) warns of an “implicit bias” against children of
color. Specifically, “black children represent 18% of preschool enrollment, but 48%
of children receiving more than one out-of-school suspension. Similarly, boys
represent 54% of the preschool enrollment, but 79%
of children suspended once and 82% of children suspended multiple times.
> “The primary goal of early care and education is to promote overall school
readiness, especially for those needing the most assistance. Clearly, expelling
or suspending preschoolers counters the overall objective of early education
programs—to promote school readiness in order to improve later educational
success” (Gilliam, 2014).
> Decades of research prove a simple truth: more often than not, strong families
yield strong, successful students. All families have dreams for their children and
want the very best for them, but without open communication and collaboration,
how to best help families support their children isn’t always easy or clear. To
this end, a strong school-family partnership can make all the difference as (Bryk
et al., 2009) demonstrated in their study of Chicago schools. They found that
student performance is not only influenced by the home, school, and community
environments in which children live, but also by the relationships among
these settings. When home, school, and community forces come together to
lend students both academic and personal support, student motivation and
participation increases.
> We certainly don’t want any students attempting the grand performance that is
the summative assessment without continued checks that they are developing
the collection of needed strategies and skills to the point that they can succeed
(Afflerbach, 2016).
77
SOCIAL JUSTICE 77
More to Know: Resilience and the Terrible
Challenge of Poverty
Our public schools are facing a terrible challenge. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics and reported by the Southern Education Foundation (Suitts, 2015), the
majority of this country’s public school children (51%) are now from households rocked
by poverty—and poverty creates stress. Hence the ever-deepening interest in childhood
resilience. “Children who develop effective coping mechanisms for responding to stress
and positively adapt in the face of adversity are said to be resilient—an important concept
in child development and mental health theory and research.” Dr. Steve Southwick,
professor of psychiatry, and Dr. Linda Mayes, Arnold Gesell professor in the Child Study
Center, both of Yale Medical School and leading authorities on resilience, remind us that
“helping children develop resilience-boosting skills is critical—especially when families are
confronted with economic, social, and health issues.” To that end, one of the most reliable
predictors of resilience is the strong network of social support that children create and
maintain when they possess the social competence to do so.
One way to help children develop the skills they need to navigate relationships at home
and beyond is through literacy-based practices and materials. The bedtime story is a
time-honored way to strengthen and enhance a loving relationship between a young
child and parent or caregiver. It’s easy to see how engagement with books and other print
or digital literary resources might work to help children build the social skills they need
to successfully navigate our dynamic and fast-changing social world. “As scientists learn
more about the complex interplay of genetics, development, cognition, environment, and
neurobiology,” it will be possible to develop an array of interventions, including those that
are literacy-based, to enhance resilience to stress (Tominey et al., 2011).
In general, family engagement plays a pivotal role in supporting all children. Dr. Karen
Mapp 2017), the leading proponent of family and community engagement, writes, “When
parents are engaged and involved, their children succeed.” Specifically:
• Their grades go up.

• They attend school more regularly.
• They are more likely to enroll in higher-level programs.
• They are more likely to graduate and go on to attend college.
• They are more excited and positive about school and learning.
• They have fewer discipline issues inside and outside of class.
Learning Supports: Bringing School, Family, and
Community Together
Schools and districts, of course, can build in structures that provide an integrated, sustained
pathway of learning supports that foster resilience and enables all students to succeed and
thrive. UCLA psychologists Howard Adelman and Linda Taylor’s research (2008), developed
over the course of 30 years in the field, places student learning and well-being at the center
and draws in every component of support—social-emotional, physical, and academic—to
create an integrated continuum of coordinated support. The aim is to move away from the
fragmented approaches that have marginalized learning supports for students, leading to
poor cost effectiveness (up to 25% of school budgets used in limited and redundant ways)
and counterproductive competition for sparse resources—to one that marshals the full
strength and force of the school, family, and community.
Closing Thoughts
Not all students come to school ready and able to learn every day. Many students face
barriers including poverty that interfere with their ability to be physically or mentally
present, and these barriers prevent them from benefiting from quality instruction. To help
all students succeed, districts must transform fragmented services into a fully integrated
continuum of supports (Chang and Leong, 2018; Howard and Adelman, 2008) and promote
independent reading and robust classroom libraries. There is a growing recognition that
partnership between families and school staff is not only required to achieve educational
excellence for all children, but also to improve our schools. Many states across the U.S. are
adopting new standards for assessing teacher and school leader performance, and many
of those standards include an expectation of proficient practice in family and community
engagement (Mapp, Carver, and Lander, 2017).
For all of us in the work of supporting our children, the goal is clear: we aim to better meet
our children’s needs by strengthening the connections among schools, families, and
communities. Students benefit academically, emotionally, and physically when all the
adults in their lives come together and form a continuous, coordinated, and collaborative
circle of care around them. The research of Adelman and Taylor, Mayes, Gilliam, and Mapp,
together with the work of educators, policy-makers, families, and community partners
represented in this research compendium, show us how we might accomplish this worthy
and vitally important goal.
79
SOCIAL JUSTICE 79
References
Achterman, D. (2008). Haves, Halves, and Have-Nots: Krashen, S., Lee, S, and McQuillan, J. “An Analysis of
School Libraries and Student Achievement in the PIRLS (2006) Data: Can the School Library
California. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Reduce the Effect of Poverty on Reading
North Texas. Achievement?” CSLA Journal. California School
Library Association.
Adelman, H., and Taylor, L. (2008). Rebuilding for
Learning: Addressing Barriers to Learning and Manzano, S. (2014). “Turn the Page and Know
Teaching and Re-engaging Students. New York: Yourself.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of
Scholastic. Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and Power
of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Allyn, P., and Morrell, E. Every Child a Super Reader.
7 Strengths to Open a World of Possible. New Mapp, K., Carver, I., and Lander, J. (2017). Powerful
York: Scholastic. Partnerships: A Teacher’s Guide to Engaging
Families for Student Success. New York:
Berger, R. Rugen, L., and Woodfin, L. (2014).
Scholastic.
Leaders of Their Own Learning. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. Mayes, L. (2003). The Yale Child Study Center
Guide to Understanding Your Child: Healthy
Brozo, W., and Flynn, E. S. (2008). “Motivating
Development from Birth to Adolescence, New
Students to Read in the Content Classroom:
York: Little, Brown, and Company
Six Evidence-Based Principles.” The Reading
Teacher. Vol. 62(2). Pink, D. (2011). Drive: The Surprising Truth About
What Motivates Us. New York: Penguin Books.
Chang, H. Attendance Works. Retrieved from:
www.attendanceworks.org Robinson, D. (2015). Scholastic Kids and Family
Reading Report:: Fifth Edition. Commissioned
Conley, A. (2014). “Nurturing Intrinsic Motivation and
by Scholastic and conducted by YouGov.
Growth Mindset in Writing.” Edutopia. Retrieved
from: www.edutopia.org/blog/intrinsic- Schubert, F., and Becker, R. (2010). “Social Inequality
motivation-growth-mindset-writing-amy-conley of Reading Literacy: A Longitudinal Analysis
with Cross-Sectional Data of PIRLS 2001 and
Dweck, D. (2007). Mindset: The New Psychology of
PISA 2000 Utilizing the Pair Wise Matching
Success. New York: Ballantine Books.
Procedure.” Research in Social Stratification and
Evans, M. D. R., Kelley, J., Sikorac, J., and Treimand, D. Mobility. Vol. 29.
(2010). “Family Scholarly Culture and Educational
Sweeney, K. (2014). “Reading Their Way
success: Books and Schooling in 27 Nations.”
Out of Poverty. Frontlines.” USAID.
Research in Social Stratification and Mobility.
Retrieved from: www.usaid.gov/news-
Vol. 28.
information/frontlines/grand-challenges/
Glei, J. (2013). “Talent Isn’t Fixed and Other Mindsets reading-their-way-out-poverty
that Lead to Greatness.” Retrieved from:
Tominey, S., Leslie, T., Southwick, S., and Mayes,
99u.com/articles/14379/talent-isnt-fixed-and-
l. (2011). Using Literacy-Based Approaches
other-mindsets-that-lead-to-greatness
to Promote Social Competence and Foster
Gilliam, V. (2014). “What Could Make Less Sense Resilience. New Haven, CT: Yale Child Study
Than Expelling a Preschooler?” Psychology Center and Scholastic.
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Tough, P. (2016). “How Kids Learn Resilience.” The
Jiang, Y., Ekono, M., and Skinner, C. (2016). “Basic Atlantic.
Facts about Low-Income Children: Children
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under 18 Years.” New York: National Center for
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Trejo, J. (2014). “Imagining Possibilities.” In L. Bridges
Johnston, P. (2012). Opening Minds: Using Language
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Krashen, S. (2011). Free Voluntary Reading. Santa Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION
“Reading engagement is more important than students’
family background consisting of parents’ education and
income. Reading engagement connects to achievement
more strongly than to home environment.”
—Dr. John Guthrie, National Reading Research Center at the University of Maryland,
KEY FINDINGS
> Motivation and reading comprehension go hand in hand; avid readers read
extensively with deep comprehension (Duke, et al., 2011).
> Motivation works in a spiral: avid readers read more, and their reading prompts
increased learning and a passion for even more reading. The reverse is also true
(Guthrie et al., 2012).
> “A motivated reader is one who engages in significantly more reading than one
who is not motivated to do so. Wigfield and Guthrie (1997) identified a 300%
difference in time spent reading between intrinsically motivated and unmotivated
fourth- and fifth-grade readers” (Fisher, Frye, and Lapp, 2012).
> Intrinsic motivation drives student reading and reading achievement;

students who read only for external reasons—prompted by grades, rewards, or
recognition—do not read as often or as deeply (Guthrie, et al., 2012).
> A meta-analysis of 128 studies on the effects of rewards concludes that, “tangible
rewards tend to have a substantially negative effect on intrinsic motivation. Even
when tangible rewards are offered as indicators of good performance, they
typically decrease intrinsic motivation for interesting activities” (Deci, Koestner,
and Ryan, 1999; cited in Miller and Sharp, 2018).
> Readers motivated for personal reasons are more likely to remain interested in
reading than readers who are externally motivated through rewards (Marinak and
Gambrell, 2008). If we strive to encourage lifelong reading habits, rewarding and
incentivizing reading is detrimental (Miller and Sharp, 2018).
> Inviting students to choose their own books or suggesting books that they can
read and want to read has a profound positive effect on both motivation and
comprehension (Miller and Sharp, 2018; Gallagher and Kittle, 2018; Beers and
Probst, 2017; Harvey and Ward, 2017; Allington, 2012; Wilhelm and Smith, 2013).
ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION 8181

KEY FINDINGS
> Engagement, motivation, and a growth mindset work in concert (Conley, 2014).
> Our assessments must be sensitive to these developments and provide information
that describes the status of self-efficacy, the nature of a student’s motivation, and the
types of attribution that a student makes for reading success or failure. With such
assessment information, we can create reading environments and instruction that
foster healthy development of students’ cognition and affect (Afflerbach, 2016).
More to Know: Engagement Drives

Reading Achievement
When it comes to reading achievement, engagement trumps all—it’s even more important
than family background. In other words, it doesn’t matter what education or income a
student’s parents may have—if students are drawn to read by deep longing and interest, they
will succeed (Guthrie, 2008). Think of the inspiring stories of young people who read their
way out of poverty and all sorts of life challenges (Westover, 2018; Walls, 2006; Murray, 2010).
The research is equally powerful and convincing. Many studies show that intrinsic
motivation drives student reading. Students who read for internal reasons (interest, pleasure,
favorite topics) read a lot and do well on all measures of achievement. In contrast, students
who read only for external reasons—prompted by grades, rewards, or recognition—do not
read as often or as deeply (Cunningham and Stanovich, 1992; Guthrie, et al., 2013).
As Miller and Sharp (2018) note, “Short-term reading excitement for an award or prize does
not spark long-term reading engagement. Indeed, reading contests can harm students’
reading self-efficacy and interest … When we communicate to children that the only reason
to read is to earn a reward or grade, we fail to impart reading’s true value. Reading is its own
reward and bestows immeasurable gifts on readers.”
Gallagher and Kittle (2018) maintain that choice drives engagement—and engagement drives
reading and volume. Not only do motivated readers engage in significantly more reading than
those who are extrinsically motivated, their level of engagement and comprehension tends to
be deeper and richer (Fisher, Frey, and Lapp, 2012; Duke and Carlisle, 2011).
What’s more, reading engagement and reading achievement interact in a spiral. Higher
achievers read more, and the more engaged these students become, the higher they
achieve. Engaged readers want to learn, and they are confident in their abilities. They
persist in the face of difficulty and keep at it until they have achieved their goals (Guthrie,
2012; Dwek, 2008). Likewise, lower achievers read less, and the less engaged decline
in achievement. The spiral goes downward as well as upward. In fact, continued low
engagement in reading is often a precursor to dropping out of school (Guthrie, 2008).
In general, helping all students succeed is not a mystery; we know the teaching elements
that motivate and inspire (Muir, 2014):
• Building positive relationships and an inviting school climate
• Providing specific feedback that helps students succeed
• Inviting student hands-on, active work
• Honoring different learning styles
• Developing projects that stem from students’ interests
• Avoiding bribes and rewards
• Honoring student voice and choice
• Connecting learning to problem solving and inventive thinking
• Fostering real-world connections
Do Rewards Work?
Paul Tough (2016) tells the story of Roland Fryer, a Harvard economics professor who has
given out an astonishing sum of cash trying to encourage parents and their children to care
about school and their schoolwork. Alas, all that money has made nearly zero difference
and in one case, it even seems to have interfered. Tough explains:
From 2007 to 2009, Fryer distributed a total of $9.4 million in cash incentives to
27,000 students, to promote book reading in Dallas, to raise test scores in New York,
and to improve course grades in Chicago—all with no effect. “The impact of financial
incentives on student achievement,” Fryer reported, “is statistically 0 in each city.”
In the 2010–11 school year, he gave cash incentives to fifth-grade students in 25
low-performing public schools in Houston, and to their parents and teachers, with
the intent of increasing the time they spent on math homework and improving their
scores on standardized math tests. The students performed the tasks necessary to
get paid, but their average math scores at the end of eight months hadn’t changed at
all. When Fryer looked at their reading scores, he found that they actually went down.
83
ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION 83
Closing Thoughts
Teachers who foster reading engagement through classroom instruction and high-interest
reading materials not only increase the amount of time that students spend reading silently,
but also their overall reading achievement. At the same time, the research shows that
teachers who do not focus on student engagement are actually hindering their students by
increasing avoidance behaviors. When students avoid reading, they short-circuit the very
process that would help them become better readers. Nurturing young readers is not simply
a matter of providing instruction that fosters reading engagement—it requires providing
instruction that thwarts avoidance behaviors in the classroom (Guthrie and Humenick, 2004).
References
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for Guthrie, J. (2012). “Motivating Students to Learn
Struggling Readers? Boston: Pearson. Reading Through Science and History.”
Research That Makes a Difference in the
Beers, K., and Probst, B. (2017). Disrupting Thinking:
Age of Common Core. International Reading
Why How We Read Matters. New York:
Association Conference.
Scholastic.
Guthrie, J. (2008). Engaging Adolescents in Reading.
Conley, A. (2014). “Nurturing Intrinsic Motivation and
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Growth Mindset in Writing.” Edutopia. Retrieved
from: edutopia.org/blog/intrinsic-motivation- Guthrie, J., and Humenick, N. (2004). “Motivating
growth-mindset-writing- amy-conley Students to Read: Evidence for Classroom
Practices that Increase Motivation and
Cunningham, A., and Stanovich, K. (1998). “What
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Dweck, C. (2007). Mindset: The New Psychology of Muir, M. (2014): “Inventive Reasoning. Helping
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Fisher, D., Frey, N., Lapp, D. (2012). Text Complexity: Murray, L. (2010). Breaking Night: My Memoir of
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Scholastic.
THE POWER OF READING CHOICE,
TIME, AND PLEASURE
“I was lucky enough to grow up when … the most
wonderful thing a teacher might say was, ‘Go to the library
and pick out a book.’”
—Dr. Bill McBride, educator, author, and speaker
KEY FINDINGS
> Children who read for pleasure are likely to do significantly better in school than
their peers who rarely read. Sullivan and Brown (2013) demonstrate that pleasure
reading is linked to increased cognitive progress over time. They recommend that
educators and policy makers “support and encourage children’s reading in their
leisure time.”
> Sullivan and Brown (2013) found that children between the ages of 10 and 16 who
read for pleasure made more progress in vocabulary and spelling as well as math
than those who rarely read.
> “The research base on student-selected reading is robust and conclusive. Students
read more, understand more, and are more likely to continue reading when they
have the opportunity to choose what they read” (Allington and Gabriel, 2012).
> Self-selected reading is twice as powerful as teacher-selected reading in

developing motivation and comprehension (Guthrie and Humenick, 2004).
> Wilhelm and Smith (2013, 2016) demonstrate that pleasure is always at the heart
of engaged reading and that pleasure is multifaceted. Their interviews with avid
teen readers revealed that teens read deeply for a wide range of reasons: play,
intellectual, social, and “inner work” (psychological and spiritual exploration).
> As essential aspect of becoming a real reader is knowing yourself as a reader—

made possible through wide reading driven by access to abundant books and
personal choice (Wilhelm and Smith, 2014; Miller, 2013; Tatum, 2009, 2013; Allington
and Gabriel, 2012).
85
THE POWER OF READING CHOICE, TIME, AND PLEASURE 85
KEY FINDINGS
> “Self-selected independent reading involves a set of strategies that are learned.
Development of these strategies should be one of the primary goals of a reading/
language arts program. However, the skills of self-selected reading do not
develop by simply offering students the books of a library and asking them to
pick books. … Typically, students who read avidly—especially young students—
have been taught how to select books that interest them” (Hiebert, 2014).
> According to a 2007 National Endowment for the Arts study:

• Nearly half of all 18- to 24-year-olds read no books for pleasure.
• Fewer than one-third of 13-year-olds read daily.
• Teens and young adults spend 60 percent less time on voluntary
reading than the average.
> “For virtually all children, the amount of time spent reading in classrooms
consistently accelerates their growth in reading skills” (Anderson, Wilson and
Fielding, 1988).
> Barry Gilmore (2011) acknowledges that there are many competing interests for
students’ time these days—television, the internet, social media, and so forth. But
he also maintains that educators “play an enormous role in developing attitudes
toward reading.” He suggests that we’ve unintentionally hurt our secondary
students by: 1) adhering to the canon of Western literature; and 2) failing to spark
our students’ interest through choice.
> The Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report, Fifth Edition, confirms what
we’ve long known: independent reading, both at school and at home, builds
successful readers. What’s more, the research shows that giving our students a
say in what they read is key.
> The report adds to the abundant data we’ve had for years that demonstrates that
in-school independent reading built around time to read books for fun creates
kids who love to read. Seventy-eight percent of children ages 12-17 who are
frequent readers, defined by the report as kids who read books for fun five to
seven times a week, reported that they have the opportunity to read a book of
choice independently during the school day. Only 24% of infrequent readers—
those reading for fun less than one day a week—say the same. In addition, 91% of
children ages 6-17 agree that “my favorite books are the ones that I have picked
out myself.” We might deduce that independent reading programs that invite
reading choice and promote reading pleasure give rise to kids who not only read,
but more importantly, want to read.
More to Know: Pleasure Is Essential
Jeff Wilhelm and Michael Smith (2013) investigated the pleasure that avid adolescent
readers take from their out-of-school reading in their book, Reading Unbound: Why Kids
Need to Read What They Want—and Why We Should Let Them. They demonstrate that
pleasure is not incidental to reading—it’s essential. They found that the young people with
whom they worked spoke of their reading pleasure with remarkable sophistication—and
their pleasure supported the intense and high-level engagement with texts that schools
seek to foster. The authors write:
In our study of the out-of-school reading lives of 14 eighth-graders who were

avid readers of texts often marginalized in schools (romances, vampire stories,
horror stories, dystopian novels, and fantasy), we strove to understand the nature
and variety of reading pleasure. We found that our participants were remarkably
articulate about why they read what they read.
Our data also convinced us of the importance of choice. Students should have
regular opportunities to behave the way adult readers do and choose their own
reading. They know the kinds of texts from which they will take pleasure. At the same
time, teachers should expand the possibility of pleasure by introducing students
to new books they might not select on their own. If we want students to embrace
reading now and always, then we need to keep at the forefront of our attention the
rich, complex, and profound pleasures of reading.
Wilhelm and Smith also found that the reading pleasure their students experienced was
multi-faceted and led them to read for a number of reasons—at times, for sheer fun and
enjoyment, but also for the profound intellectual, social-emotional, and psychological
benefits they received from reading. For this reason, Wilhelm and Smith maintain that
students must be free to choose at least some of their own reading in school.
Report from a Silent Sustained Reading (SSR) Program

Jeff McQuillan (2001) reports similar breakthroughs with pleasure reading in SSR (silent
sustained reading) at a diverse high school in Anaheim, CA. Most of the students were
Latino, and many came from economically deprived homes with limited access to books
in their homes or communities:
Fundamental to any SSR program is, of course, a set amount of time each day
for students to read to themselves. Pilgreen and Gribbons (1998) point out that
successful SSR programs must be carried out on a regular and frequent basis and
not as an occasional activity or tacked on as “filler” on Friday. The teachers started
off slowly, allotting 10 minutes a day during the first few weeks of the semester.
Most students weren’t accustomed to having time for pleasure reading in class,
and some needed to work into the habit gradually. No other reading materials (e.g.,
87
textbooks) were allowed, and students were not permitted to work on homework or
class assignments. Within four to six weeks, the time spent reading was gradually
increased to 15 and then 20 minutes. Several teachers noted that many students can
sit, do nothing, and avoid reading for 10 minutes, but when the SSR is 20 minutes,
it is almost impossible for students to do nothing. At that point, they start reading.
In some classes, students would read for 30 minutes, complaining if they were
given less time! Teachers report that 90 to 95 percent of their students were, in
fact, reading their books, consistent with other reports that have found that, when
properly implemented, almost all students take advantage of the SSR time provided.
Not only did these formerly disengaged students who disliked reading become
“thoroughly enthralled” with their reading, but they also made progress as readers and
writers, showing increased achievement scores in vocabulary development and writing
proficiency. In multiple ways, more reading led to better reading.
The Thrill of Personal Choice

Students are thrilled when they get to choose their own books. Research has frequently
found that self-selection is the hook that snags both children and teens and convinces
them to read:
• Allowing students to self-select their books results in more involvement and thus
more motivation to read (Sewell, 2003; Gallager, 2009; Pruzinsky, 2014).
• Self-selection allows students more latitude to be deeply involved with the learning
process, thus fostering an interest in, as well as developing an ownership of the
reading process (Kragler, 2000).
• Students choose books that match their personal interests—both narrative and
expository texts. Kids are also drawn to books that their friends or other trusted
readers recommend (Edmunds and Bauserman, 2006).
Hiebert (2014) cautions, however, that children benefit from help—they grow into self-
selection with parent or teacher guidance and thoughtful scaffolding.
The Value of Time

Students need extensive time to read. Allington and Johnston studied exemplary
first- and fourth-grade teachers in six states and found that extensive reading is critical
to the development of reading proficiency. “Extensive practice provides the opportunity
for students to consolidate the skills and strategies teachers often work so hard to
develop. The exemplary elementary teachers we studied recognized this critical aspect of
instructional planning. Their students did more guided reading, more independent reading,
more social studies and science reading than students in less-effective classrooms”
(Allington, 2002).
Closing Thoughts
Global Teacher award-winning Nancie Atwell (2015) also considers reader’s choice, time,
and pleasure essential. In her classroom and school (Center for Teaching and Learning),
choice is a given: “Kids choose what they read because children who choose books are
more likely to grow up to become adults who read books. Students who read only a steady
diet of assigned titles don’t get to answer, for themselves, the single most important
question about book reading: why does anyone want to? (2007). She writes:
Every day, smart, well-meaning teachers erect instructional roadblocks between

their students and the pure pleasure of the personal art of reading. There it is: the
P word. I know, because I’ve felt it, too, that there’s a sense of uneasiness among
teachers and parents about an approach like a reading workshop. Shouldn’t there be
some pedagogic strings attached here? Some paper and pencil and small-group
activities that look like schoolwork? Because otherwise, isn’t reading class, well, too
enjoyable?
We need to get over it. When we teachers embrace our role as literate grown-ups
who help children seek and find delight and enlargement of life in books, they have
a good chance of growing into adults who enjoy and love reading.
References
Allington, R., and Gabriel, R. (2012). “Every Child, Kragler, Sherry. (2000). “Choosing Books for
Every Day.” Educational Leadership. Vol. 69 (6). Reading: An Analysis of Three Types of
Readers.” Journal of Research in Childhood
Allington, R. (2002). “What I’ve Learned About
Education. Vol. 14.
Effective Reading Instruction from a Decade
of Studying Exemplary Elementary Classroom Gallagher, K. (2009). Readicide. Portland, ME:
Teachers.” Phi Delta Kappan. Stenhouse.
Anderson, R. C., Wilson, P. T., and Fielding, L. G. Gilmore, Barry. (2011). “Worthy Texts: Who Decides?”
(1988). “Growth in Reading and How Children Educational Leadership. Vol. 68 (6).
Spend Their Time Outside of School.” Reading
Guthrie, J., and Humenick, N. (2004). “Motivating
Research Quarterly. Vol. 23..
Students to Read: Evidence of Classroom
Atwell, N. (2007).“The Pleasure Principle.” New York: Practices that Increase Motivation and
Scholastic: Retrieved from: www.scholastic. Achievement.” In P. McCardle, and V. Chabra,
com/teachers/article/pleasure-principle (Eds.), The Voice of Evidence in Reading
Research. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Atwell, N. (2007). The Reading Zone: How to Help
Kids Become Skilled, Passionate, Habitual, Hiebert, F. (2014). “Frank Views on Literacy and
Critical Readers. New York: Scholastic. the Common Core.” Santa Cruz, CA: The Text
Project. Retrieved from: textproject.org/library/
Edmunds, K., Bauserman, K. (2006). “What Teachers
books/frank-views-on-literacy-learning-and-
Can Learn About Reading Motivation through
the-common-core
Conversations with Children.” The Reading
Teacher. Vol. 59.
89
References
McBride, Bill. (2014). “My Life as a Reader: A ‘Classic’ Reynolds, L., Symons, S. (2001). “Motivational
Journey.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World Variables and Children’s Text Search.” Journal of
of Possible: Read Stories About the Joy and Educational Psychology. Vol 93(1).
Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report: Fifth
McQuillan, J., et al. (2001). “If You Build It They Will Edition. Commissioned by Scholastic and
Come: A Book Flood Program for Struggling conducted by YouGov; 2014.
Readers in an Urban High School.” In Bonnie
Sewell, E. (2003). “Students’ Choice of Books During
Ericson (Ed.), Teaching Reading in High School
Self-Selected Reading.” EDRS opinion papers.
English Classes. Urban, IL: NCTE.
Sullivan, A., and Brown, M. (2013). Social Inequalities
Miller, D., and Kelly, S. (2014). Reading in the Wild:
in Cognitive Scores at Age 16: The Role of
The Book Whisperer’s Keys to Cultivating
Reading. London: Centre for Longitudinal
Lifelong Reading Habits. San Francisco:
Studies.
Jossey-Bass.
Walls, J. (2006). The Glass Castle: A Memoir. New
York: Scribner.
the Inner Reader in Every Child. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2016). The Power of
Pleasure Reading: What We Can Learn from
Murray, L. (2010). Breaking Night: A Memoir of
the Secret Reading Lives of Teens. English
Forgiveness, Survival, and My Journey from
Journal. Vol. 105(6).
Homeless to Harvard. New York: Harper Collins.
Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2013). Reading Unbound:
Pilgreen, J. L., and Gribbons, B. (1998). “Using SSR
Why Kids Need to Read What They Want—
in the Secondary ESL Classroom: A Powerful
and Why We Should Let Them: New York:
Way to Increase Comprehension and Develop
Scholastic.
Positive Attitudes Toward Reading.” In R.
Constantino (Ed.), Literacy, Access and Libraries Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2013). “The Most
Among the Language Minority Population. Important Lesson Schools Can Teach Kids
Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. About Reading: It’s Fun.” The Atlantic. Retrieved
from: www.theatlantic.com/education/
Pruzinsky, T. (2014). “Read Books. Every Day. Mostly
archive/2013/11/the-most-important-lesson-
for Pleasure.” NCTE. English Journal 103(4).
schools-can-teach-kids-about-reading-its-
fun/281295
NEW LITERACIES: FAN-CREATED
LITERARY CONTENT
“In many ways, the online affinity space related to
The Hunger Games trilogy is pioneering a new paradigm
for young adult literature in a digital age.”
—Jen Scott Curwood, digital literacy researcher
KEY FINDINGS
> Affinity spaces, defined as physical, virtual, or blended spaces where people
interact around a common interest or activity, offer new ways for adolescent
readers to engage with young adult literature (Curwood, 2013).
> “Young men who struggle with reading in school and read below grade level
when assessed on academic tests actually read above grade level when assessed
on high-interest, video-game related texts.” The authors found that readers might
vary as much as seven reading levels from one text to the next depending on
the kind of text they were reading and whether they were motivated to read it
(Steinkuehler, Compton-Lilly, and King, 2010).
> Technology can facilitate young people’s active participation in online spaces
and promote the development of sophisticated literacy skills (Curwood, 2013).
> “Research suggests that when young adults read for enjoyment, it positively
influences their performance on standardized tests, such as the Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA).”
> “A crucial difference between students who perform well on the PISA and those
who perform poorly lies in whether they read daily for enjoyment, rather than in
how much time they spend reading. On average, students who read daily for
pleasure score the equivalent of 1.5 years of schooling better than those who do
not” (The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2011).
> “Research by the Pew Internet and American Life Project indicates that 80% of
adolescents use online social network sites, 38% share original creative work
online, and 21% remix their own transformative works, inspired by others’ words
and images” (Curwood et al., 2013).
NEW LITERACIES: FAN-CREATED LITERARY CONTENT 9191

More to Know: The Wondrous World of New Literacies
In 2004, the National Endowment for the Arts published “Reading At Risk: A Survey of
Literary Reading in America,” which issued a double warning: adolescents are 1) becoming
disengaged from real books and literature; and 2) functioning as little more than “passive
participants” as they read digital books. More than a decade later, it’s clear that just
the opposite is true. Indeed, as Jen Scott Curwood, one of the leading researchers of
digital literacy writes, “Digital literacy practices are more participatory, collaborative, and
distributed than conventional print-based literacy.”
Curwood (2013) explains that youth “use technology as part of critical inquiry to express
and define themselves as they build relationships with their peers through online social
networks. Adolescents are engaging in remarkably sophisticated analysis and discussion
about their favorite books as they write, create art, produce video, and design role-playing
games that often surpass what’s expected of them in the classroom. They are drawn, in
particular, to dystopian novels such as Suzanne Collins’s Hunger Games trilogy and fantasy
literature such as J. K. Rowlings’s Harry Potter (Wilhelm and Smith, 2013). Curwood suggests
that not only are fans using this literature to inspire and shape their own multi-modal
creative expressions, they are “critically engaging” with the text in affinity spaces— in this
case primarily virtual spaces where adolescent fans gather to share their knowledge of and
enthusiasm for these books.
Those who gather in affinity spaces around books explore a wide range of “new literacies”—
blogging, remixing (drawing together content from diverse sources to create something
brand new), cultural artifacts, curating and sharing photos, gaming, networking online,
editing wikis, creating music videos, and building apps. In the process, we can see the
natural fluidity and flexibility of learning when it’s not limited by conventional structures and
expectations. Students are fully engaged and work together to shape their own experience.
Learning flows from one medium to another ,and each student contributes what he or she
does best. Not all students must know the same thing at exactly the same time as is so
often the expectation in traditional school settings (Gee and Hayes, 2013).
What’s more, students are creating work for real audiences—not just the teacher or the
“hypothetical, generic audiences” of school. As a result, students make precise and
sophisticated calculations about their linguistic and design choices—choosing those
features that will most appeal to their very real peer audiences (Curwood, 2013).
Since they are creating content for their peers, students also engage in “ongoing cycles of
feedback”—mentoring, advising, and supporting each other. Knobel and Lankshear (2014)
suggest that schools typically “privilege teacher feedback over peer feedback on work in
progress.” Hence, assessment “tends to be summative and focus on technical details with
little in-process” guidance.
Perhaps one of the most significant distinguishing features of the new literacies is the
emphasis on “doing, making, and sharing” (Alverman, 2010). While schools emphasize
the consumption of knowledge and “practicing teacher-taught strategies, often driven
by packaged curriculum and textbooks,” inside affinity spaces students are creating the
strategies they need to get things done and achieve their goals. This, of course, reflects
our own lives outside of school where our learning is primarily driven by functional needs
and interests.
A Note About Metaliteracy and Transliteracy

One needs only tos venture into an airport or subway station to understand that the world
of literacy is transforming before our eyes. Yes, we can spot passengers buried in books,
magazines, and newspapers—but many will be accessing them via a range of digital devices.
The emergence of social media and online collaborative communities is driving the
evolution of “metaliteracy” and “transliteracy” characterized by transience, fluidity, and creative
collaboration, as well as “the ability to read, write, and interact across a range of platforms,
tools, and media” (Thomas et al., 2007). In other words, “information is not a static object
that is simply accessed and retrieved. It is a dynamic entity that is produced and shared
collaboratively with innovative Web 2.0 technologies.” (Mackey and Jacobson, 2011).
Nowhere has this been more evident than in the multidimensional online community that
thrives around the 39 Clues phenomenon. As Mike Bentz, a fourth- and fifth-grade teacher
from Solana Beach, CA, writes, “The 39 Clues unlocked an entire world of reading and
research for my students. They started a wiki and blog dedicated to the series where they
shared predictions and theories, compiled facts they researched about different related
topics, and built an online community of learners centered around researching many
different aspects of the books.” As Bentz notes, his students were so engaged that he
was afraid they were not getting enough sleep. He writes, “I often had to tell them to stop
blogging so frequently—they were researching late into the night during the week, all on
their own!”
93
Closing Thoughts
The online adolescent fan culture found in affinity spaces is passionate about reading
for pleasure, so much so that they are willing to spend hours of their own time outside of
school analyzing the books they love—often dystopian, horror, or fantasy titles— as well
as creating their own novel responses to those titles that most captivate them. (Wilhelm
and Smith, 2013, 2016; Curwood, 2013). What might this mean for teaching? Knobel and
Lankshear (2014) suggest three takeaways for teachers:
• Explore firsthand how your students create and remix content using various
multimodal mediums. Most importantly, perhaps, understand their collaborative
learning process and the continual learning-mentoring-assessment loop that they
use to help each other shape and refine their fan-created literary content.
• Understand the fluid, problem-solving, multidimensional nature of the new literacies.

Use the language of the new literacies in the classroom to give all students a shot at
acquiring it.
• Draw upon the assessment prevalent in new literacy spaces—the continual cycles
of feedback always in the service of learning. It’s this assessment, available at the
moment of need, that fosters deep learning.
As Curwood (2013) writes, “For teachers, young adult literature such as The Hunger Games
trilogy offers a powerful way to capitalize on their students’ interest, integrate technology
into the curriculum, and promote critical engagement with literature.”
References
Alvermann, D. (2010). Adolescents’ Online Literacies. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
New York: Peter Lang. Development. (2011). “PISA 2009 Results:
Students Online: Digital Technologies and
Curwood, J. (2013). “Fan Fiction, Remix Culture, and
Performance.” Paris.
the Potter Games.” In V. E. Frankel (Ed.), Teaching
with Harry Potter. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Steinkuehler, C., Compton-Lilly, C., and King, B.
(2010). “Reading in the Context of Online
Curwood, J. (2013). “Writing in the Wild: Writer’s
Games.” In K. Gomez, L. Lyons, and J. Radinsky
Motivation in Fan-Based Affinity Spaces.”
(Eds.), Learning in the Disciplines: Proceedings
Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy.
of the 9th International Conference of the
Vol. 56(8).
Learning Sciences. Chicago: International
Curwood, J. (2013). “The Hunger Games: Literature, Society of the Learning Sciences. 222-229.
Literacy, and Online Affinity Spaces.” Language
Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2016). “The Power of
Arts. Vol. 90(6).
Pleasure Reading: What We Can Learn from the
Hill, K. (2004). “Reading at Risk: A Survey of Literary Secret Reading Lives of Teens. English Journal.
Reading in America.” National Endowment for Vol. 105(6).
the Arts.” Retrieved from: arts.gov/publications/
Wilhelm, J., and Smith, M. (2013). Reading Unbound:
reading-risk-survey-literary-reading-america-
Why Kids Need to Read What They Want—
0#sthash.8W7S5wyW.dpuf
and Why We Should Let Them. New York:
Knobel, M., and Lankshear, C. (2014). “Studying New Scholastic.
Literacies.” Journal of Adolescent and Adult
Literacy. International Reading Association.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development. (2011). “PISA in Focus.” Retrieved
from: www.pisa.oecd.org
95
Did you know?
Students from high-income communities have access to
4000 times
as many books as
students from low-income communities.
Our celebration of reading must involve the ongoing

mission to give all children the opportunity to read
and to become lifelong readers.
—Dr. Nell K. Duke, University of Michigan

Chapter 4
TEXT
> Access to Books
> T
he Summer Slide—or Reading Leap!
> Classroom Libraries
> Home Libraries
> G
enre, Format, and Structure
> Text Complexity
> Nonfiction
> Fiction
CHAPTER 4: TEXT 97
ACCESS TO BOOKS
“We believe that literacy—the ability to read, write, and
understand—is the birthright of every child in the world
as well as the pathway to succeed in school and to
realize a complete life.”
—Richard Robinson, Scholastic chairman, president, and CEO
KEY FINDINGS
> Placing books in the hands of children fundamentally influences their chances for
both personal and academic success (Constantino, 2014; Neuman and Celano,
2012; McGill-Franzen, 2016; Allington and McGill-Franzen, 2013; Kim, 2009).
> The most successful way to improve the reading achievement of low-income
children is to increase their access to print (Neuman and Celano, 2012).
> Although low-income children have, on average, four children’s books in their
homes, a team of researchers concluded that nearly two-thirds—or 61 percent
of the low-income families they studied—owned no books for their children (US
Department of Education, 1996).
> Unfortunately, little has changed. These contrasting ecologies of affluence and
poverty have become the source of increasing racial prejudice, growing class
stratification, and widely different opportunities to become well educated.
> Access to books is fundamental to a hopeful, productive life: being read to,
reading for yourself, and discussing what you’ve read creates an upward, positive
spiral that leads to more reading and greater academic achievement and personal
fulfillment years down the line (Cunningham and Zilbulsky, 2014; Jacobs, 2014;
Neuman and Celano, 2012).
> Books in the home are a “marker” for a “scholarly culture” that reflects a penchant
for reading and learning (Evans, Kelley, Sikora, and Treiman, 2010).
98 CHAPTER 4: TEXT
More to Know: “The More the More, the Less the Less”
Susan Neuman and Donna Celano’s (2001) seminal study of four Philadelphia
neighborhoods—two middle-class and two low-income—reveals the stark reality of lack of
access of books for children in low-income homes and communities. The ratio of books to
children in middle-income neighborhoods was 13 books to one child, while in low-income
neighborhoods the ratio was one book to 300 children (2001, 2006). Alarmingly, more than
a decade later, little has changed; indeed, technology—once hoped to bridge the gap—has
made the disparity even worse (Neuman and Celano, 2012).
Middle-class parents typically have access to computers in their homes and can navigate
technology in ways that benefit their children’s developing literacy; on the other hand, poor
families without access to computers in the home are less likely to know how to use the
technology available in public libraries to help their children access print and learn to read.
This becomes yet another way in which children with less continue in a downward literacy
spiral, while the children with the benefits of a higher income spiral up.
In their 10 year study of access to books, Neuman and Celeno (2012) saw a pattern they
called “the more the more, the less the less.” In other words, students who had abundant
access to books and “were able to read fluently, reading more and acquiring more
information,” while students without easy access to books “seemed to develop avoidance
strategies, merely tolerating reading without the cognitive involvement associated with
reading for comprehension.” Given the learning power of reading—what it does to develop
the mind—this has devastating consequences:
Reading has cognitive consequences that extend beyond the immediate task of
understanding particular texts. Studies have shown that avid readers—regardless
of general ability—tend to know more than those who read little. Further, those who
know more are likely to learn more, and to do so faster; in other words, knowledge
begets more knowledge.
This is a stunning finding because it means that children who get off to a fast start
in reading are more likely to read more over the years—and this very act of reading
develops vocabulary, general knowledge, and information capital. Consequently,
children’s earliest experiences with print will establish a trajectory of learning that is
reciprocal and exponential in nature—spiraling either upward or downward, carrying
profound implications for the development of information capital.
Jonathan Kozol (2005) has called the educational divide between those who have and those
who don’t “the shame of the nation.” Although solving the complex barriers of poverty is
largely beyond our means as educators and parents, we can do much to solve the book
gap—and therefore, the achievement gap—by making sure that all children have access
to books.
ACCESS TO BOOKS 99
In 2010, Reading Is Fundamental (RIF), the largest children’s literacy nonprofit in the
United States, commissioned a research survey—Children’s Access to Print Materials
and Education-Related Outcomes—an unprecedented search uncovering 11,000 reports
and analyzing 108 of the most relevant studies. The finding were indisputable: children’s
book distribution and ownership programs have positive behavioral, educational, and
psychological outcomes. Providing children access to print accomplishes the following:
• Improves reading performance. Among the studies reviewed, kindergarten students

showed the biggest increase.
• Helps children learn foundational reading skills such as letter and word identification,
phonemic awareness, and completion of sentences.
• Prompts children to build reading stamina, to read more frequently and for greater
amounts of time.
• Improves children’s attitudes toward reading and learning in general (Lindsay, 2010).
The researchers also suggest that a reciprocal relationship may exist between access and
outcomes. In other words, providing interesting written materials to children increases their
reading behavior and achievement, which in turn further increases their desire to read and
acquire more books.
What About E-Books?

The fourth edition of the Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report was released in
January 2013 and reflects the growing popularity of e-books. The highlights include:
• The percentage of children who have read an e-book has almost doubled since 2010
(25% vs. 46%).
• Among children who have read an e-book, one in five says he or she is reading
more books for fun; boys are more likely to agree than girls (26% vs. 16%).
• Half of children aged 9 to 17 say they would read more books for fun if they had
greater access to e-books—a 50% increase since 2010.
• 75% of kids who have read an e-book are reading e-books at home, with about
one in four reading them at school.
• 72% of parents are interested in having their child read e-books.
• 80% of kids who read e-books still read books for fun primarily in print.
• Kids say that e-books are better than print books when they do not want their
friends to know what they are reading, and when they are out and about/traveling;
print is better for sharing with friends and reading at bedtime.
• 58% of kids aged nine to 17 say they will always want to read books printed on paper.
100 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

Closing Thoughts
One of the surest ways to break down the barriers between the rich and poor is to
provide all children with access to books. Much of the information our children will need
to succeed in our complex world isn’t available through conversations and firsthand
experience—it’s available only through print. Neuman and Celano (2012) state firmly:
Leveling the playing field isn’t enough. We need to “tip it toward” those most in need.
References
Constantino, R. (2014). “Reading, Our Beloved Mundera, K. (2014). “Open the Door to Reading.” In
Companion.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real
Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and Power Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading.
of Reading. New York: Scholastic. New York: Scholastic.
Cunningham, A. and Zibulsky, J. (2014). Book Smart. Neuman, S., and Celano, D. (2012). “Worlds Apart:
How to Develop and Support Successful, One City, Two Libraries and Ten Years of
Motivated Readers. New York: Oxford University Watching Inequality Grow.” American Educator.
Press.
Neuman, S., and Celano, D. (2006). “The Knowledge
Evans, M. D. R., Kelley, J., Sikorac, J., and Treimand, D. Gap: Implications of Leveling the Playing Field
(2010). “Family Scholarly Culture and Educational for Low-Income and Middle-Income Children.”
Success: Books and Schooling in 27 Nations.” Reading Research Quarterly. Vol. 41(2).
Research in Social Stratification and Mobility.
Neuman, S., and Celano, D. (2001). “Access to Print in
Vol. 28.
Low-Income and Middle-Income Communities:
Kids and Family Reading Report. (2013). New An Ecological Study of Four Neighborhoods.”
York: Scholastic. Retrieved from: mediaroom. Reading Research Quarterly.
scholastic.com/kfrr
Newman, Sanford, et al. (2000). “America’s Childcare
Kozol, J. (2006). The Shame of a Nation. New York: Crisis: A Crime Prevention Tragedy.” Fight Crime:
Broadway Books. Invest in Kids.
Krashen, S. (2011). Free Voluntary Reading. Santa Robinson, R. (2014). Kids and Family Reading
Barbara, CA.: Libraries Unlimited. Report. New York: Scholastic. Retrieved from:
mediaroom.scholastic.com/kfrr
Lindsay, J. (2010). Children’s Access to Print Material
and Education-Related Outcomes: Findings Suitts, S. (2015). “A New Majority Research Bulletin:
from a Meta-Analytic Review. Naperville, IL: Low-Income Students Now a Majority in the
Learning Point Associates. Nation’s Public Schools.” Atlanta: Southern
Education Foundation.
McGill-Franzen, A., Ward, N., and Cahill, M. (2016).
“Summers: Some Are Reading, Some Are Not! It U.S. Department of Education. (1996). Reading
Matters.” The Reading Teacher. Vol 69(6). Literacy in the United States: Findings from the
IEA Reading Literacy Study. Washington, DC:
Mullis, I. V. S., and Martin, M. O. (2007). “Overview
National Center for Education Statistics.
of PIRLS 2006 Results.” Boston: International
Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement and TIMSS and Progress
in International Reading Literacy (PIRLS)
International Study Center.
ACCESS TO BOOKS 101

THE SUMMER SLIDE—OR
READING LEAP!
“Access to books together with family engagement and
teacher support enables all students to avoid the summer
slide and, instead, make a summer leap!”
—Dr. Ernest Morrel, Teachers College, Columbia University
KEY FINDINGS
> As McGill-Franzen (2016) notes, “Free self-selected books can improve student
reading performance and stop summer reading loss.” Indeed, access to books all
summer long can even create a summer reading leap (Morrell, 2016).
> The “summer slide” or “summer reading setback” is a simple reality for millions of
low-income children, often with devastating results. It means that every summer,
when school closes and these students no longer have access to books, they
lose ground as readers.
> The decline is especially dramatic for students who are the most economically
deprived (Allington and McGill-Franzen, 2013). The less economic support the
students have, the graver the consequences of the summer slide (McGill-Franzen,
2016; Shin and Krashen, 2008).
> Two-thirds of the achievement gap between lower- and higher-income youth
can be explained by unequal access to books (Alexander et al., 2007). At best,
students showed little or no academic growth over summer. At worst, students
lost one to three months of learning (Cooper et al., 2000; Kim, 2009).
> In addition, because the summer learning shortfall is cumulative (every summer,
lower-income students slip further behind), it has consequences that reverberate
throughout children’s schooling and can affect whether a child ultimately earns a
high school diploma and continues on to college (Alexander et al., 2007).
> Book distribution programs reveal the following (McGill-Franzen, 2016):

• Book ownership is more powerful than book lending programs.
• Providing parents with guidance demonstrates a high return on the investment.
• Providing teachers with professional development on how to most effectively
use trade books offers a robust return on investment.
• Inviting student choice seems to increase the positive effects of book
distribution, particularly on early reading skills (McGill-Franzen, 2016).
102 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

More to Know: The Challenge
Entwisle (1997) used a fall-to-spring assessment schedule and found that children who
were more economically advantaged added 47 raw score points over a five-year period
on summer vacation reading achievement tests during elementary school years, whereas
children from financially strapped homes added only one point. Entwisle developed
a “faucet theory” to explain the disparity. When the school faucet is turned on—that is,
when schools are in session—children of every economic background benefit roughly
equally, but when the school faucet is turned off, as during summer vacations, children
from economically advantaged families continue to develop their reading proficiency, and
economically disadvantaged children often do not.
Over a number of years, the accumulated summer loss adds up to a serious achievement
gap between children with means (and books) and children without. Hayes and Grether
(1983) estimated that as much as 80 percent of the reading achievement gap that existed
between economically advantaged and disadvantaged students at sixth grade could be
attributed to the summer setback. Alexander et al. (2007) and Allington and McGill-Franzen
(2010, 2013, 2016) report similar findings.
Allington and McGill-Franzen (2010) sum it up:
Each of these studies suggested that summer reading setback is a major contributor
to the existing reading achievement gap between more and less economically
advantaged children—reading activity is the only factor that consistently correlated
to reading gains during the summer.
SUMMER SLIDE— OR READING LEAP! 103

The Solution
• Research indicates that sending books home with children over the summer yields
greater achievement gains and is less expensive and less extensive than providing
summer school or engaging in comprehensive school reform (McGill-Franzen et al
2016; Allington and McGill-Franzen, 2013).
• Children who receive and read free books over the summer experience the
equivalent of attending three years of summer school—and the difference in fall
reading scores is twice as high among the poorest children in the study
(Allington and McGill-Franzen, 2013).
• When children are provided with 10 to 20 self-selected books at the end of the
school year, as many as 50 percent not only maintain their skills, but actually make
reading gains (Allington and McGill-Franzen, 2013).
• In addition, the Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report (2013) found:
— 99% of parents think children their child’s age should read over the summer.
— 86% of children say they read a book (or books) over the summer.
— On average, kids say they read 12 books over the summer.
Closing Thoughts
Summer readers also benefit from family reading support. Researchers James Kim
(2009) and Freddy Hiebert (2014) note that giving children books is essential, but so too is
providing the instructional scaffolding that children need to successfully read the books.
Both educators recommend that parents, with help from their children’s teachers, play an
active role in supporting and interacting with their children as readers.
104 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

References
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., and Olson, L. S. (2007). Hayes, D. P., and Grether, J. (1983). “The School Year
“Lasting Consequences of the Summer Learning and Vacations: When Do Students Learn?”
Gap.” American Sociological Review, Vol. 72(2). Cornell Journal of Social Relations. 17(1).
Retrieved from: www.nayre.org/Summer%20
Hiebert, F. (2014). Frank Views on Literacy and the
Learning%20Gap.pdf
Common Core. Santa Cruz: The Text Project.
Allington, R., and McGill-Franzen, A. (2013). Summer Retrieved from: textproject.org/library/books/
Reading: Closing the Rich/Poor Reading frank-views-on-literacy-learning-and-the-
Achievement Gap. New York: Teachers common-core
College Press.
Allington, R., and McGill-Franzen, A. (2010).

Kids and Family Reading Report. (2013). New
“Addressing Summer Reading Setback Among
York: Scholastic. Retrieved from: mediaroom.
Economically Disadvantaged Elementary
scholastic.com/kfr
Students,” Reading Psychology. Vol. 31(5).
Kim, J. (2009). “Summer Reading and Summer
Cooper, H., Charlton, K., Valentine, J. C., and
Not: Fighting the Summer Reading Slump.”
Muhlenbruck, L. (2000). “Making the Most
Retrieved from: www.uknow.gse.harvard.edu/
of Summer School: A Meta-analytic and
teaching/TC321.html
Narrative Review.” Monographs of the Society
for Research in Child Development. Vol. 65(1). McGill-Franzen, A., Ward, N., and Cahill, M. (2016).
Ann Arbor, MI: Society for Research in Child Summers: Some Are Reading, Some Are Not! It
Development. Matters. The Reading Teacher. Vol 69(6).
Entwisle, N. (1997). “Contrasting Perspectives on Shin, F., and Krashen, S. (2008). Summer Reading:
Learning.” In F. Marton, D. Hounsell, and N. Program and Evidence. Boston: Pearson.
Entwisle (Eds.), The Experience of Learning:
Implications for Teaching and Studying
in Higher Education. Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press.
SUMMER SLIDE— OR READING LEAP! 105

CLASSROOM LIBRARIES
“Rather than waiting for students to discover the joys
of the library, we must bring the books to the students.
Students need to be surrounded by interesting books
daily, not just on those occasional days when the
teacher takes them to the library.”
— Kelly Gallagher, high school English teacher and author
KEY FINDINGS
> “We need to offer children ‘surround sound’ reading. We need to give them the
time and space to read like super readers every day of the week, every week
of the month, every month of the year, in school and out of school” (Allyn and
Morrell, 2016).
> “Excellent classroom libraries, school libraries, and public libraries are the
cornerstone of a successful school reading program” (Routman, 2014).
> Elley (1992) examined reading data from 32 countries and found that those with
high student scores supported large classroom and school libraries—and also
provided students with easy access to books both at home and in the community.
In 2012, Krashen et al. demonstrated that access to books in school and public
libraries was a “significant predictor” of fourth-grade reading scores on both the
2007 NAEP and the 2006 PIRLS.
> “Students not only need to read a lot but they also need lots of enticing books
that they can read right at their fingertips. Teachers can foster wide reading by
creating school and classroom collections that provide a rich array of appropriate
books and magazines—and by providing time every day for children to actually sit
and read” (Allington, 2012).
> Students need enormous quantities of successful reading to become

independent, proficient readers (Atwell and Merkel, 2016; Worthy and Roser, 2010;
Gallagher, 2009; Kittle, 2013; Miller, 2009, 2013).
> Access to an abundance of books within the classroom results in increased

motivation and increased reading achievement (Kelley and Clausen-Grace, 2010;
Worthy and Roser, 2010; Guthrie, 2008; Routman, 2014).
106 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

More to Know: The Value of Book Floods
Children read
50-60% more
classrooms
in
with libraries
than they do in
classrooms
without libraries.
We’ve long known that quality libraries have a positive impact on students’ achievement
(McGill-Franzen and Botzakis, 2009; Gallagher, 2009; Constantino, 2008; Atwell and Merkel,
2016; Williams, Wavell, and Coles, 2001; McQuillan, 1998; Elley, 1992).
In their article “Productive Sustained Reading in Bilingual Class” (2010), researchers Jo

Worthy and Nancy Roser detail the ways in which they flooded a fifth-grade classroom
in a diverse, high-poverty school, located in a southwest state, with books (Elley, 2000;
Gallagher, 2009). Worthy and Roser spent a year monitoring and documenting the
students’ involvement with their new expansive classroom library and the opportunities it
provided for sustained reading both in school and at home. The results were impressive:
before the “book flood,” only 27 percent of the students had passed the state achievement
test as fourth-graders; after the book flood, all but one student passed the test and he
missed by just one point.
At the International Association of School Librarians Conference held in Auckland, New

Zealand, Ross Todd explored the relationship of libraries to academic achievement (2001).
A library’s impact is especially noteworthy when it serves as support for students’ inquiry
projects. Todd notes the outcomes when students are invited to follow a line of inquiry as
they develop their control of information literacy (a key requirement of the new, rigorous
standards across the grades). In this environment, students:
• Are better able to master content material.
• Develop more positive attitudes toward learning.
• Respond more actively to the opportunities in the learning environment.
• Are more likely to perceive themselves as active, constructive learners.
CLASSROOM LIBRARIES 107

As Todd notes, “the hallmark of a library in the 21st century is … the difference [it makes]
to student learning … [a library] contributes in tangible and significant ways to the
development of human understanding, meaning making, and knowledge construction.”
An analysis of data from the Progress in International Reading Literacy (PIRLS) to determine
whether school libraries can reduce the effect of poverty on reading achievement yields a
resounding yes. The results, together with other studies, confirm that:
• Variables related to libraries and reading are powerful predictors of reading test
scores—to some extent, access to libraries and books can even overcome the
challenges of poverty.
• One possible remedy to the socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement is to

make sure that children of low-income families have access to high-quality, age-
appropriate books. Having books facilitates children’s reading (Lindsay, 2010).
• A common feature of effective reading programs is student access to a wide variety

of appealing trade books and other reading materials (Allington, 2012).
• Highly effective literacy educators create print-rich classroom environments filled

with lots of high-quality, diverse reading materials (Gambrell, et al., 2007).
• Internationally, most fourth-grade students (89%) attended schools with libraries and had
classroom libraries (69%) (Overview of Progress in International Reading Literacy, 2007).
• Books are a vital component of a print-rich classroom environment (Wolfersberger,

Reutzel, Sudweeks, and Fawson, 2004).
• Wide reading is directly related to accessibility. The more books available and the
more time for reading, the more children will read and the better readers they will
become (Huck, Helpler, Hickman, and Kiefer, 1997).
• Fielding, Wilson, and Anderson (1988) concluded that children’s reading achievement,
comprehension, and attitude toward reading improve when their classrooms are filled
with trade books and their teachers encourage free reading.
• Large classroom and school libraries that provide ample collections of instructional-
level books (Scholastic recommends 1,500) play a key role in literacy learning
(Routman, 2014; Worthy and Roser; 2011; Gallagher, 2009; Miller, 2009, 2013; Atwell
and Merkel, 2016).
In sum, if our students are to embrace their reading lives, they need easy access to an
abundance of books across a wide range of genre, theme and topics. Veteran teacher
Kelly Gallagher (2009) explains:
108 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

Placing students in a daily book flood zone produces much more reading than
occasionally taking them to the library. There is something powerful about
surrounding kids with interesting books. I have 2,000 books in my room, and
because of this, my students do a lot more reading. Establishing a book flood is
probably the single most important thing I have done in my teaching career.
Students in classrooms with well-designed classroom libraries:
• Interact more with books.
• Spend more time reading.
• Demonstrate more positive attitudes toward reading.
• Exhibit higher levels of reading achievement. (National Assessment of

Educational Progress Report, 2005).
Closing Thoughts
Surrounding students with books in the classroom helps them develop a sense of
themselves as readers (Miller, 2013) by:
• Allowing students to value their decision-making ability.
• Fostering their capacity to choose appropriate literature.
• Giving them confidence and a feeling of ownership.
• Improving reading achievement.
• Encouraging them to become lifelong readers.
Books open a world of possible. As author Marva Allen writes (2014),
“Books open the door to worlds before unimagined.”
CLASSROOM LIBRARIES 109

References
Allen, M. (2014). “Caribbean Sky and My Home with Lindsay, J. (2010). Children’s Access to Print Material
Books.” In L. Bridges, (Ed.), Open a World of and Education-Related Outcomes: Findings
Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and Power From a Meta-Analytic Review. Naperville, IL:
of Reading. New York. Scholastic. Learning Point Associates.
Allyn, P., and Morrell, E. (2016). Every Child a Super McGill-Franzen, A., and Botzakis, S. (2009). “Series
Reader: 7 Strengths for Opening a World of Books, Graphic Novels, Comics and Magazines:
Possible. New York: Scholastic. Unauthorized Texts, Authorized Literacy
Practices.” In E. H. Hiebert (Ed.), Reading More,
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for
Reading Better. New York: Guilford.
Struggling Readers. New York: Addison-Wesley.
McQuillan, J. (1998). The Literacy Crisis: False
Atwell, N., and Merkel, A. (2016). The Reading Zone:
Claims and Real Solutions. Portsmouth, NH:
How to Help Kids Become Skilled, Passionate,
Heinemann.
Habitual, Critical Readers. New York: Scholastic.
Miller, D. (2013). Reading in the Wild. The Book
Beers, K. (2014). “Lost and Found.” In L. Bridges
Whisperer’s Keys to Cultivating Lifelong Reading
Habits. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Scholastic. Miller, D. (2009). The Book Whisperer: Awakening
the Inner Reader in Every Child. San Francisco:
Elley, W. (2000). “The Potential of Book Floods for
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Raising Literacy Levels.” International Review of
Education. Vol. 46(3/4). Oxenbury, H. (2014). “Saved by the Library.” In L.
Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real
Elley, W. (1992). How in the World Do Students
Read? The LEA Study of Reading Literacy. The
Hague, Netherlands: International Association
for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Neuman, S. (2014). “Love at First Sight.” In L. Bridges,
Gallagher, K. (2009). Readicide: How Schools Are
Killing Reading and What You Can Do About It.
Scholastic.
Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
Reading Clubs. (2005). “Understanding How
Gambrell, L., Morrow, L. M., and Pressley, M. (Eds.),
Classroom and Libraries Work: Research
(2007). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction.
Results.” New York: Scholastic. Retrieved
New York: Guilford.
from: www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/
Guthrie, J. (2008). Engaging Adolescents in understanding-how-classroom-libraries-work-
Reading. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Corwin. research-results
Huck, C. S., Hepler, S., Hickman, J., and Kiefer, B.Z. Routman, R. (2014). Read, Write, Lead. Breakthrough
(1997). Children’s Literature in the Elementary Strategies for Schoolwide Literacy Success.
School, Sixth Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Jacobs, Tom (2014). “Books in the Home Are Williams, D., Wavell, C., and Coles, L. (2001). “Impact
Strongly Linked to Academic Achievement.” of School Libraries on Achievement and
Pacific Standard: The Science of Society. Learning.” Retrieved from www4.rgu.ac.uk
Retrieved from: www.psmag.com/navigation/
Wolfersberger, H., Reutzel, R., Sudweeks, R., and
books-and-culture/books-home-strongly-
Fawson, P. (2004). “Developing and Validating the
linked-academic-achievement-82144
Classroom Literacy Environmental Profile: A Tool
Johnson, D., and Blair, A. (2003). “The Importance for Examining the ‘Print Richness’ of Elementary
and Use of Student Self-Selected Literature to Classrooms.” Journal of Literacy Research.
Reading Engagement in an Elementary Reading
Worthy, J., and Roser, N. (2010). “Productive
Curriculum.” Reading Horizons. Vol. 43(3).
Sustained Reading in a Bilingual Class.” In
Krashen, S., Lee, S., and McQuillan, J. (2010). “An Hiebert, E., and Reutzel, R., (Eds.), Revisiting
Analysis of the PIRLS (2006) Data: Can the Silent Reading: New Directions for Teachers
School Library Reduce the Effect of Poverty on and Researchers. Newark, DE: International
Reading Achievement?” CSLA Journal. Reading Association.
110 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

HOME LIBRARIES
“A home with books as an integral part of the way of life
encourages children to read for pleasure and encourages
discussion among family members about what they
have read, thereby providing children with information,
vocabulary, imaginative richness, wide horizons, and skills
for discovery and play.”
—Dr. Mariah Evans, professor of sociology, University of Nevada, Reno
KEY FINDINGS
> Conducted over 20 years, Evans, Kelley, Sikorac, and Treimand (2010) surveyed
more than 70,000 people across 27 countries and found that children raised in
homes with more than 500 books spent three years longer in school than children
whose parents had only a few books.
> Even a child who comes from a home with 25 books will, on average, complete
two more years of school than would a child from a home without any books at all
(Evans, et al., 2010).
> Research from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (Mullis and
Martin, 2007) shows a similar impact of books in the home. Surveying 215,000
students across 40 countries, PIRLS 2006 was one of the largest international
assessments of reading literacy ever undertaken.
> Students thrived as readers when they were from homes where their parents
enjoyed reading and read frequently, books were in abundance, and students
were engaged in literacy activities—from alphabet blocks to word games—from
an early age (Adams, 1990; Mullis and Martin, 2007).
> The only behavior measure that correlates significantly with reading scores is the
number of books in the home. An analysis of a national data set of nearly 100,000
United States school children found that access to printed materials—and not
poverty—is the “critical variable affecting reading acquisition” (McQuillan, 1998).
> Asking children to “show me your library” is powerful. Children think of themselves
as readers when they have books in their homes—changing the literacy dynamic
(Constantino, 2014).
HOME LIBRARIES 111

More to Know: The Thousand Book Project
Second- and third-grade teacher Justin Minkel found a way, with help from Scholastic, to
send 40 books home with every one of his students, almost all of whom were emerging
bilinguals from low-income homes without a single book in their homes. Minkel, who titled
his initiative “The Thousand Book Project” because he ultimately sent 1,000 books home
with his students, explains the results:
Each of the 25 children in my class received 40 books over the course of second
and third grade, for a total of 1,000 new books in their homes. The total cost for each
student’s home library was less than $50 each year, a small investment to move a
struggling reader from frustration to confidence. These 25 students made more
progress in their reading than I have experienced with any other class. By the end of
the project’s second year, they had exceeded the district expectation for growth by
an average of nine levels on the DRA and five points on the computerized Measures
of Academic Progress reading test. Increasing this number to 40 or more books had
far-reaching effects. Students’ fluency improved because the children could engage
in repeated readings of favorite “just right” books, and parents reported increased
time spent reading at home during weekends, holidays, and summer break. The
only incentive for this increase in reading time was intrinsic: the pleasure each child
felt in reading his or her own book, beloved as a favorite stuffed animal.
Closing Thoughts
Minkel notes that he’s learned four fundamental truths that enable him to do his job: he
builds a relationship with every child he teaches, listens carefully to what each child says,
laughs as much as possible, and finally: “To help kids develop a love of reading, put great
books in their hands. Then watch in amazement as their worlds change.”
References
Constantino, R. (2014). Retrieved from: Minkel, J. (2012). “The Home Library Effect:
www.accessbooks.net Transforming At-Risk Readers.” EdWeek
Retrieved from: www.edweek.org/tm/
Evans, M. D. R., Kelley, J., Sikorac, J., and Treimand,
articles/2012/06/12/tln_minkel.html
D. (2010). “Family Scholarly Culture and
Educational Success: Books and Schooling in Mullis, I. V. S., and Martin, M. O. (2007). “Overview
27 Nations.” Research in Social Stratification of PIRLS 2006 Results.” Boston: International
and Mobility. Vol. 28. Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement and TIMSS and PIRLS
Jacobs, Tom (2014). “Books in the Home Are
International Study Center.
Strongly Linked to Academic Achievement.”
Pacific Standards: The Science of Society. U.S. Department of Education. (1996). Reading
Retrieved from: www.psmag.com/navigation/ Literacy in the United States: Findings from the
books-and-culture/books-home-strongly- IEA Reading Literacy Study. Washington, DC:
linked-academic-achievement-82144 National Center for Education.
McQuillan, J. (1998). The Literacy Crisis: False Claims,

Real Solutions. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
112 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

GENRE AND TEXT TYPES
“Genres are containers for thinking. They help us to
orient ourselves to the kind of story we are hearing
and its purpose.”
—Pam Allyn, literacy advocate, educational leader, and author
KEY FINDINGS
> In order to become competent, literate members of society, students must be

able to navigate multiple genres (Lattimer, 2003).
> Children learn language, both oral and written, when they have a reason to use it.
Linguist M. A. K. Halliday (1973) argues that the explanation of how language works
should be grounded in a functional analysis, since language evolved as human
beings carried out certain critical functions. He also maintains that children are
motivated to develop language because it serves certain purposes or functions
for them.
> Learning written language is also driven by function and purpose. Nell Duke, et al.
(2012) argue that children learn the concept of genre when they have “compelling,
real-world purposes … to use genres” and then receive “instruction in genre
features and strategies to serve those purposes.”
> Language is inherently social; thus, genres enable social interaction. Genres
“develop and function to enable social interaction.” For example, in the context of
classroom talk, “teacher storytelling” is a genre used to socialize children—to help
them understand and accept cultural values and beliefs (Duke, et al., 2012).
> Genres or text types are broadly defined by their purpose. Even young children
recognize the difference between a cookbook recipe and the Bible, the TV Guide
and a storybook. (Duke et al., 2012). Children learn these genre differences as they
use language to navigate the world (Duke, 2014).
GENRE AND TEXT TYPES 113

More to Know: Language Is Functional
Today’s rigorous standards focus our attention on the functions of language, as there is
renewed interest and emphasis in the classroom on using language to accomplish specific
goals. These standards divide texts into two primary types: fiction and informational/
nonfiction. When students are working with fictional texts (Fuhler and Walther, 2007), they
are following and remembering multiple events in a story, summarizing texts, noticing and
remembering details of the setting, discussing the impact of the setting on characters,
and noting the perspective of the various characters as well as the narrator. Examples of
fictional genre include:
• Fables, folktales, and myths

• Realistic fiction
• Historical fiction
• Science fiction
• Poetry
• Drama
• Fantasy
• Fairy tales
When students are engaged with informational texts, on the other hand, they learn to
search for and use key information, to summarize a text, to draw inferences from a text, and
to use these inferences to explain the relationships between events and ideas. Examples of
informational texts include:
• Current events
• Biography, autobiography, memoirs
• Science
• History
• Functional texts
Of course, within these broad categories, there are many text types, or genres, each with
their own unique structure, vocabulary, and format. Which genre we choose to use typically
depends on both our purpose and our audience (Duke, 2014; Fountas and Pinnell, 2012).
To consider how purpose and audience influence genre and text type, consider literacy
researchers Armistead-Bennett, Duke, and Moses’ observation:
“A text written for the purpose of advertising a new car, for example, is fundamentally
different from a text written for the purpose of explaining how that car works, which is in
turn fundamentally different from a text that chronicles someone’s adventures driving that
car across the country” (2005).
114 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

These texts serve different purposes, are written for different situations, and feature
different characteristics, including text structure, presentational formats, design and layouts,
vocabulary, illustrations and graphics, and so forth.
Closing Thoughts
Genre research reveals that even young children are sensitive to differences in text format
and structure. Ask a four-year-old to write a shopping list for a trip to the grocery store and
she will inevitably create a vertical list, perhaps with numbers or bullet points before each
needed item (Harste, Woodward, and Burke, 1984). Even though the child is using pretend
writing to create her list, she demonstrates that she is well aware of the particular features
of “list-ness,” which typically include a vertical display of listed words or phrases (rather than
connected text) accentuated by bullet points (Duke and Purcell-Gates, 2003).
Finally, John Mayher (2001) reminds us that learning to read is a lifelong process. Over the
course of our lives, we’ll meet numerous texts that challenge our focus and comprehension
(computer programming manuals, tax forms, warranty tags, and the like). As Mayher notes,
“Reading is not something that one learns to do once in elementary school; it is a lifelong
process of growth as one meets the challenges of new texts.”
References
Bennett-Armistead, V. S., Duke, N. K., and Moses, A. Fuhler, C., and Walther, M. (2007). Literature Is Back!:
M. (2005). Literacy and the Youngest Learner: for Using the Best Books for Teaching Readers and
Educators of Children from Birth to Five. New Writers Across Genres. New York: Scholastic.
York: Scholastic.
Halliday, M. (1973). Explorations in the Functions of
Duke, N. (2014). Inside Information: Developing Language. London: Edward Arnold.
Powerful Readers and Writers through Project-
Harste, Woodward, and Burke. (1984). Language
Based Instruction. New York: Scholastic.
Stories and Literacy Lessons. Portsmouth, NH:
Duke, N., Caughlan, S., Juzwik, M., and Martin, Heinemann.
N. (2012). Reading and Writing Genre with
Lattimer, H. (2003). Thinking through Genre: Units of
Purpose in a K-8 Classroom. Portsmouth, NH:
Study in Reading and Writing Workshops 4–12.
Heinemann.
Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Duke, N. K., and Purcell-Gates, V. (2003). “Genres at
Mayher, J. (2001). “Welcome to the Planet of the
Home and at School: Bridging the Known to
Readers.” In Bonnie Ericson (Ed.), Teaching
the New.” The Reading Teacher. Vol. 57.
Reading in High School English Classes.
Fountas, I., and Pinnell, G. (2012). Genre Study: Urban, IL. NCTE.
Teaching with Fiction and Nonfiction Books.
GENRE AND TEXT TYPES 115

AUTHENTIC TEXTS AND
TEXT COMPLEXITY
“Read often. Mostly silent. Focus on knowledge.”
—Dr. Elfrieda (Freddy) Hiebert, president and CEO of TextProject
KEY FINDINGS
> Children deserve access to authentic texts—children’s literature or classroom

magazines that are written for a real purpose: to entertain, to inform, to instruct,
to persuade, etc. These are texts that invite active reading, robust problem-
solving, and deep analysis because they comprise compelling ideas and living
language—a fact well understood and promoted by cognitive psychologists and
education researchers for decades (Bridges, 2018).
> Al Azri and Al-Rashdi (2014) call authentic texts “vital” to language learning. Nuttall
(1996) agrees: “Authentic texts are motivating, because they are a proof that the
language is used for real-life purposes by real people.”
> Early literacy expert Lesley Morrow, who defines authentic texts as, “A stretch
of real language produced by a real speaker or writer for a real audience
and designed to convey a real message of some sort” (1977), also notes their
indispensable role in the early childhood classroom.
> Additionally, when it comes to supporting the needs of emerging bilinguals,

authentic texts are also much preferred. “Teachers of English are advised to
provide their students with different sources of authentic materials to increase
their interest and motivation because authentic materials are closer to students’
real life than non-authentic materials” (Baniabdelrahman, 2006).
> Authentic texts are never contrived; in other words, they aren’t texts that are written
or assembled for the sole purpose of teaching reading or delivering a set of skills.
They’re texts crafted by a real author, typically a skilled writer, who uses language
in which all four language systems are in place—graphophonemic, syntactic,
semantic, and pragmatic—to craft a story or develop an informational text.
116 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

KEY FINDINGS
> This authentic “complete language” makes it easier and more engaging for
children to read because real language is redundant and predictable, providing
natural scaffolding for the reader. When we tinker with language for instructional
purposes, attempting to “simplify” text such as by shortening each sentence,
removing clausal phrases, or using only phonetically regular vocabulary, we
compromise the integrity of authentic language and its natural scaffolding.
> Authentic texts are conceptually and linguistically rich (Sullivan and Brown,
2013; Kidd and Castano, 2013). They:
• Strengthen students’ analytical problem-solving ability.
• Spark their intellectual curiosity.
• Deepen their understanding of the world .
• Feed their imaginations.
• Expand their vocabularies.
• Build agency and their reading identity .
• Help them become better readers, writers, spellers, grammarians,
mathematicians, better human beings, and more compassionate
and engaged citizens.
More to Know: The Vocabulary in Authentic Texts

Authentic texts invite active reading, robust problem-solving, and deep analysis because
they comprise compelling ideas and living language. Again, the living language of
authentic texts is conceptually rich, and since children’s vocabulary and conceptual
knowledge of the world are largely shaped by reading, we want them to have access to
the richest texts possible. Children’s conception of the world is rooted in literature—they
learn about the world beyond their own homes and experiences through reading.
• Incidental word learning accounts for a large percentage of all new words learned.
Estimates are that each year children learn on average 3,000 words, only about 300 of
which are explicitly taught to them in school (Biemiller, 2001). As Hiebert writes in her
book, Learning Words and How They Work, “The development of a large vocabulary
comes from reading.”
• “One of the most enduring findings in reading research is the extent to which
student vocabulary knowledge relates to their reading comprehension” (Adams, 2011;
Hiebert, 2018). The larger and more complex student’s vocabulary, the easier it is to
comprehend more challenging texts.
AUTHENTIC TEXTS AND TEXT COMPLEXITY 117

• Children learn words that they experience. This is one of the clear benefits of reading
authentic texts—they expose children to words not normally heard in child-directed
speech. An analysis of a picture book database demonstrates that the vocabulary in
picture books includes many more rare, complex words (also known as Tier II and Tier
III words) than found in child-directed speech. Tier II and III words tend to be more
complex and cognitively challenging than common words and, therefore, provide
children with an opportunity to stretch their vocabulary (Adams, 2011; Hayes 1996),
• Making reading material for children easier—shortening the sentences and using
phonetically regular vocabulary—“denies students the very language, information, and
modes of thought they need most to move up and on” (Adams, 2011).
• In general, authentic text materials are intrinsically more interesting and more
stimulating in comparison to contrived texts, as authentic texts reflect the real culture,
knowledge, and values of the sociocultural community in which they were written
(Baniabdelrahman, 2005).
More to Know: Tackling Complex Texts

Language researcher Freddy Hiebert (2012) lists a set of teaching actions to help students
engage with complex texts and glean the support they need to develop as more capable
readers in control of even domain-specific, challenging texts. These teaching actions
include:
• Consistent opportunities with texts that support capacity with core vocabulary.
• Direct instruction that extends vocabularies in informational and narrative texts.
• Opportunities to increase reading stamina.
• Support in developing funds of knowledge (the background knowledge

necessary to comprehend the textual content).
Students’ ability to handle complex texts doesn’t necessarily develop in a linear fashion.
For example, if our students are deeply interested in humpback whales, their interest may
sustain them in a text on that topic that otherwise would be too challenging. In general,
teachers will want to look for ways to stretch students’ experience across a range of texts,
keeping in mind their students’ motivation, knowledge, prior reading, and the natural
redundancy of whole texts (Goodman and Bridges, 2014; Bridges, 2013).
What Is Close Reading?

Kylene Beers and Bob Probst (2013) offer a commonsense explanation: “Close reading
should suggest close attention to the text; close attention to the relevant experience,
thought, and memory of the reader; close attention to the responses and interpretations of
other readers; and close attention to the interactions among those elements.” They offer
five characteristics of close reading:
118 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

• It works with a short passage.
• The focus is intense.
• It will extend from the passage itself to other parts of the text.
• It should involve a great deal of exploratory discussion.
• It involves rereading.
To help students build capacity with increasingly complex texts and close reading across
both fiction and nonfiction, Hiebert (2011) recommends two corresponding goals:
• Undertake the close, attentive reading that lies at the heart of understanding and
enjoying complex works of literature.
• Perform the critical reading necessary to analyze the staggering amount of

information available digitally and in print.
Given the emphasis on close reading and rereading, many teachers are introducing
short texts into the reading menu. Shorter, challenging texts that elicit close reading and
rereading draw students from varying ability levels together in a close analysis of more
demanding texts. In this way, students can read and reread deliberately while they probe
and ponder the meanings of individual words, the order in which sentences unfold, and
the development of ideas over the course of the text. To this end, Atwell and Merkel (2016)
recommend poetry.
Closing Thoughts
Although experienced teachers have long engaged their students in a close reading
of texts, the ELA standards take close reading to a whole new level, maintaining that
reading requires “close scrutiny” of the text through reading and rereading. Teachers are
encouraged to guide lessons with a high percentage of text-dependent questions that
require students to use the author’s words and evidence drawn directly from the text
to support their responses. Students are invited to meld the structure of a work with its
meaning, while also paying special attention to the unique features of each text, including,
in the case of nonfiction, such structural elements as headings, sidebars, graphics, captions,
and quick-read essential facts (Lehmann and Roberts, 2013; Robb, 2013).
Still, Beers and Probst (2013) caution: text complexity and close reading is not just about
Lexile levels and the “four corners of the page.” It’s the transaction between the reader and
the text that not only creates meaning but creates the reason to read. For this reason, Beers
and Probst suggest that the key is prompting students to ask their own questions, to live
inside the text, noticing everything, questioning everything, and weighing everything they
are reading against their lives, the lives of others, and the world around them.

References
Adams, M. (2011). Advancing Our Students’ Hayes, D. P., and Ward, M. (1992). “Learning from
Language and Literacy: The Challenge of Texts: Effects of Similar and Dissimilar Features
Complex Texts. American Educator. 3-11. of Analogies in Study Guides.” Paper presented
at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the National
Al Azri, R., and Al-Rashdi, M. (2014). The Effect Reading Conference, San Antonio.
of Using Authentic Materials in Teaching.
International Journal of Scientific and Hiebert, F. 2019). The Vocabulary Revolution.
Technology Research. Vol. 3(10). New York: Scholastic
Atwell, N. and Merkel, A. (2016). The Reading Zone: Hiebert, E. H. (2012). “The Common Core State
How to Help Kids Become Skilled, Passionate, Standards and Text Complexity.” In M. Hougen
Habitual, Critical Readers, Second Edition. New and S. Smartt (Eds.), Fundamentals of Literacy
York: Scholastic. Instruction and Assessment, Pre-K–6. Baltimore:
Paul Brookes Publishing.
Baniabdelrahman, A. (2006). The Effect of Using
Authentic English Language Materials on Hiebert, E. (2014). “Reading Rules for Becoming
EFL Students’ Achievement in Reading Proficient with Complex Texts.” Retrieved from:
Comprehension. Journal of Educational and .textproject.org/frankly-freddy/reading-rules-for-
Psychological Sciences. Vol. 7. becoming-proficient-with-complex-texts
Beers, K., and Probst, B. (2013). Notice and Note: Hiebert, E. The Text Complexity Project. Retrieved
Strategies for Close Reading. Portsmouth, NH: from textproject.org
Heinemann.
Kidd, D. C., and Castano, E. (2013). “Reading Literary
Biemiller, A. (2001). “Teaching Vocabulary: Early, Fiction Improves Theory of Mind.” Science. Vol.
Direct, and Sequential.” American Educator. 342.
Djikic, M., Oatley, K., and Moldoveanu, M. (2013). Klein, A. (2016). “The Compelling Why: Using Short
Reading Other Minds: Effects of Literature on Texts to Support Close Reading.” Scholastic
Empathy. Scientific Study of Literature. Vol. 3(1). Edublog. Retrieved from: edublog.scholastic.
com/post/compelling-why-using-short-texts-
Duke, N., Pearson, D., Strachan, S., and Billman, A. support-close-reading
(2011). “Essential Elements of Fostering and
Teaching Reading Comprehension.” In J. Krashen, S. (2011). Free Voluntary Reading. Santa
Samuels and A. Farstrup (Eds.), What Research Barbara, CA: Unlimited Libraries.
Has to Say About Reading Instruction, Fourth
Edition. Newark, DE: International Reading Lehman, C., and Roberts, K. (2013). Falling in Love
Association. with Close Reading: Lessons for Analyzing
Texts—and Life. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., and Lapp, D. (2012). Text
Complexity: Raising Rigor in Reading. Newark, Marinak, B., and Gambrell, L. (2016). No More
DE: International Reading Association. Reading for Junk. Best Practices for Motivating
Readers. Not This But That. Portsmouth, NH.
Haye, D., Wolfer, L., and Wolfe, M. (1996).
“Schoolbook Simplification and Its Relation
to the Decline in SAT-Verbal Skills.” American
Educational Research Journal. Vol. 33(2).
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Mol, S., and Bus, S. (2011). “To Read or Not to Read: A
Meta-Analysis of Print Exposure from
Infancy to Early Adulthood.” Psychological
Bulletin. American Psychological Association.
Vol. 137(2).
Morrow, K. (1977). “Authentic Texts and ESP.” In

S. Holden (Ed.), English for Specific Purposes.
Modern English Publications.
National Endowment of the Arts (2007). To Read

or Not To Read: A Question of National
Consequence. Research Report #47.
Washington, DC.
Nuttall, C. (1996) Teaching Reading Skills in a

Foreign Language (New Edition). Oxford:
Robb, L. (2013). Unlocking Complex Texts:

A Systematic Framework for Building
Adolescents’ Comprehension. New York:
Scholastic.
Stenner, A. J., Koons, H., and Swartz, C. W.
Text Complexity and Developing Expertise in
Reading. Chapel Hill, NC.
Sullivan, A., and Brown, M. (2013). Social Inequalities
in Cognitive Scores at Age 16: The Role of
Reading. London: Centre for Longitudinal
Studies.

NONFICTION
“I was absolutely gobsmacked. In Volume 1 (A to Anno)
alone, I could learn about abbeys, aerial navigation, Africa,
and angling.”
—Dr. Elfrieda (Freddy) Hiebert, president and CEO of TextProject
KEY FINDINGS
> Nonfiction texts—informational because they impart facts—serve innumerable

functions, come in dozens and dozens of genres and formats, and reflect a
dazzling array of structural patterns and design features (Duke, 2012, 2014).
> Beers and Probst (2016) define nonfiction as “that body of work in which the
author purports to tell us about the real world, a real experience, a real person, an
idea, or a belief.”
> Language researcher Nell Duke (2014) maintains that the best way to help
students build skills in reading and writing major informational text types—
informative/explanatory persuasive, opinion procedural/how-to nonfiction
narrative, and biography—is through project-based instruction. Children read and
write for real purposes and real audiences on topics that matter to them.
> There may be no better, more efficient way to build world knowledge and an
extensive vocabulary than processing lots and lots of informational texts. Since
informational texts are written to convey key facts about the natural and social
world and often contain a highly specialized vocabulary, they provide a jump start
to building both a robust vocabulary and wide-ranging conceptual knowledge for
even very young children (Duke and Carlisle, 2011).
> Informational texts are often discontinuous in nature; that is, unlike sentences
and paragraphs inside a narrative text, they may stand alone—not part of a rich
semantic network of connected sentences. And this discontinuity may well alter
the ways in which comprehension unfolds—hence, the need to immerse students
in informational texts and give them the opportunity to explore (Bestgen and
Vonk, 1999).
> The quality of nonfiction in recent years has increased tenfold. Now our students
can feast on beautifully written, full-of-voice books replete with stunning
illustrations and intriguing graphics (Duke, 2014).
122 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

More to Know: The Benefits of Informational Texts
An infusion of informational texts—particularly about topics that stoke students’ interests—
may be the easiest way to build students’ conceptual knowledge and vocabulary base,
which is essential for comprehension in general (Duke and Carlisle, 2011)—and this may
be especially true for challenged readers and emerging bilinguals who can benefit from
informational texts in ways not possible with fiction. Vulnerable readers or new-to-English
readers may be challenged by their developing English vocabularies, making processing
complex fictional narratives difficult. Informational texts feature headers, labels, sidebars,
and diagrams that scaffold readers, enabling them to more easily navigate the text and
access the content. Not surprisingly, many students prefer to read informational texts. This
may be truer than ever, given its abundance, particularly in a digital format, and may also be
especially true for boys (Allyn, 2011).
Indeed, as Fountas and Pinnell (2012) explain, all readers need the reading workout that
nonfiction offers:
As students process nonfiction texts, they learn to adjust their reading according
to the purpose, style, and type of text. This flexibility expands their reading ability.
Complex nonfiction texts present a challenge to students partly because of their
great variety and also because of the many ways writers can crafts texts to provide
information. It takes many years for readers to become skilled in reading the various
genres and types of nonfiction texts.
In general, reading lots of nonfiction—and learning to navigate different informational

text types and formats—is the best way to learn how to access, use, and apply nonfiction
genres. Furthermore, nonfiction may be our best and most efficient way to build “world
knowledge and an extensive vocabulary. Informational texts are written “to convey key
facts about the natural and social world” (Duke and Carlisle, 2011). To that end, they often
reflects a highly specialized, domain-specific vocabulary, helping teens develop a robust
vocabulary and wide-ranging conceptual knowledge (Fountas and Pinnell, 2012).
Because nonfiction texts can also be literary, they provide our young teens with superb
models of exquisite language. For example, nonfiction writers may “employ many of the
techniques of the writer’s craft: figurative language, lyrical description, unique or surprising
comparisons, and interesting ways of organizing and presenting information” (Fountas and
Pinnell, 2012).
Duke (2014) reminds us that to do the “hard cognitive work of informational text.” Students
need “compelling purposes and contexts for informational reading and writing.”
NONFICTION 123
Closing Thoughts
Informational texts—defined by literacy researcher Nell Duke (2014) as texts that convey
information about the natural or social world and feature particular linguistic components to
accomplish that purpose—may well be the key to academic success. Children who become
familiar with informational texts at an early age are more likely to demonstrate stronger
academic success in fourth grade and beyond when they begin to encounter textbooks
and other informational texts. More than ever, since our lives are informed, shaped, and
even driven by informational texts, it seems wise to introduce children to informational texts
from the very beginning of their schooling career. The following is adapted from Duke and
Bennett-Armistead, 2003:
• Informational Texts Are Ubiquitous in American Society

Indeed, 96% of the text on the Web is informational, and adults tend to focus on
expository text. Given our increasingly information-oriented economy, the emphasis
on informational texts is only likely to increase. As we work to prepare our students for
the world beyond school, we need to consider how best to help them read and write
informational texts right from the beginning.
• Informational Texts Differ in Profound Ways from Fictional Narrative—

Structurally, Linguistically, and Graphically
In fact, the ways in which we navigate informational texts, which are often non-
continuous (think of schedules and maps), requires experience and skill (Beers and
Probst, 2016; Duke 2014; Fountas and Pinnell, 2012). You can help children learn their
way around informational texts by using the same instructional structures that you use
for the interactive read-aloud, book clubs, and everyday literacy.
• Informational Text Builds Vocabulary and Other Kinds of Literary Knowledge

The vocabulary found in informational texts differs significantly from that typically
found in narrative, and—because it may be technical since it is related to the content
of informational texts—it may be unfamiliar to children (Duke and Kays, 1998; Hiebert,
2006). Because vocabulary and reading comprehension are strongly related (Bauman,
2009), children benefit from the exposure to the language of informational text. For this
reason, “Informational texts may be particularly well-suited to building children’s word
knowledge.”
• Informational Texts Build Wide-Ranging Knowledge of the World

Children also benefit from the wide-ranging world knowledge that informational
texts provide. Comprehension is strongly influenced by what one knows (Duke and
Pearson, 2002), thus proficient readers tend to have more expansive world knowledge.
Again, we see the benefits of introducing even young children to content-rich
informational texts (Duke and Carlisle, 2011).
124 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

• I nformational Texts Are Preferred Reading Materials for Many Children
Jobe and Dayton-Sakari (2002) coined the term “Info-Kids” to describe those kids who
prefer informational texts to fictional. Including more informational texts in classrooms
may improve attitudes toward reading and even serve as a catalyst for overall literacy
development. Not surprisingly, then, approaches that emphasize reading for the
purpose of addressing real questions that children have about their world tend to lead
to higher achievement and motivation (Guthrie, 2008). Including more informational
texts in the primary classrooms may help us address the interests and questions of
more of our students.
References
Allyn, P. (2011). Books for Boys. New York: Scholastic. Duke, N., and Bennett-Armistead, S. (2003).
Reading and Writing Informational Text in the
Beers, K., and Probst, R. (2016). Reading Nonfiction. Primary Grades. New York: Scholastic.
Notice and Note Stances, Signposts, and
Strategies. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Duke, N., and Kays, J. (1998). “Can I Say ‘Once Upon
a Time’? Kindergarten Children Developing
Beers, K. (2014). “Lost and Found.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Knowledge of Information Book Language.”
Open a World of Possible: Real Stories About Early Childhood Research Quarterly. Vol. 132.
Scholastic. Fountas, I., and Pinnell, G. (2012). Comprehension
Clubs. New York: Scholastic.
Bestgen, Y., and Vonk, W. (1999). “Temporal
Adverbials as Segmentation Markers in Guthrie, J. (2008). Engaging Adolescents in
Discourse Comprehension. Journal of Memory Reading. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
and Language. Vol. 42.
Jobe, R., and Dayton-Sakari, M. (2002). Info-Kids:
Duke, N. (2014). Inside Information: Developing How to Use Nonfiction to Turn Reluctant
Powerful Readers and Writers of Informational Readers into Enthusiastic Learners. Markham,
Text through Project-Based Instruction. New Ontario: Pembroke.
York: Scholastic.
Pinnell, G., and Fountas, I. (2011). “Everyday Literacy
Duke, N., Caughlan, S., Juzwik, M., and Martin, Every Day. Retrieved from: http://teacher.
N. (2012). Reading and Writing Genre with scholastic.com/products/fountas-pinnell-real-
Purpose in a K-8 Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: life-reading/research-base.htm
Heinemann.
Duke, N., and Carlisle, J. (2011). “The Development

of Comprehension.” In M. Kamil et al. (Eds.),
Handbook of Reading Research, Volume Four.
New York: Routledge.
NONFICTION 125
FICTION
“Great stories are not only measured by how compelling the
characters or dilemmas are; the true test is how they help us
understand our deepest selves and our relationship to the
world and others around us.”
—Farin Houk, founder and head of Seattle Amistad School
KEY FINDINGS
> Stories help [students] make connections to both unique and shared experiences
and to other points of view (Gallagher, 2014).
> Fiction makes us more empathic human beings (Djikic, Oatley, and Modovenanu,
2013; Oatley, 2014).
> Reading Harry Potter reduces prejudice. “Results from one experimental
intervention and two cross-sectional studies show that reading the Harry Potter
novels improves attitudes toward stigmatized groups among those more
identified with the main positive character and those less identified with the main
negative character. We also found evidence for the role of perspective taking as
the process allowing the improvement of out-group attitudes” (Vezzali, et al., 2014).
> “In 2013, an influential study published in Science found that reading literary
fiction improved participants’ results on tests that measured social perception
and empathy, which are crucial to ‘theory of mind’—the ability to guess with
accuracy what another human being might be thinking or feeling, a skill humans
only start to develop around the age of four” (Dovey, 2015).
> “Fiction and poetry are doses, medicines,” the author Jeanette Winterson has
written. “What they heal is the rupture reality makes on the imagination”
(Dovey, 2015).
> “Fiction opens our minds to the creative process, enhances our vocabulary,
influences our emotions, and strengthens our cognitive functions” (Oatley, 2014).
> For many, fiction is the gateway to proficient reading because it’s fiction, so often,
that encourages avid, voluminous reading (Gaiman, 2013).
126 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

More to Know: Fiction Lets Us Be More
Kylene Beers notes that although nonfiction helps us learn more, fiction lets us be more.
Author Neil Gaiman (2013) suggests two profound reasons this might be so. First, for many
readers, fiction is the doorway to proficient reading:
The drive to know what happens next, to want to turn the page, the need to keep
going, even if it’s hard, because someone’s in trouble, and you have to know how
it’s all going to end … that’s a very real drive. And it forces you to learn new words, to
think new thoughts, to keep going. To discover that reading per se is pleasurable.
Once you learn that, you’re on the road to reading everything.
And we know that avid, voluminous readers possess a deep knowledge of the world as
they encounter—through their wide reading—events, people, and issues well beyond the
narrow confines of their own lived experience.
Second, fiction develops empathy—and there’s research to prove it. Djikic, Oatley, and
Moldoveanu (2013) found that their research participants, who were frequent fiction readers,
had higher scores on a measure of empathy. The results suggest “a role for fictional
literature in facilitating development of empathy.” Again, Gaiman weighs in:
Prose fiction is something you build up from 26 letters and a handful of punctuation
marks, and you … using your imagination, create a world and people it and look out
through other eyes. You get to feel things, visit places and worlds you would never
otherwise know. You learn that everyone else out there is a “me” as well. You’re
being someone else, and when you return to your own world, you’re going to be
slightly changed. …You’re also finding out something as you read vitally important
for making your way in the world. And it’s this: The world doesn’t have to be like this.
Things can be different.
Indeed, the key point is that we can be different; fiction moves us to change—not just to
have a more expansive understanding of the world—but our personal reality. Who would
have thought brain scans and fiction could work together to tell a story, but that’s just what
cognitive scientist Keith Oatley’s research has done. He explains:
Brain scans are revealing what happens in our heads when we read a detailed
description, an evocative metaphor, or an emotional exchange between characters.
Stories … stimulate the brain and even change how we act in life.
That’s because our brains are, in a sense, fooled—they aren’t able to differentiate between
the fictional experience and the real-life event. What’s more, the social experiences we
encounter through a character’s point of view help ready us for social interactions with the
real people in our lives:
FICTION 127
Fiction is particularly useful simulation because negotiating the social world
effectively is extremely tricky, requiring us to weigh up myriad interacting instances
of cause and effect. Just as computer simulations can help us get to grips with
complex problems such as flying a plane or forecasting the weather, so novels,
stories, and dramas can help us understand the complexities of social life
(Oatley, 2014).
What About Literary/Textual Analysis?

Higher reading standards maintain that the deep work of reading should include textual
analysis, a method of criticism that analyzes the details of texts in order to reveal their
structure and meaning. In fiction, we examine literary elements such as plot, setting,
character, theme, and figurative language to dig deeper into our interpretation of the
text. In nonfiction, we investigate domain-specific vocabulary and text features, such as
photographs and illustrations, graphs, maps, sidebars, inset boxes, timelines, and captions.
Although textual/literary analysis may enhance our students’ appreciation and enjoyment
of reading, it also promotes the high-level, critical comprehension that is essential across
all aspects of life and career—it’s an essential workout for learning how to think.
Literature expert Dr. Glenna Sloan (2003) explains the central role of fictional literature—and
literary analysis—in our lives:
The aim of the study of literature is not to develop professional reviewers, scholars,
or researchers. The aim is more fully developed human beings. Genuine criticism is
a systematic study that treats literature as an art. It involves talking about literature
in a way that will build up a systematic structure of knowledge of literature, taking
the student beyond the subjectivity of his experience out into a wider, more
comprehensive world.
Knowing how to enter and navigate this wider, more comprehensive world requires close
reading and rereading, taking notes, and asking questions. It also means understanding
the structure of fiction and nonfiction and how the two text types work, and learning
to understand and use the language of textual analysis. Such explicit analysis can be
demanding; however, it’s also exhilarating as children learn to dig deep into a text and
consider why and how an author has chosen specific words, stretched sentences and
syntax just so, presented information in a particular graphic format, and released characters
into unique settings and circumstances to create a world on a page that elicits a particular
response in each reader (Beers and Probst, 2013).
Students learn how to analyze increasingly complex texts across the spectrum of literary
and textual elements with thoughtful teacher support and precise instruction delivered at
the point of need. As Carol Jago reminds us, if we want our students to have the stamina to
read complex texts and achieve high-level comprehension, we need to help our students
“increase their capacity to concentrate and contemplate” (2011). To that end, having access
128 CHAPTER 4: TEXT

to the tools of textual analysis—and whole text, both fiction and nonfiction—is an essential
first step (Seravallo, 2012; 2013).
Closing Thoughts
Kidd and Comer (2013) note the role of fiction to “promote social welfare,” such as
developing empathy in doctors and life skills in prisoners. Fiction has been, of course, the
mainstay of secondary English coursework. For this reason, some question the push-away
from fiction to embrace as much as 70 percent nonfiction in high school. Kidd and Comer
end with this challenge:
Debates over the social value of types of fiction and the arts more broadly are
important, and it seems critical to supplement them with empirical research. These
results show that reading literary fiction may hone adults’ ToM [Theory of the Mind],
a complex and critical social capacity.
References
Allington, R. (2014). “Imagining Life in Another Time.” Jago, C. (2011). With Rigor for All. Portsmouth, NH:
In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible. Heinemann.
Reading. New York: Scholastic. Kidd, D., and Castano, E. (2013). “Reading Literary
Fiction Improves Theory of the Mind.” Science.
Beers, K., and Probst, B. (2017). Disrupting Thinking: Vol. 342.
Scholastic. Oatley, K. (2014). On Fiction. Retrieved from: https://
sites.google.com/site/onfiction/home
Beers, K., and Probst, B. (2013). Notice and Note:
Strategies for Close Reading. Portsmouth, NH: Serravallo, J. (2012, 2013). The Independent Reading
Heinemann. Assessment. New York: Scholastic.
Djikic, M., Oatley, K., and Moldoveanu, M. (2013). Sloan, G. (2003). The Child as Critic: Developing
“Reading Other Minds: Effects of Literature on Literacy through Literature, Fourth Edition. New
Empathy.” Scientific Study of Literature. Vol. 3(1), York: Teachers College Press.
Dovey, C. (2015. “Can Reading Make You Happier?” Smith, M. (2014). “The Great Heartedness of Books.”
The New Yorker. In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible.
Gaiman, N. (2013). “Why Our Future Depends Reading. New York: Scholastic.
on Libraries, Reading, and Daydreaming.”
The Guardian. Stipek, D. (2014) “The Light in My Hands.” In L.
Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible. Real
Gallagher, K. (2014). “From Aquaman to Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading.
Shakespeare.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World New York: Scholastic.
Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic. Vezzali, L., Stathi, S., Giovannini, D., Capozza, D., and
Trifiletti, E. (2014). “The Greatest Magic of Harry
Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Explorations in the Functions Potter: Reducing Prejudice.” Journal of Applied
of Language. London: Edward Arnold Publishers. Social Psychology. Retrieved from: onlinelibrary.
wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jasp.12279/pdf
FICTION 129
Did you know?
Based on their meta-analysis of
42
EMPIRICAL CLASSROOM STUDIES,
researchers found that talk about text benefits

student comprehension and learning.
The central and most important goal of reading

instruction is to foster a love of reading.
—Dr. Linda Gambrell, distinguished professor of education,

Clemson University

Chapter 5
TEACH
> Interactive Read-Aloud
> Guided Reading
> Text Sets
> Facilitated Book Clubs
> Reading and Writing Connections
CHAPTER 5: TEACH 131

INTERACTIVE READ-ALOUDS
IN THE CLASSROOM
“If we wish to help children and adolescents become
thoughtfully literate, classroom talk around texts is critical.”
—Dr. Richard Allington, University of Tennessee
KEY FINDINGS
> After evaluating 10,000 research studies, the U.S. Department of Education’s
Commission on Reading issued a report, Becoming a Nation of Readers (1985).
It states: “The single most important activity for building the knowledge required
for eventual success in reading is reading aloud to children.” The study found
conclusive evidence supporting reading aloud in the home and in the classroom.
Adults need to read aloud to children not just when children can’t yet read on
their own, but across all the grade levels (Anderson et al., 1985).
> Just as the name suggests, the read-aloud is truly interactive. As teachers read
aloud to children, they stop only briefly and just a few times so as not to lose the
momentum of the story. At the same time, teachers invite children to participate,
make comments, extend the ideas of the author, and ask and respond to
questions. In this way, children build more intricate networks of meaning than they
could have accomplished on their own (Scharer et al. 2018).
> Researchers maintain that one of the most valuable aspects of the read-aloud is
the experience it gives young children with decontextualized language, requiring
them to make sense of ideas that are about something beyond the here and now
(Beck and McKeown, 2001).
> The interactive read-aloud builds student vocabulary (Beck and McKeown, 2001),
comprehension strategies, story schema (Scharer et al., 2018; Lever, and Sénéchal,
2011), and concept development (Wasik and Bond, 2001; Bennett-Armistead,
Duke, and Moses, 2005).
> Simply inviting children to talk during interactive read-alouds doesn’t provide the
needed learning boost. It’s the close reading—and deep, intentional conversation
about the text—that makes the difference (Scharer et al., 2018; Bennett-Armistead,
Duke, and Moses, 2005; Pinnell and Fountas, 2011; Cunningham and Zilbusky, 2014).
132 CHAPTER 5: TEACH

More to Know: The Learning Potential of the
Interactive Read-Aloud
Wasik and Bond (2001) investigated the learning potential of the interactive read-aloud.
Their study, which included 121 four-year-old children from low-income families (94 percent
of whom were African American), engaged the treatment group in interactive book reading
and extension activities. The interactive read-aloud included defining vocabulary words,
providing opportunities for children to use words from the books, asking open-ended
questions, and giving children the chance to talk and be heard.
Children enter school able to think and reason about the world in situations that make
sense to them. In school, however, they learn to think and reason in “disembedded
contexts”—to use symbol systems and deal with representations of the world. The control
teachers received all the books that treatment teachers did. These books were read
as often in control classrooms as they were in treatment classrooms; however, control
teachers did not receive the interactive read-aloud training that treatment teachers did.
For the first four weeks of the intervention, an experienced teacher modeled the shared
book reading techniques in each treatment classroom and assisted with reading extension
activities. For the next 11 weeks, treatment teachers ran the program on their own. At post-
test, treatment classes scored significantly higher on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary than
control classes did. Treatment classes also scored significantly higher on their knowledge
of target vocabulary words. Classroom observations found that teachers in the treatment
group were significantly more likely than control teachers to use the target words during
related activities.
The Power of Talk

Just at the name suggests, the read-aloud is truly interactive. As teachers read aloud to
their students, they invite them to participate, make comments, extend the ideas of their
peers, evaluate the author’s point of view, and ask and respond to questions. In ways that
are akin to an orchestra conductor, teachers orchestrate the conversation, which may
include asking their students to “turn and talk” with a neighbor about their thinking (Harvey
and Ward, 2017; Hoyt, 2007). As students follow their teacher’s modeling and participate in
safe, scaffolded book conversations, students quickly learn how to comment, critique, and
claim their own thoughts beyond the usual “I liked it” or “I didn’t like it.” In this way, students
build a more intricate network of meaning than they could have accomplished on their own
(Scharer et al., 2018; Laminack, 2016; Laminack and Wadsworth, 2006; Whitehurst et al., 1992;
Purcell-Gates, McIntyre, and Freppon, 1995).
INTERACTIVE READ-ALOUDS IN THE CLASSROOM 133

During an interactive read-aloud, students learn how to:
• Focus on the text.
• Use suitable words when talking about a text.
• Listen actively and respect others’ ideas.
• Build on others’ comments.
• Back up their opinions with evidence from the text.
Through active participation, students learn that they are expected to respond to one
another’s comments; indeed, the expectation is clear: everyone participates.
The Research behind the Interactive Read-Aloud

Known as dialogic or interactive, read-alouds result in student gains in vocabulary (Bennett-
Armistead, 2007), comprehension strategies and story schema (Van den Broek, 2001), and
concept development (Wasik and Bond, 2001; Scharer et al., 2018). Close reading, textual
analysis, and deep, intentional conversation about the text (Dickinson and Smith, 1994;
Scharer et al., 2018; Lehman and Roberts, 2013) draw students into the text. Fountas and
Pinnell invite students to think deeply about text using a three-part framework: thinking
within the text, beyond the text, and about the text.
The Interactive Read-Aloud: Vital Support

for Middle School Students
While the interactive read-aloud is widely regarded as an ideal instructional strategy for
younger children, it offers vital, indispensable support for readers of all ages—including
secondary students. Maureen McLaughlin, past president of the International Reading
Association (2013-14), writes:
As teachers, we can read aloud to students beginning in the early grades and
continuing right through high school and on to the university level. Interactive read-
alouds and related discussions engage students, increase understanding,
and stimulate higher-order thinking.
Literacy educators Frank Serafini and Cyndi Giorgis, authors of Reading Aloud and
Beyond: Fostering the Intellectual Life of Older Readers (2003), also champion the read-
aloud for middle schoolers. They note that the read-aloud supports both reading and
writing development and fosters a love of reading. They write, “Reading aloud is just as
important for older readers as it is for younger ones and should occur every day, into the
intermediate-grade classrooms and beyond.” Middle school teacher Jamie Marsh, writing
with co-author Linda Ellis (2007), agrees:

“Reading aloud should never end in elementary school. Reading gets more complex as
students move up through the grades and the expectations we have of them as readers
continue to grow. This is important teaching—modeling what good readers do naturally, then
sending students out to read with those models fresh in their minds. It builds the enthusiasm
for reading and the skills and strategies needed to become readers who get lost in a book.”
Short and Extended Texts

And though we may be more familiar with reading aloud chapter books with older
students, Scharer et al., (2018) remind us of the power of short texts, including picture
books, for readers of all ages:
We advocate using beautiful, content-rich, age- and grade-appropriate picture

books—short stories or poetry or short informational pieces illustrated with beautiful
art—as a foundation for thinking, talking, and writing.
Secondary teacher Penny Kittle depends on both read-alouds and book talks—often
with short texts—as the best way to lure her students into reading and convince them to
become readers with their own rich and fulfilling reading lives. In her tribute to the joy of
reading—Book Love: Developing Depth, Stamina, and Passion in Adolescent Readers
(2013)—she reminds us that “reading aloud is the most important foundation in teaching
writing.” She frequently reads aloud poetry and other short texts as a way to help her
students learn to crack open and analyze a text with their own writing in mind.
What the Read-Aloud Accomplishes

The interactive read-aloud is multifaceted. It lends itself to both extended chapter books as
well as short texts such as poetry, magazine articles, and short stories—and it offers a range
of benefits to all readers. Laminack (2016) demonstrates that the interactive read-aloud
accomplishes multiple, essential instructional goals simultaneously by:
• Drawing all students into the text.
• Capturing the interest of disengaged readers.
• Expanding students’ reading horizons by exposing them to new books,

authors, and genres.
• Furnishing background information.
• Refining students’ understanding of texts—genre, format, literary elements,

text structures, and features.
• Promoting inquiry.
• Teaching essential strategic reading actions.
• Encouraging students to view topics from multiple perspectives.
• Improving listening comprehension.

• Building academic vocabulary.
• Deepening comprehension.
• Modeling all aspects of thinking, talking, and writing about reading.
• Demonstrating fluent reading.
• Building an intellectual classroom community of readers.
• Introducing and modeling collaborative conversations.
• Addressing the requirements of the new rigorous standards.
• Fostering a lifelong love of reading.
Closing Thoughts
At the beginning of The Ultimate Read-Aloud Resource (2016), Lester Laminack addresses
teachers directly and encapsulates the heart of the interactive read-aloud:
You are the front line in the work of leading children to fall in love with language
and literature as they become readers and writers. You are the ones who select the
books, who set the tone of the experience, who lure children into a web of texts of
all kinds. As teachers you are the daily dose of read aloud. Your voices are the ones
that linger in the minds of children as they romp around on the playground, stand
in line for lunch, or load onto the bus and head for home at the end of the day. You
are the ones who introduce new topics and revisit favorite authors and illustrators or
bring in new ones. You are the ones who deepen children’s understanding of genre
and open the doors to new ways of looking at life and the world around us.
And kindergarten teacher Aeriale Johnson (2018) reminds us that as “professional

educators, we have a lot of power. We can use it to limit children to our narrow paradigms,
or we can respect their intellectual capacity and fullness as human beings and invite them
to co-create a cultural landscape in our classrooms wherein books are valued as friends.
We can model, even with our youngest readers, through thoughtful read-alouds, how our
book friends render feelings of comfort and joy and provide safe spaces within which
children and adults alike can find independence, interdependence, and growth. As one of
my students said: “Reading is better than food.”

References
Albright, L., and Ariail, M. “Tapping the Potential Laminack, L., and Wadsworth, R. (2006). Learning
of Teacher Read-Alouds in Middle School.” Under the Influence of Language and
Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy. Literature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Vol. 48(7).
Lehman, C., and Roberts, K. (2013). Falling in Love
Anderson, R, Hiebert, E., Scott, J., and Wilkinson, with Close Reading: Lessons for Analyzing
I. (1985). Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Texts—and Life. Portsmouth, NH. Heinemann.
Report on the Commission of Reading.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Lever, R., and Sénéchal, M. (2011). “Discussing
Education. Stories: How a Dialogic Reading Intervention
Improves Kindergarteners’ Oral Narrative
Beck, I., McKeown, M., and Kucan, L. (2002). Construction.” Journal of Experimental Child
Bringing Words to Life. New York: The Guilford Psychology. Vol. 108.
Press.
McLaughlin, M. (2013). “Read-Alouds and
Cunningham, A., and Zibulsky, J. (2014). Book Recreational Reading Always! Round-Robin
Smart. How to Develop and Support Reading Never!” Reading Today. Newark, DE:
Successful, Motivated Readers. New York: International Reading Association.
Miller, D., and Kelly, S. (2014). Reading in the Wild:
Ellis, L., and Marsh, J. (2007). Getting Started: The Book Whisperer’s Keys to Cultivating
The Reading-Writing Workshop, Grades 4-8. Lifelong Reading Habits. San Francisco:
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Jossey-Bass.
Fountas, I., and Pinnell, G. (2009). Genre Study: Purcell-Gates, V., McIntyre, E., and Freppon, P.
Teaching with Fiction and Nonfiction Books. 1995. “Learning Written Storybook Language
New York: Scholastic. in School: A Comparison of Low-SES
Children in Skills-Based and Whole Language
Hargis, C. (2006). “Setting Standards: An Exercise Classrooms.” American Educational Research
in Futility?” Phi Delta Kappan. Vol. 87(5). Journal. Vol. 32.
Harvey, S., and Daniels, H. (2009). Comprehension Scharer, P., (2018). Responsive Literacy: The
and Collaboration: Inquiry Circles in Action. Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Scholastic.
Hoyt, L. (2007). Interactive Read-Alouds. Serafini, F., and Giorgis, C. (2003). Reading Aloud
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. and Beyond: Fostering the Intellectual Life of
Older Readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Johnson, A. (2018). In D. Miller and C. Sharp, (Eds.)
Game-Changer! Book Access for All Kids. Wasik, B., Bond, M. A., and Hindman, A. (2001).
New York: Scholastic. “The Effects of a Language and Literacy
Intervention on Head Start Children and
Kittle, P. (2013). Book Love: Developing Depth,
Teachers.” Journal of Educational Psychology.
Stamina, and Passion in Adolescent Readers.
Vol. 98(1)..
Whitehurst, G., Falco F. L., Longian, C., Fischel, J. E.,
Laminack, L. (2016). The Ultimate Read-Aloud
DeBarsyshe, B. D., Valdez-Menchaca, M. C., and
Resource: Making Every Moment Intentional
Caufield, M. B. (1988). “Accelerating Language
and Instructional with Best Friend Books. New
Development through Picture-Book Reading.”
York: Scholastic.
Developmental Psychology. Vol. 24.

GUIDED READING
“The aim of guided reading is to develop independent
readers who question, consider alternatives, and make
informed choices as they seek meaning.”
—Dr. Margaret Mooney, literacy educator and author
KEY FINDINGS
> Guided reading places students on an accelerated course to independent

reading with accuracy, fluency, and comprehension (Scharer et al., 2018;
Richardson, 2016).
> Guided reading is potent, strategic, and differentiated small-group reading

instruction, and its aim is clear: to help readers process—accurately, proficiently,
and independently—increasingly challenging, conceptually rich, complex texts on
grade level (Scharer et al., 2018; Richardson, 2016).
> Guided reading also acknowledges that children bring different backgrounds and
instructional experiences to the reading process and therefore move forward at
different rates. The small-group model allows teachers to target specific learning
needs, provide appropriate scaffolding, and gradually reduce support to promote
independence. Guided reading essentials include small groups, instructional-
leveled texts, and targeted teaching” (Richardson, 2016).
> Based on 40 years of irrefutable research drawing from cognitive science and
the linguistic principles that inform our understanding of language and literacy
development (Clay, 1976, 2001; Holdaway, 1979, Mooney, 1990, Fountas and Pinnell,
1996, 2001, 2006, 2010, 2017; Johnston, 2010; Allington, 2012), guided reading
supports all readers: challenged, gifted, and those for whom English is a target
language (Scharer et al., 2018).
> “After systematic assessment to determine their strengths and needs, students
are grouped for efficient reading instruction. While individuals always vary, the
students in the group are alike enough that they can be effectively taught in a
group. Texts are selected from a collection arranged along a gradient of difficulty.
The teacher selects a text that students will be able to process successfully with
instruction” (Pinnell and Fountas, 2017).

More to Know: Guided Reading Creates
Confident Independent Readers
Guided reading is smart, differentiated reading instruction that centers on a close read of texts,
literary conversation, and, at times, writing about the reading—which aligns with higher standards
that call for integrated language arts. This approach is a fast track to successful, independent
grade-level reading and an indispensable first step to helping students achieve the primary
objective of new rigorous reading standards: to read and comprehend independently and
proficiently the kinds of complex texts commonly found in college and on the job.
Guided reading teachers are well on their way to helping students accomplish this
essential goal. Based on 40 years of irrefutable research, drawing from cognitive science
and the linguistic principles that inform our understanding of language and literacy
development (Clay, 1976, 2001; Holdaway, 1979; Mooney, 1990; Scharer et al., 2018;
Richardson, 2016; Fountas and Pinnell, 2017; Johnston, 2010; Allington, 2012), guided reading
supports all readers: challenged, gifted, and those for whom English is a target language.
The basic tenets of guided reading are straightforward:
• Students learn to read by reading.
• The role of texts is pivotal.
• Students engage in close reading and, as needed, reread to check up on

meaning and search for text-based evidence.
• Reading accuracy, fluency, and academic vocabulary reflect proficient reading.
• The teacher is a responsive instructor, in sync with each student’s instructional

trajectory.
• The teacher knows when to step back and remove instructional scaffolds,
enabling the student to take off on his or her own as an independent reader.
Researcher Anita IIaquinata describes guided reading as one of the “most important
contemporary reading instructional practices in the United States” (Fawson and Reutzel,
2000). Simply stated, guided reading has propelled hundreds of thousands of children into
proficient independent reading.
Teaching with a Sense of Urgency

As many as one in three children find learning to read challenging (Adams, 1990). This makes
guided reading’s goal—to help all readers achieve grade level independent reading—face
challenges in catching up. Read the research on this point—it’s both extensive and unequivocal
(Lentz, 1998; Neuman and Dickinson, 2001; Snow, Burns, and Griffin, 1998; Torgesen, 1998;
Whitehurst and Lonigan, 2001). As Juel first noted in 1988, a child who struggles to read in the
first grade is 88 percent more likely to struggle in the fourth grade as well.
GUIDED READING 139

Clearly, the early prevention of reading difficulties is critical (Clay, 1993; Richardson, 2018;
Slavin, Madden, Dolan, and Wasik, 1996) and, to that end, there is no more effective way to
prevent falling behind than guided reading. All students—those who are challenged, those
who thrive as capable readers, and those for whom English is a target language—benefit
from guided reading’s unique double scaffolding: 1) “just-right texts,” thoughtfully matched
to each student to provide both instructional support and challenge; and 2) scaffolded
instruction. Guided reading offers the surest route to critical thinking, deep comprehension,
and confident, capable independent reading.
Close Reading and Text-Based Evidence

Reading comprehension is complex and can be taught only through the effective
processing—with deep thinking—of connected and coherent texts. The RAND (2002)
definition of reading helps frame the work of guided reading:
Reading comprehension [is] the process of simultaneously extracting and

constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language.
It consists of three elements: the reader, the text, and the activity or purpose for
reading.
Reading is an active, complex, and multidimensional process that serves many different
purposes. Readers are problem solvers, solving new words and navigating literary elements
in fiction and text structures in informational texts, while constantly monitoring their hold
on meaning. The moment meaning slips away, a red flag should go up, and readers should
stop and rethink until they are reassured they are back on the meaning track, using the
text as their comprehension anchor. If their dip back into the text doesn’t yield meaningful
language and understanding, they need to revisit again and again until it does.
An Exemplary Teaching-Assessing Loop

Intentional and intensive instruction, informed by continuous formative assessment,
characterizes the daily routine of the thoughtful guided reading teacher (Richardson and
Walther, 2013). The teacher continuously monitors students’ progress: Are they mastering
the foundational skills of reading? Are they learning to control the powerful linguistic and
cognitive strategies that enable mature, skillful, independent reading? Teachers recognize
that academic growth occurs across time, developmental benchmarks, and disciplines. But
working with finely honed instruction and expertly selected texts gives them the best shot
at maximizing the instructional leverage of each text.

Closing Thoughts
Guided reading is not an exercise to practice reading skills. It is research-based
differentiated reading instruction that propels all students toward confident, independent
reading. It’s our best guarantee that our students will hit their reading stride and read
many diverse, high-quality grade-level fiction books and informational texts—on their way
to creating a rich, literate lives for themselves. Reading well means reading with deep,
refined comprehension. We want our students to gain maximum insight, knowledge, and
enjoyment from every text they read—nothing less will do.
GUIDED READING 141

References
Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to Read: Thinking and Puig, E. (2004). Guided Reading and Spanish-
Learning About Print. New York: Bradford Park. Speaking Children.” New York: Scholastic.
Retrieved from: http://teacher.scholastic.com/
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for products/guidedreading/research.htm
Struggling Readers. Designing Research-
Based Programs. New York: Pearson. RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for
Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in
Clay, M. M. (1993). An Observation Survey of Reading Comprehension.
Early Literacy Achievement. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann. Richardson, J. (2018). The Next Step Forward in
Reading Intervention. The RISE Framework.
Dickinson, D., and Neuman, S. (2007). Handbook of New York: Scholastic.
Early Literacy Research, Volume 2. New York:
Guilford. Richardson, J. (2016). The Next Step Forward in
Guided Reading: An Assess-Decide-Guide
Fawson, P. C., and Reutzel, R. D. (2000). “But I Only Framework for Supporting Every Reader.
Have a Basal: Implementing Guided Reading New York: Scholastic.
in the Early Grades.” The Reading Teacher.
Vol. 54. Richardson, J. (2016). Guided Reading in Action.
Fountas, I., and Pinnell, G. (2017). Guided Reading:
Responsive Teaching Across the Grades, Richardson, J., and Walther, M. (2013). Next Step
Second Edition. Portsmouth, NH. Guided Reading Assessment. New York:
Scholastic.
Fountas, I. and Pinnell, G. S. (2012-13). “The
Romance and the Reality.” The Reading Richardson, J. (2009). Next Step Guided Reading.
Teacher. Vol. 66 (4). New York: Scholastic.
Fountas, I. C., and Pinnell, G. S. (1996). Guided Scharer, P., (2018). Responsive Literacy: The
Reading: Good First Teaching for All Children. Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Scholastic.
Fountas, I. C., and Pinnell, G. S. (2001). Guiding Snow, C., Burns, S., and Griffin, P., (Eds.). (1998).
Readers and Writers Grades 3–6: Teaching Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Comprehension, Genre and Content Literacy. Children. Washington, DC: National Academy
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Press.
Hargis, C. (2006). “Setting Standards: An Exercise Torgesen, J. K. (1998). “Catch Them before They
in Futility?” Phi Delta Kappan. Vol. 87(5). Fall.” American Educator.
Juel, C. (1988). “Learning to Read and Write: A Whitehurst, G., Falco F. L., Longian, C., Fischel, J.
Longitudinal Study of 54 Children from First E., DeBarsyshe, B. D., Valdez-Menchaca, M.
through Fourth Grades.” Journal of Educational C., and Caufield, M. B. (1988). “Accelerating
Psychology. Vol. 80(4). Language Development through Picture-Book
Reading.” Developmental Psychology. Vol. 24.
Pinnell, G., and Fountas, I. (2010). “Research
Base for Guided Reading as an Instructional
Approach.” New York: Scholastic. Retrieved
from: http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/
guidedreading/research.htm

TEXT SETS
“Text sets are a tool for creating a lifelong habit of mind.”
—Maria Nichols, director of school innovation, San Diego Unified School District
KEY FINDINGS
> Text sets are an instructional technique that’s simple to implement and almost
unfailingly effective—fulfilling many of the instructional shifts called for by
rigorous reading standards, including increasing practice with both nonfiction
and fiction reading, engaging in close reading, accessing domain-specific
vocabulary, and addressing text-dependent questions with text-based evidence.
> Text sets are a collection of sources of information that have a commonality. They
explore a shared topic, issue, or big idea.” Text sets invite children to explore,
discuss, and pursue additional questions (Scharer et al., 2018; Nichols, 2009).
> According to Neuman and Roskos (2012), text sets work best as an instructional
tool when they are “coherent, narrowly focused on a set of key ideas to
ensure that children will have repeated opportunities to hear and develop an
understanding of a common set of words and concepts throughout the readings.”
> Students are on their way to becoming critically aware, and insightful learners and
thinkers as they wrestle with different concepts, ideas, perspectives, and opinions
across a range of texts and learn to construct their own beliefs drawing from
multiple sources of information—as opposed to simply believing a single source.
(Robb, 2003).
TEXT SETS 143

More to Know: Intertextual Connections
The relation that each text has to the texts surrounding it is often known as intertextuality.
Readers build understanding as they draw information from a range of texts. Reading
multiple texts across the same theme, topic, genre, or issue automatically fosters close
reading and deepens and refines subject knowledge. As noted by literacy researcher Peter
Johnston, “To understand a text deeply, we need multiple perspectives. To understand a
subject, idea, or concept more deeply, we need multiple texts because each text offers
another author’s perspective on the subject” (2009).
As readers finish one book in the set, they are better prepared for reading and understanding
the next book in the set. Each book builds on the last. Plus, when students read across a
set of related books, they inevitably notice the similarities and differences in how texts are
crafted. Subtle differences across texts that might have escaped a student’s notice if he
or she approached each book as a singular read—including text structure and features,
vocabulary, and presentational formats—come into sharp focus as students concentrate on
reading and discussing a set of related texts (Fountas and Pinnell, 2006, 2017).
What Text Sets Help Students Accomplish

Our students thrive when they read a diverse range of classic and contemporary literature,
as well as engaging nonfiction on a range of topics. In this way they build knowledge, gain
insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their understanding.
Learn Critical Content

Extensive nonfiction reading may well be the key to success in later schooling. As students
advance in grade level, they more frequently face content-area textbooks as well as
informational passages on tests. Including more informational texts in early schooling
prepares them for these reading and writing demands. Students who know something
about the topics they meet in different academic subjects bring a great advantage to their
reading and writing. The more specialized academic knowledge they have, the easier it
is to comprehend and convey new information when they read and write (Hampton and
Resnick, 2008).
Furthermore, “students are expected to learn from increasingly technical expository texts
during adolescence, and their knowledge base must continue to grow in order to meet
the demands of this text … students who do not keep pace with the increasing demands
content area texts place on prior knowledge will fall further and further behind in their
ability to construct the meaning of the text” (Torgesen et al., 2007). Text sets, related by
theme, provide unique conceptual and linguistic support and enable even challenged
readers to access critical content.

Build Academic and Domain-Specific Vocabulary to Access Content
“Domain-specific academic vocabulary consists of relatively low-frequency, content-
specific words that appear in textbooks and other instructional materials; for example, apex
in math, escarpment in geography, and isobar in science” (Blachowicz and Fisher, 2011).
Knowing that a robust vocabulary predicts reading comprehension, it is essential that we
do all that we can to help our students grow their understanding of vocabulary related
to specific domains of content. As children’s vocabulary grows, it bolsters their reading
comprehension (Duke and Carlisle, 2011). Duke cites the high correlation (0.86) between
academic vocabulary and comprehension and offers several strategies that students can
use again and again to lock down the meaning of more sophisticated content words,
including relating words to themes and to other similar words. These word associations
help build networks of meaning that support reading comprehension. Of course, within
thematic text sets, vocabulary is automatically related. Students encounter the same set of
thematically related words across each text set, enabling them to more easily absorb and
assimilate the new words.
Approach Complex Texts

To grow and achieve the goals of higher reading standards, our students must read
extensively and intensively—especially authentic literature that offers them new language,
new knowledge, and new modes of thought. Close reading—which text sets promote—is a
key strategy. Kylene Beers and Bob Probst (2013) explain close reading:
Close reading should suggest close attention to the text; close attention to
the relevant experience, thought, and memory of the reader; close attention to
the responses and interpretations of other readers; and close attention to the
interactions among those elements.
A close reading is also a careful and purposeful rereading of a text. It’s an encounter with
the text where students are able to focus on what the author had to say, what the author’s
purpose was, what the words mean, and what the structure of the text tells them. We
provide text-dependent questions—and encourage our students to reread with their own
questions in mind—which require our students to return to the text and search for answers.
These aren’t the old-fashioned recall questions in which students simply search for the
facts. These are questions that prompt students to consider the text and the author’s
purpose, as well as the structure, graphics, flow of the text, and the reader’s own response
to it (Beers and Probst, 2013, 2017; Fisher, Frey, and Lapp, 2012; Lehman, 2013; Robb, 2013).
TEXT SETS 145

Closing Thoughts
Carol Jago (2011) reminds us that “curriculum should be aimed at what Lev Vygotsky calls
students’ zone of proximal development.” Vygotsky (1979) wrote, “The only good kind of
instruction is that which marches ahead of development and leads it.” To that end, Jago
suggests that classroom texts should “pose intellectual challenges for readers and invite
them to stretch and grow.” Rich and thought-provoking thematically related text sets that
stimulate student interest and motivation help students become stronger readers and
stronger learners. As they engage in a close read across related texts, students build their
skill as proficient readers—and acquire fascinating information about the world around
them (Cappiello and Dawes, 2013). Plus, when texts offer a wide range of points of view,
students are forced to grapple with possible conflicting and questionable information—
exactly the kind of deep critical thinking encouraged by today’s standards.
References
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for Duke, N., Pearson, D., Strachan, S., and Billman, A.
Struggling Readers: Designing Research-Based (2011). “Essential Elements of Fostering and
Programs. New York: Scholastic. Teaching Reading Comprehension.” In J.
Samuels and A. Farstrup (Eds.), What Research
Allyn, P. (2011). Books for Boys: How to Engage Boys
Has to Say about Reading Instruction, Fourth
in Reading in Ways That Will Change Their
Lives. New York: Scholastic.
Association.
Beers, K., and Probst, R. (2017). Disrupting Thinking.
Duke, N. and Pearson, P. D. (2002). “Effective
Practices for Developing Reading
Scholastic.
Comprehension.” In A. Farstrup and S. J.
Beers, K., and Probst, R. (2013). Notice and Note: Samuels (Eds.), What Research Has to Say
Strategies for Close Reading. Portsmouth, NH: About Reading Instruction, Third Edition.
Heinemann. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Biemiller, A. (2006). “Vocabulary Development and Fisher, D., Frey, N., and Lapp, D. (2012). Text
Instruction: A Prerequisite for School Learning.” Complexity: Raising Rigor in Reading. Newark:
In D. Dickinson and S. B. Neuman (Eds.), DE: International Reading Association.
Handbook of Early Literacy Research,
Fountas, I. and Pinnell, G. (2017). Guided Reading:
Vol. 2. New York: Guilford.
Responsive Teaching Across the Grades,
Blachowicz, C., and Fisher, P. (2011). “A Word for Second Edition. Portsmouth, NH.
the Words: What Students Need to Learn.”
Fountas, I., and Pinnell, G. S. (2006). Teaching for
Educational Leadership. Vol. 68(6).
Comprehending and Fluency: Thinking, Talking
Cappiello, M. A., and Dawes, E. (2013). Teaching with and Writing about Reading, K–8. Portsmouth,
Text Sets. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education. NH: Heinemann.
Duke, N., and Carlisle, J. (2011). “The Development of Hampton, S., and Resnick, L. (2008). Reading
Comprehension.” In M. Kamil, D. Pearson, E. Moje and Writing with Understanding. Newark, DE:
Birr, and P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of Reading International Reading Association.
Research. Volume 4. New York: Routledge.

References
Jago, C. (2011). With Rigor for All: Meeting Common Robb, L. (2003). Teaching Reading in Social Studies,
Core Standards for Reading Literature, Grades Science, and Math. New York: Scholastic.
6-12. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Scharer, P. (2018). Responsive Literacy: The
Johnston, P. (2009). Afterword in Nichols, M., Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Expanding Comprehension with Multigenre Scholastic.
Text Sets. New York: Scholastic.
Shanahan, T. (2012). “What Is Close Reading?”
Neuman, S., and Roskos, K. (2012). “Helping Children Retrieved from: www.shanahanonliteracy.com
Become More Knowledgeable through Text.”
Shanahan, T. (2011). “Guidelines for Making Reading
The Reading Teacher, Vol. 66(3).
and Writing Connections.” Retrieved from: www.
Nichols, M. (2009). Expanding Comprehension with shanahanonliteracy.com
Multigenre Text Sets. New York: Scholastic.
Torgesen, J. K., Houston, D. D., Rissman, L. M.,
Pinnell, G., and Fountas, I. (2010). Research Base Decker, S. M., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J.,
for Guided Reading as an Instructional Francis, D. J., Rivera, M. O., and Lesaux, N. (2007).
Approach. New York: Scholastic. Retrieved Academic Literacy Instruction for Adolescents:
from: http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/ A Guidance Document from the Center on
guidedreading/research.htm Instruction. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research
Corporation, Center on Instruction.
Puig, E. (2004). Guided Reading and Spanish-
Speaking Children. New York: Scholastic. Vygotsky, L. (1979). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA:
http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/ Harvard University Press.
guidedreading/research.htm
TEXT SETS 147

BOOK CLUBS
“Reading ought to change us in some way. It ought
to teach us more about ourselves, others, or the world
around us.”
—Dr. Kylene Beers and Dr. Robert Probst, literacy educators and authors
KEY FINDINGS
> Unique teaching and learning potency arises from a magical alchemy of
conversation about books—or shared text talk—as students and teachers come
together in collaborative, heterogeneously grouped book clubs to discuss and
engage with the books on multiple levels (Sharer, 2018; Serafini, 2011).
> Through reflective, academic conversation about books, teachers and students
create the vibrant, literate classroom community that best supports high-level,
quality comprehension (Sharer, 2018; Fountas and Pinnell, 2017).
> The collaborative, interactive nature of the club enables all students—including
reluctant readers and English language learners—to find the support they need to
fully engage with the books (Sharer, 2018; Fountas and Pinnell, 2017).
> Each club member gains access to more expansive, deeper comprehension as
he or she participates in an intricate network of meaning-construction through
shared talk about books (Sharer, 2018; Fountas and Pinnell, 2017).
> The productive structure of book clubs (also known as “literature circles”) can
be reshaped as “inquiry circles” to support independent student reading and
research. “Learners must have opportunities to respond to their reading every day
by talking, writing, and drawing about their thinking,” write Harvey and Daniels
(2009). Book clubs and inquiry circles “demand that kids talk to each other, jot
down their thinking, and record information as they collaborate in the pursuit of
answers to their questions” (Harvey and Daniels, 2009).

KEY FINDINGS
> Kylene Beers and Robert E. Probst (2017) remind us that the fundamental reason
for reading is to learn, grow, and change. As they note:
• If a changemaker—as a person—is one who inspires, who offers creative
solutions to social problems, who mentors, who collaborates—then we see
no reason why texts should not be viewed as changemakers. They can be
viewed as changemakers if we recognize that we read for a far more critical
reason than to be able to answer someone else’s questions; we read to raise
our own questions. We read to explore, to wonder, to grow, to become what
we did not even know we might want to be. We read to change.
> The authors encourage us to be open to reading for new information—

information that gives us pause and prompts us to reconsider old ways of
thinking and doing things.
> The questions we ask of our students should be the questions we ask of
ourselves when we read:
• What surprised me?
• What did the author think I already know?
• What changed, challenged, or confirmed my thinking?
> These are the kinds of open-ended questions that drive thinking, learning,
and change.
More to Know: A Grand Conversation

An easy way to understand the lively, shared conversation we want to promote in a
student book club is to consider the rush of conversation that often follows an intense or
provocative film you see with friends. As you walk out of the movie theater, each member
of the group noting the film’s memorable moments, you are collectively swept up in
the thrill of intellectual analysis—connecting your experience with the film to other films
you may have seen, analyzing the film’s deeper meaning, expressing new insights, and
all the while, energetically building on, extending, and refining each other’s thoughts as
you cite moments from the film to support your opinions. The invigorating conversation
feels urgent and profound as you craft together an understanding of the experience you
just shared in the darkened theater: What did it mean? How might it forever change your
understanding of the world?
BOOK CLUBS 149

This after-the-movie “grand conversation” (Eeds and Peterson, 2007) mirrors what we
want to happen in our book clubs, also known as literature study, literature circles, or
literature discussion groups. We think of the book club as a literature “investigation”
where participants “try out tentative ideas, search for information to confirm or refute their
thinking, and build on one another’s ideas” (Eeds and Peterson, 2007).
And just as in the grand conversations we share after a terrific movie, there’s no one
right answer in a book club. Students participating in book clubs enjoy wide-ranging
conversation (although the talk is always focused on and grounded in the text) and ask
questions of each other, as they probe deeper or work to clarify shared ideas and thoughts
about the text.
Unlike the “comprehension check” in old basal reading groups where the teacher asks
a series of questions each linked to one right answer to ascertain whether her students
understood the text, all participants in a book club, including the teacher, ask authentic
questions of each other. They work collaboratively to understand one another’s response
to the book. The questions they ask are genuine attempts to build meaning and not
intended to check up on comprehension. As Eeds and Peterson remind us (2007), it’s the
difference between a “gentle inquisition” and a “grand conversation.” We want our students
to enjoy a grand conversation about every book they read, and as we listen in on their lively
book talk, we easily learn what they understood about the book and where they might need
instructional support.
The Teacher’s Role

The teacher’s role in a book club is key. You demonstrate the stance and language of
literary analysis. What does it look like and sound like to engage in an analytical discussion
about a book, fiction or nonfiction? What language do you use? How do you draw on
evidence from the book to support your position? Students will learn as you prompt
and model, not only in their book clubs, but also throughout the day, as you create a rich
analytical classroom culture and model during your interactive read-aloud and in your
guided reading groups. You’ll demonstrate the components of literary analysis: plot,
characters, setting, theme, style and language, mood, point of view, illustrations, and
symbols. You’ll also model the features of nonfiction analysis such as organization, style,
tone, illustrations/graphics, accuracy, and mood, asking your students such questions as:
“What do you notice about the language the author uses and the perspectives he or she
assumes?” You prompt, model, and continually monitor the discussion. What do your
students understand? Where do they need more support?

Choosing the Right Book
Choosing the right book is pivotal. “Book clubs that engage students in inquiry start with
a good book selection” (Fountas and Pinnell, 2006). Effective book study groups center
around books that are developmentally appropriate for students, as well as books that
students love to read. It’s also important to choose books that are substantive and reflect
layers of meaning that provoke talk.
There are multiple ways to organize book clubs (Marinak and Gambrell, 2016). Some
teachers find that it works best to organize the books as “text sets” around themes, topics,
and genres. In this way, each student in the group might read a different book in the text set
and then, when they gather in their book club to discuss, they build connections within in
the text set as they compare and contrast the individual titles. Educators can create a text
set drawing from a wide range of criteria:
• Author study exploring multiple titles all written by the same author
• Genre study reading across a particular genre such as mystery, biography, or

historical fiction
• Characters investigating similar characters across books such as a strong female

protagonist
• Text structure analyzing similar literary elements such as flashbacks or stories

within stories
Middle School and Book Clubs: A Perfect Match

Early adolescence and the shift to middle school represent a significant milestone for
most students. In addition to encountering more demanding literacy challenges across the
disciplines, middle school students experience a complex relationship with reading and
writing as they wrestle with their own self-identity. Adolescents crave social connection and
autonomy, and book clubs—framed around independent reading, small-group decision-
making, and collaborative conversations—are uniquely suited to address both needs.
• Book clubs foster student choice and provide middle schoolers with lots of
opportunities to make decisions, take responsibility for reading their books on time, and
come to the book club prepared to talk about the text. This bolsters self-confidence,
sparks engagement, and builds communities around books (Haas, 2013; Guthrie, 2008).
• Engagement is the life force of adolescent literacy learning. Adolescents who see
value in school reading will read and enjoy academic success. And those who don’t
will read much less and typically fall behind. Reading disengagement is more often
than not the root cause of school failure and dropouts (Guthrie, 2008).
BOOK CLUBS 151

• Book clubs help young teens discover themselves as readers with unique reading
preferences and needs. Middle schoolers “refine their reading preferences, become
sophisticated readers of informational text, and lay the groundwork for a lifelong
reading habit. They begin to use reading to help answer profound questions about
themselves and the world. With good instruction, ample time, and opportunity to read
a variety of texts, young adolescents can become successful readers both in and out
of school.” (IRA, 2013).
• Book clubs offer adolescents, known for their divergent learning styles, extended
learning opportunities to shape and share their learning in unique and creative ways.
Tweens can draw from the language arts (oral and written presentations), technology,
and the visual and dramatic arts (Wilhelm, 2012).
Closing Thoughts
The great joy of a book club is the opportunity it affords to share fast-paced, stimulating
conversation about a title that others have read and enjoyed (or not!). Inviting your students
to participate in lively, dynamic book clubs is a surefire way to hook them as lifelong
readers who know how to crack open texts to relish the riches: exquisite literary language,
intriguing ideas, fascinating, content-rich information—all the myriad pleasures that make
books such remarkable companions (Short, 1986; Eeds and Peterson, 2007; Harvey and
Daniels, 2009; Hill, Noe, Johnson, 2001).
Language educator Frank Serafini reminds us of the outstanding intellectual benefits

of interactive classroom discussions: Students, not teachers, assume these essential
responsibilities:
• Articulating their own ideas and interpretations about their reading.
• Listening actively to other students’ ideas.
• Opening lines of communication and negotiating meanings by responding

directly to other students’ understandings and interpretations.
• Trying to understand what other students are saying.
• Asking questions when ideas or concepts are unclear.
• Remaining open to new ideas and opinions

References
Adolescent Literacy Committee. International Mills, H., and O’Keefe, T. (2014). “Believe Kids into
Reading Association. (2013). “Adolescent Believing.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of
Literacy. A Position Statement.” Newark, DE: IRA. Possible. Real Stories About the Joy and Power
of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Appleman, D. (2006). Reading for Themselves: How
to Transform Adolescents into Lifelong Readers Miller, D., and Moss, B. (2013). No More Independent
Through Out-of-Class Book Clubs. New York: Reading Without Support. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann. Heinemann.
Beers, K., and Probst, R. (2017). Disrupting Reading: Scharer, P. (Ed.). (2018). Responsive Literacy:
How We Read and Why It Matters. New York: The Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Scholastic. Scholastic.
Eeds and Peterson, R. (2007). Grand Conversations: Serafini, F. (2009). Interactive Comprehension
Literature Groups in Action. New York: Strategies: Fostering Meaningful Talk About
Scholastic. Text. New York: Scholastic.
Fountas and Pinnell. (2017). Guided Reading, Short, K., and Pierce, K. (1990). Talking About Books:
Second Edition: Responsive Teaching Across Creating Literate Communities. Portsmouth,
the Grades. Portsmouth, NH. Heinemann. NH: Heinemann.
Fountas, I., and Pinnell, G. (2012). Comprehension Tankersley, K. (2005). Literacy Strategies for Grades
Clubs. New York: Scholastic. 4-12. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Guthrie, J. (2008). Engaging Adolescents. Thousand Wilhelm, J. (2013). Improving Comprehension

Oaks, CA: Corwin. with Think Aloud Strategies, Second Edition:
Modeling What Good Readers Do. New York:
Haas, L. (2013). “The Advantages of a Book Club in Scholastic.
a Middle School Classroom.” Retrieved from:
http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/advantages- Wilhelm, J. (2013). Enriching Comprehension with
book-club-middle-school-classroom- 9280. Visualization Strategies: Text Elements and
html Ideas to Build Comprehension. New York:
Scholastic.
Harvey, S., and Daniels, H. (2009). Comprehension
and Collaboration: Inquiry Circles in Action. Wilhelm, J. (2013). Deepening Comprehension with
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Action Strategies: Role Plays, Text-Structure
Tableaux. New York: Scholastic.
Hill, B., Noe, K. Johnson, N. (1995). Literature Circles:
and Response. New York: Christopher-Gordon.
Marinak, B., and Gambrell, L. (2016). No More

Reading for Junk: Best Practices for Motivating
Readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
BOOK CLUBS 153

READING AND WRITING
CONNECTIONS
I still hold that the greatest joy of being a writer is that
I can read all I want to and call it work.
—Katherine Paterson, national ambassador for Young People’s Literature, 2010-2011
2
KEY FINDINGS
> Reading and writing are mutually supportive language processes; they are
interdependent processes that are essential to each other and mutually beneficial
(Cunningham and Zilbusky, 2014; Pinnell and Fountas, 2011; Holt and Vacca, 1984).
> Writing about reading makes comprehension visible; it also helps readers frame
and focus their understanding (Serravallo, 2012, 2013; Graham and Perin, 2007;
Graham and Hebert, 2010). Asking students to write about their reading may provide
the best window into their reading process and comprehension (Serravallo, 2012,
2013; Roessing, 2009).
> Reading and writing are complex developmental language processes involving the
orchestration and integration of a wide range of understandings, strategies, skills,
and attitudes. Both processes develop as a natural extension of children’s need to
communicate and make sense of their varied experiences (Pinnell and Fountas, 2011).
> Beginning readers and writers learn to use many sources of information including
memory, experience, pictures, and their knowledge of language—purpose,
structure, and sound/symbol relationships (Bennett-Armistead, Duke, and Moses,
2005). Literacy emerges when children draw and label pictures, and create, act out,
or retell stories. During these times they are engaged in literate behaviors that are
essential aspects of the language development process (Teale and Sulzby, 1986).
> Young writers come to understand the responsibilities of an author and learn to follow
the rules of conventional writing. All young writers eventually learn to write with their
potential readers in mind. (Bennett-Armistead, 2005; Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2013).

2
KEY FINDINGS
> Every time we enter a text as a reader, we receive a writing lesson: how to spell,
punctuate, use proper grammar, structure a sentence or paragraph, and organize a
text. We also learn the many purposes that writing serves and the different genres
and formats it assumes to serve these varied purposes (Duke et al., 2013; Culham,
2014, 2012; Paterson, 2014; Hansen, 2014; Smith, 1988).
> “Whether it was traditional or nontraditional forms of writing, the use of

multimodal texts help[s] to shape and possibly expand [young girl’s] views of
themselves and their writings” (Muhammad and Womack, 2015)
More to Know: Writing into Understanding

Again, what seems to distinguish students who succeed from those who don’t is the ability
to engage independently in a close analysis of demanding texts—and there may be no
better way to accomplish that goal than through writing (Graham and Hebert, 2010). Two
of the most comprehensive reading-writing research studies are meta-analyses: Graham
and Perin (2007) and Graham and Hebert (2010). Both reveal that writing has a strong and
consistently positive impact on reading comprehension. The authors explain:
Transforming a mental summary of text into writing requires additional thought

about the essence of the material, and the permanence of writing creates an
external record of this synopsis that can be readily critiqued.
The benefits of writing about texts are both abundant and profound—and mirror the kind
of thinking we want our students to do when they are reading (Graham and Perin, 2007;
Graham and Hebert, 2010):
• Engage in deep thinking about ideas
• Draw on their own knowledge and experience
• Consolidate and review information
• Reformulate thinking
• Organize and integrate ideas
• Be explicit about text evidence
• Be reflective
• Note personal involvement
• Capture the reading experience in their own words
READING AND WRITING CONNECTIONS 155

Researchers and educators alike note the mutual benefits of pairing reading with
writing and vice versa:
Having students write about a text should enhance reading comprehension

because it affords greater opportunities to think about ideas in a text, requires them
to organize and integrate those ideas into a coherent whole, fosters explicitness,
facilitates reflection, encourages personal involvement with texts, and involves
students in transforming ideas into their own words. In short, writing about a text
should enhance comprehension because it provides students with a tool for visibly
and permanently recording, connecting, analyzing, personalizing, and manipulating
key ideas in text (Graham and Hebert, 2010).
Writing helps students better understand what they read by engaging them actively
in practicing comprehension. Students must understand what they are reading to
present their ideas about texts effectively in writing. This requires students to go back
to the text, reread, and clarify misunderstandings. Again, writing about texts pushes
students to practice the habits of effective reading (Hampton and Resnick, 2008).
Setting up time for students to talk and write about what they are thinking is one
way to move students forward as people who think independently about what they
are reading … People who share what they wonder about, what they notice, and what
they are thinking in a variety of ways (Czekanski, 2012).
Writing makes reading comprehension visible and that, Australian researcher John Hattie
(2008) reminds us, is the heart of effective teaching. When we can see what our students
know and what they need to know, we can create clear goals for each student and provide
the targeted feedback they need to surge forward:
Teachers need to know the learning intentions and success criteria of their lessons,
know how well they are attaining these criteria for all students, and know where to
go next in light of the gap between students’ current knowledge and understanding
and the success criteria of: “Where are you going?,” “How are you going?,” and
“Where to next?”

Reading Like a Writer
And then, too, there’s the teaching power of reading; we learn to write, spell, and punctuate,
and structure a sentence, a paragraph, and a text through voluminous reading (Krashen,
2011). It’s not a coincidence that so many published writers point to the voluminous reading
they did as children as both their inspiration and their instruction for their own exemplary
writing. Listen to author Lola Schaefer in Culham (2014) explain:
I’m not sure which comes first, the reading or the writing. Early on in my career, the
reading had the strongest impact. I immersed myself in children’s books—both
classics and the newer titles. I passionately studied them for pacing, vocabulary,
cadence, humor, voice, leads, use of figurative language, and endings. I learn so
much from reading like a writer, and still do.

Closing Thoughts
Reading and writing are mutually supportive language processes. Separating them makes about
as much sense as separating talking and listening. Fortunately, our more rigorous new standards
call for the integration of the language arts, challenging us to find ways to invite our students to
benefit from the full power of language: reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Ruth Culham (2014), a former children’s librarian who has long advocated the use of mentor
texts to teach writing, reminds us, “Just think of what reading brings into the writer’s life.
With mentor texts and a good teacher guiding them, student writers can learn the following:
• Where ideas come from and how they play out

• How an idea develops and moves seamlessly from beginning to end
• How the writer casts a spell over the reader that lasts long after the last page is turned
• How words and phrases are used to create deep meaning and understanding
• How sentences sound and flow to serve to underscore the importance of different
elements of the idea
• How conventions are used to help the reader navigate the text
• How the physical appearance of the writing is an open invitation to reading.”

References
Aulls, M. W. (1985). “Understanding the Relationship Graham, S., and Perin, D., (2007). Writing Next:
Between Reading and Writing.” Educational Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of
Horizons, Vol. 64(10). Adolescents in Middle and High Schools. A
Report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York.
Beers, K., and Probst, B. (2017). Disrupting Thinking:
Why How We Read Matters. New York: Hansen, J. (2014). “Reading Opens Up a World of
Scholastic. Writing.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of
Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and Power
Culham, R. (2014). The Writing Thief: Using Mentor of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Texts to Teach the Craft of Writing. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association. Hattie, J. (2008). Visible Learning. London: Routledge.
Culham, R. (2014). The Writing Thief: Using Mentor Holt, S. L., and Vacca, J. L. (1984). “Reading with
Texts to Teach the Craft of Writing. Newark, DE: a Sense of Writer: Writing with a Sense of
International Literacy Association. Reader.” In J. M. Jensen (Ed.), Composing and
Comprehending. Urbana, IL: National Council of
Culham, R. (2011). “Reading with a Writer’s Eye.” In T. Teachers of English.
Rasinski’s Rebuilding the Foundation: Effective
Reading Instruction for 21st Century Literacy. Krashen, S. (2011). Free Voluntary Reading. Santa
Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Retrieved Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
from: http://issuu.com/mm905/docs/rtf_look_
inside_065569f1ee3f40?e=5896725/8883639 Muhammad, Gholnecsar and Womack E. (2015),
Pen to Pin: The Multimodality of Black Girls (Re)
Czekanski, T. (2012. “Variety Is the Spice of Life (and It Writing Their Lives. The Journal of Literature,
Keeps Writing Alive).” Boston: Lesley University. Literacy, and the Arts, Research Strand. Vol. 2(2).
Retrieved from: https://lesleyuniversitycrrlc.
wordpress.com/tag/toni-czekanski Myers, W. (2014). “I Am What I Read.” In L. Bridges (Ed.),
Open a World of Possible: Real Stories About the
Draper, S. (2014). “My Journey from Reader to Writer.” Joy and Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real
Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading. Paterson, K. (2014). “Reading What I Love. My
New York: Scholastic. Greatest Joy as a Writer.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open
a World of Possible: Real Stories About the Joy
Fletcher, F. (2017). The Writing Teacher’s Companion. and Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Embracing Voice, Choice, Purpose and Play.
New York: Scholastic. Roessing, L. (2009). Write to Read. Response
Journals that Increase Comprehension.
Fletcher, R. (2014). “A Chance to Live Many Parallel Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Lives.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of
Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and Power Schaefer, L. (2014). Author Note. In R. Culham. The
of Reading. New York: Scholastic. Writing Thief: Using Mentor Texts to Teach
the Craft of Writing. Newark, DE: International
Graham, S., and Hebert, M. (2010). “Writing to Read: Reading Association.
A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Writing
and Writing Instruction on Reading.” Harvard Smith, F. (1988). “Reading Like a Writer.” Joining the
Educational Review. Vol. 81(4). Literacy Club. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graham, S., and Perin, D. (2007). “A Meta-Analysis

of Writing Instruction for Adolescent Students.”
Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 99.

Did you know?
38%
of fourth-graders read 10 pages of text or less at school or
for homework, which equals about 8-12 minutes of daily reading.
The family seems to be the most effective and

economical system for fostering and sustaining the
child’s development. Without family involvement,
intervention is likely to be unsuccessful, and what few
effects are achieved are likely to disappear once the
intervention is discontinued.
—Dr. Urie Bronfenbrenner, Harvard Family Research

Chapter 6
FAMILY
LITERACY
AUTHENTIC TEXTS AND TEXT COM-
PLEXITY
> O
ral Language—The Foundation
of Literacy
> T
he Power of Speaking Two
(or More) Languages
> Home Reading Culture
> T
he Read-Aloud Plus Text Talk
Maximizes Learning
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LITERACY 161

ORAL LANGUAGE—
THE FOUNDATION OF LITERACY
“Hug your children by surrounding them with love
and language. Talk is the road that leads to reading
and changes lives.”
—Dr. Adria Klein, professor emerita of education, California State University, San Bernardino
KEY FINDINGS
> Oral language development precedes literacy and parallels it. Both oral and
written language are developmental language processes that are mutually
supportive and develop over time (Scharer et al., 2017; Cunningham and Zibulsky,
2014; Pinnell and Fountas, 2011).
> The interactive strategies that parents use, particularly the quality of their
language that they share with their children and the books they read aloud, are
strongly related with their children’s language development (Hart and Risley, 2003;
Landry and Smith, 2006).
> The interactive read-aloud (reading aloud plus conversation about the book), also
known as dialogic reading, is a particularly potent early language experience for
young children (Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014; Bennett-Armistead, Duke, and
Moses, 2005; Pinnell and Fountas, 2011).
> The understandings about reading that young children acquire through oral
language include the following (Snow, Burns, and Griffin, 1998; Klein, 2014):
• Basic language components that both oral and written language share in
common such as lexical, syntactic, and interpretive processes
• Cognitive mechanisms such as working memory
• Conceptual memory such as vocabulary and topic knowledge
162 5: TEACH
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LITERACY
More to Know: The Scientist in the Crib
Language development begins well before infants begin making their first words. In their
widely read book, The Scientist in the Crib (1999), Gopnick, Meltzoff, and Kuhl maintain
that processing speech sounds begins in early infancy. Infants quickly become language-
specific listeners—by four months they pay attention only to sounds heard in the language
to which they have been exposed.
Infants make sounds that imitate the tones and rhythms of adult talk. They “read” gestures
and facial expressions and begin to associate words and meanings. At birth, even before
they speak or understand language, infants begin processing the speech stream around
them in order to determine the sounds of the language (phonology), and the form and
structure of the language (syntax).
By the time they are 12 months old, they will have “cracked the code” for many of these
properties as they prepare to produce their first spoken words. Here they will show they are
mapping what they know about the form of language to what language means (semantics).
Over the first 12 months, the infant is conducting many different analyses of the speech
stream, working on all the dimensions of language at once—phonology, syntax, and
semantics (Lust, 2006).
By the time children are about three years old, they will have mastered much of the basic
system of the language around them (Lust, 2006).

Learning to Use Language
PLEXITY
Parents differ in the amount of structure they use; for example, as children grow and
develop into the preschool years, many parents pull back from repeating and extending
their child’s language. They also ease up on directives and invite the child to take the lead.
The impact of directness varies across ages. In the early toddler period, higher degrees can
support language skills, but by preschool, it begins to interfere. Though it’s important to
maintain a “moderate level” of linguistic challenge, it’s also essential to let the child take the
initiative with language and not be overly directive (Landry and Smith, 2011).
We can observe children’s literacy development through their use of literacy materials. After
babies can purposefully grasp and manipulate objects, board books become a part of their
exploration. Infants between eight and 12 months who are read to regularly progress from
mouthing books to playing with the covers to turning pages. This book handling is usually
accompanied by babbling, which reflects an adult’s vocalizations during reading (Pinnell,
2018; Snow, Burns, and Griffin, 1998; North Central Regional Educational Laboratory).
As children continue to develop as language users, they learn the grammatical structure of
their language, expand their vocabulary, and gain metalinguistic skills. Metalinguistic skills
involve not only the ability to use language but also the ability to think about it, play with it,
ORAL LANGUAGE—THE FOUNDATION

EARLY
OF LITERACY
READERS 163
analyze it, talk about it, and make judgments about correct forms (Snow, Burns, and Griffin,
1998; Bennett-Armistead, Duke, and Moses, 2005; Hailey, 2014; Klein, 2014).
Young children also use their language in connection with everyday literacy events, such as
(with their parents’ help) searching for and clipping coupons, sorting the mail, checking the
TV guide for favorite shows, or following a recipe to make dinner—providing an opportunity
for researchers and caregivers to observe their ideas about literacy. In these ways, children
learn how to “connect life with literacy” (Pinnell, 2018; Morrow, 2008; Cunningham and
Zibulsky, 2013).
Questioning the 30-Million-Word Gap

In order to develop a robust vocabulary and extensive conceptual knowledge, children
need rich language input that enables them to understand what objects are called and
how they work or go together. Hart and Risely (1999) conducted a longitudinal research
study that examined parents’ talk to children among families from varying socioeconomic
levels—identified as welfare, working class, and professional families—and discovered
dramatic differences among the richness of words children from lower socioeconomic
levels heard compared to their peers from middle or more affluent levels.
Hart and Risley suggested that children from the wealthiest families heard 1,500-plus more
words each hour, on average, than children from economically challenged families (616 vs.
2,153 words each hour). Ultimately, children who are immersed in rich language may hear 30
million more words by the time they enter school than children who don’t have the same
opportunities. What’s more, children from more affluent households are more likely to hear
encouraging language used to accentuate the positive and support, rather than discouraging
language used to reprimand and criticize. And these essential differences are reflected in the
scores of the tests administered to the same children when they are nine and 10 years old.
In recent years, the Hart-Risely study has come under criticism:
Amid growing controversy about the oft-cited “30-million-word gap,” this

investigation uses language data from five American communities across the
socioeconomic spectrum to test, for the first time, Hart and Risley’s (1995) claim
that poor children hear 30 million fewer words than their middle-class counterparts
during the early years of life. The five studies combined ethnographic fieldwork with
longitudinal home observations of 42 children (18–48 months) interacting with family
members in everyday life contexts. Results do not support Hart and Risley’s claim,
reveal substantial variation in vocabulary environments within each socioeconomic
stratum, and suggest that definitions of verbal environments that exclude multiple
caregivers and bystander talk disproportionately underestimate the number of
words to which low-income children are exposed.
We want to avoid making assumptions about children’s language or literacy level based
simply on their families’ professional, educational, or economic status. Children arrive at
164 5: TEACH
school with a wide variety of experiences. The goal of an educator is to get to know each
child as a unique learner and work with the family to promote language and literacy both at
home and at school.
Fostering Oral Language

Immerse children in rich language—both oral and written—beginning at birth. We need
to speak directly to our young children every day; researchers suggest that for optimal
development, infants and toddlers should hear 30,000 words per day.
Children learn not only from language that you address to them, but also from language
they overhear around them (Au et al., 2002). Linguistic interaction has additional positive
effects on linguistic development (Pinnell, 2018).
Although exposure to language is essential, explicit “drilling” is not needed for the normally
developing child. Parents don’t so much “teach” the child, as the child discovers and builds
language. Children are “spontaneous apprentices” (Miller, 1976); they latch themselves to their
caregivers and learn from their every move, including absorbing the almost innumerable
ways in which adults use language, both oral and written (Klein, 2014).
Read to children, encourage them to ask questions and to talk about what is read, and
surround them with language through literacy. Reading aloud to children is tremendously
important but reading and discussing the reading is even more potent and beneficial
(Whitehurst et al., 1988; Laminack, 2016; Pinnell, 2018; Allyn and Morrell, 2016).
PLEXITY
Closing Thoughts
David Dickinsen and Patton Tabors (2002) address the three dimensions of oral language
experience linked to later literacy success:
Exposure to varied vocabulary. Knowing the “right word” is vital if one is to communicate
information clearly. We have long known that large vocabularies are instrumental to reading
success. A robust vocabulary also signals that children are building the content knowledge
about the world that is so critical to later reading (Neuman, 2001; Hiebert, 2019; Scharer, 2018).
Opportunities to be part of conversations that use extended discourse. Extended

discourse is talk that requires participants to develop understandings beyond the here and
now and that requires the speaker to use multiple sentences to build a linguistic structure,
such as in explanations, narratives, or pretend talk.
Home and classroom environments that are cognitively and linguistically stimulating.
Children are most likely to experience conversations that include comprehensible and
interesting extended discourse and are rich with vocabulary when their parents are able
to obtain and read good books—and when their teachers provide classrooms with a
curriculum that is varied and stimulating.
ORAL LANGUAGE—THE FOUNDATION

EARLY
OF LITERACY
READERS 165
References
Allyn and Morell, 2016. Every Child a Super Reader: Lust, B. (2006). Child Language: Acquisition and
7 Strengths to Open a World of Possible. New Growth. Cambridge: Cambridge University
York: Scholastic. Press.
Au, K. (1993). Literacy Instruction in Multicultural Mapp, K., Carver, I., and Lander, J. Powerful
Settings. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Partnerships: A Teacher’s Guide to Engaging
Jovanovich. Families for Student Success. New York:
Scholastic.
Bennett-Armistead, V., Duke, N. K., and Moses, A.M.
(2005). Literacy and the Youngest Learner: Best Morrow, L. (2008). Literacy Development in the
Practices for Educators of Children from Birth Early Years: Helping Children Read and Write.
to 5. New York: Scholastic. Boston: Pearson.
Cunningham, A., and Zibulsky, J. (2013). Book Smart. Neuman, S., and Roskos, K. (1993). Language
How to Develop and Support Successful, and Literacy Learning in the Early Years: An
Motivated Readers. New York: Oxford Integrated Approach. New York: Harcourt
University Press. Brace Jovanovich.
Dickinson, D., and Tabors, P. (2002). “Fostering Pinnell, G. S. (2018). “Oral Language as a
Language and Literacy in Classrooms and Foundation for Literacy.” In P. Scharer (Ed.),
Homes.” Young Children. Vol. 57(2). Responsive Literacy: The Comprehensive
Gopnik, A., and Meltzoff, A. (1997). Words, Thoughts
and Theories. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., and Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998).
Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Hailey, K. (2014). “ ‘V’ is for Victory.” In L. Bridges Children. Washington, DC: National Academy
(Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real Stories Press. Retrieved from: http://books.nap.edu/
About the Joy and Power of Reading. New html/prdyc
York: Scholastic.
Sperry, D., Sperry, L., Miller, P. (2018). “Reexamining
Hart, B., and Risely, T. (2003). “The Early the Verbal Environments of Children from
Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap.” Different Socioeconomic Backgrounds.” Child
Educator. Vol. 27. Development.
Klein, A. (2014). “On the Road: Talking My Way into Whitehurst, G., Falco F. L., Longian, C., Fischel, J.
Reading.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World E., DeBarsyshe, B. D., Valdez-Menchaca, M.
of Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and C., and Caufield, M. B. (1988). “Accelerating
Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic. Language Development through Picture-Book
Reading.” Developmental Psychology. Vol. 24.
Laminack, L. (2016). The Ultimate Read-Aloud
Resource. New York: Scholastic. Scharer, P. (2018).. Responsive Literacy: The
Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Landry, S., and Smith, K., “The Influence of
Scholastic.
Parenting on Emerging Literacy Skills,”
Handbook of Early Literacy Researc. Vol. 2.
166 5: TEACH
SPEAKING TWO (OR MORE)
LANGUAGES IS BETTER THAN ONE
“Language does not need to be only accepted. It needs to
be explored, expanded, and celebrated.”
—Dr. Alma Flor Ada, professor emerita, University of San Francisco
KEY FINDINGS
> One of the greatest feats of human development is language learning. Children
are well equipped, beginning at birth, to accomplish the complex task of learning
language (Lust, 2006).
> The benefits of growing up bilingual or multilingual are many, including a better
working memory, enhanced executive function, ability to switch easily from task
to task, and to persist in a challenging task. As Linda Espinosa (2013) states, “All
children appear to benefit cognitively, linguistically, culturally, and economically
from learning more than one language.”
> Learning a second language does not cause language confusion, language delay,
or AND
AUTHENTIC TEXTS cognitive deficit,
TEXT COM- which have been concerns in the past. In fact, according to
PLEXITY
studies at the Cornell Language Acquisition Lab (CLAL), children who learn a
second language can maintain attention in spite of outside stimuli better than
children who know only one language (Lust, 2006).
> Children will learn two languages best if they know that both languages are
important and valued. Children also need to have lots of fun and meaningful
opportunities to talk, read, and pretend-write in both languages (Freeman and
Freeman et al., 2016). Learning a second language also means learning a second
culture and new ways of being.
SPEAKING TWO (OR MORE) LANGUAGES IS BETTER

EARLYTHAN
READERS
ONE 167
More to Know: Linguistic Geniuses
Young children are very good at learning more than one language—and not only can they
learn multiple languages, they can learn when to speak and write each language and to
whom. The earlier they learn the second or third or fourth language, the more likely they are
to achieve native-like proficiency.
Still, the National Association for the Education of Young Children suggests that reading
and writing instruction is best implemented, whenever possible, in a student’s home
language:
For children whose primary language is other than English, studies have shown
that a strong basis in a first language promotes school achievement in a second
language (Cummins, 1979). Children who are learning English as a second language
are more likely to become readers and writers of English when they are already
familiar with the vocabulary and concepts in their primary language. In this respect,
oral and written language experiences should be regarded as an additive process,
ensuring that children are able to maintain their home language while also learning
to speak and read English (Wong Fillmore, 1991). Including non-English materials and
resources to the extent possible can help to support children’s first language while
children acquire oral proficiency in English.
Spend time with a child who is learning to speak and in no time you’ll hear language
that surprises and delights with its unique inventiveness, as children invent their way into
conventional language. Children do, indeed, say the darnedest things, but what they say is
always systematic and rule-governed, and it reflects their brilliant hypotheses about “how
language works”—and how they can use it to accomplish what they’re trying to do, whether
they are learning one language or several.
A sound foundation in the first language—spoken and written—creates the best conditions
for the acquisition of a second language. Research demonstrates the importance of
literacy in the first language for students’ full development of proficiency in the language
of instruction, subsequent academic success, and high levels of self-confidence. What’s
more, academic and linguistic skills transfer to the second language, even when the
target language has a dissimilar writing system from the first language (Cummins, 1991;
Goldenberg, 2011). For example, children who learned to read and write in Spanish in their
Honduran home and school do not have to start from scratch to learn to read in English in
their new American school.
168 5: TEACH
References
Ada, A. F. (2014). “My Communion with Books.” In Lust, B. (2006). Child Language: Acquisition and
L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real Growth. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading. Press.
Mah, G. (2014). “Worlds Possible beyond English.”
Ada, A. F. (1995). “Fostering the Home-School In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible:
Connection.” In J. Frederickson (Ed.), Real Stories About the Joy and Power of
Reclaiming Our Voices: Bilingual Education, Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Critical Pedagogy and Praxis. Ontario, CA:
California Association for Bilingual Education. Mora, P. (2014). “Bookjoy!” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open
a World of Possible: Real Stories About the Joy
Cummins, J. (1991). “Interdependence of First- and and Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Second-Language Proficiency in Bilingual
Children.” In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language Moua, M. (2014). “Navigating through Literacy.” In
Processing in Bilingual Children. Cambridge, L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real
UK: Cambridge University Press. Stories About the Joy and Power of Reading.
Cummins, J. (1979). “Linguistic Interdependence
and the Educational Development of Bilingual Puig, E. (2014). “Transcending Language. From Hola
Children.” Review of Educational Research. to Les Misérable.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a
Vol. 49. World of Possible: Real Stories About the Joy
and Power of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
Espinosa, L. (2013). Challenging Common Myths
about Young Dual Language Learners, An Rami, M. (2014). “Finding My Home in a New
Update to the Seminal 2008 Report. New York: Language.” In L. Bridges, (Ed.), Open a World
Foundation for Child Development. of Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and
Fillmore, L. W. (1991). “When Learning a Second
Language
AUTHENTIC TEXTS Means
AND TEXT Losing the First.” Early
COM-
Sandoval-Martinez, S. (1982). “Findings from the
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Childhood Research Quarterly. Vol. 6. Head Start Bilingual Curriculum Development
and Evaluation Effort..”NABE Journal, Vol. 7.
Freeman, Y., Freeman, D., Soto, M., and Ebe, A.
(2016). ESL Teaching: Principles for Success. Wong, J. (2014). “Reading Made Me Useful.” In L.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real
Freeman, Y., and Freeman, D. (2007). English New York: Scholastic.
Language Learners: The Essential Guide. New
York: Scholastic. Yang, S., and Lust, B. (2009). Discovering Child
Language and Cognitive Growth.” Department
Goldenberg, C. (2011). “Reading Instruction for of Human Development. Cornell University,
English Language Learners.” In M. Kamil, P.D. College of Human Ecology. Retrieved from:
Pearson, E. Birr Moje, and P. Afflerback (Eds.), www.hdtoday.human.cornell.edu/2009/02/
Handbook of Reading Research. Vol. IV. New discovering-child-language-and-cognitive-
York: Routledge. growth
SPEAKING TWO (OR MORE) LANGUAGES IS BETTER

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READERS
ONE 169
HOME READING CULTURE
“Young children who have access to books in the home
and who are read aloud to regularly have the best chance
of becoming successful readers.”
—Dr. Catherine Snow, professor of education, Harvard University
KEY FINDINGS
> Children raised in homes with more than 500 books spent three years longer
in school than children whose parents had only a few books. Growing up in a
household with 500 or more books is “as great an advantage as having university-
educated rather than unschooled parents, and twice the advantage of having a
professional rather than an unskilled father” (Evans, et al., 2010; Miller and Sharp,
2018).
> The results suggest that children whose parents have lots of books are nearly 20
percent more likely to finish college. Indeed, as a predictor of college graduation,
books in the home trump even the education of the parents. Even a child who
hails from a home with 25 books will, on average, complete two more years of
school than would a child from a home without any books at all (Evans, et al., 2010).
> Regardless of how many books the family already has, each addition to a home
library helps a child get a little farther in school. But the gains are not equally great
across the socioeconomic spectrum; rather, they are larger for families of more
modest means. Children from families with less gain more in the first few years
of school. Moreover, having books in the home has a greater impact on children
from the least educated families, versus children of the university-educated elite
(Evans, et al., 2010).
> In general, the books help establish a reading or “scholarly culture” in the
home—one that persists from generation to generation within families, largely
independent of education and class—creating a “taste for books” and promoting
the skills and knowledge that foster both literacy and numeracy and, thus, lead to
lifelong academic advantages (Evans et al., 2010; Miller and Sharp, 2018).
> According to the 2013 Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report, having parents
who serve as “reading role models”—or with many books in the home—has a
greater impact on kids’ reading frequency than household income.
170 5: TEACH
KEY FINDINGS
> Building reading into children’s schedules and regularly bringing additional books
into the home for children positively influences kids’ reading frequency (Mapp,
Carver and Lander, 2017; Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014).
> Children spend the vast majority of their time outside of school. Children who
don’t read outside of school are far less likely to become proficient readers
(Scharer, 2018, Harvey and Ward, 2017; Allyn and Morrell, 2016; Allington, 2012).
> Shirley Brice Heath (1983) noted that all it takes for a child to become a reader is
time spent with one joyfully literate person. In other words, when children have
access to books and are able to share them with reading mentors who love books
and reading, those children are more likely to thrive as readers.
More to Know: The Presence of Books and

Reading Role Models
A study titled “Family Scholarly Culture and Educational Success: Books and Schooling
in 27 Nations,” published in Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, produced the
astonishing claim that just the mere presence of books profoundly influences a child’s
PLEXITY
academic achievement. Conducted over 20 years, the research by Evans, Kelley, Sikorac, and
Treimand (2010) surveyed more than 70,000 people across 27 countries.
The authors report that their reading culture theory, backed by evidence, leads to the
following predictions:
• Parents’ participation in reading culture—which provides skills and knowledge—will

enhance children’s educational attainment in all societies, regardless of the parents’
formal education and social class.
• An increase in reading culture has the greatest impact on children from families with
little reading culture to begin with. For families with less, where books are rare, each
additional book matters the most: each additional book yields more “bang for your
book” among the book-poor than among the book-rich.
• A reading culture in the home matters more if parents are poorly educated, but matters
less if parents are well educated. In other words, the greatest impact of book access
occurs among the least educated and poorest families.
HOME READING
EARLY READERS
CULTURE 171
A note of caution: The authors write, “Our results do not in any way imply that formal
schooling cannot compensate for the absence of scholarly culture in the home; but the
results do highlight the fact that children from homes lacking in scholarly culture may
require special attention.”
Charles Bayless (2010) speaks also of a “reading culture” that develops in homes when
children are able to read and enjoy their own books in their own environment:
For the majority of young people, enthusiastic and habitual reading is the single
most predictive personal habit [leading to] desirable life outcomes. Enthusiastic and
habitual reading is primarily a function of the family environment and culture, and it
is most effectively inculcated in the earliest years (0–6) but can be accomplished at
any age. Creating a reading culture can be achieved objectively and through a series
of specific behaviors and activities undertaken by parents—but it requires access to
books, time, persistence, and consistency.
Of course, in today’s digital world, parents are facing new challenges as they work to inspire a
love of reading in their children. According to the Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report,
nearly half of parents say that their children do not spend enough time reading for fun and
spends too much time on social network sites or playing video games. Parents’ concerns
have increased since 2010 for children across all age groups (2013).
Closing Thoughts
The PIRLS researchers found a positive relationship between students’ reading achievement
in the fourth grade and parents having engaged their children in early literacy activities before
starting school (e.g., reading books, telling stories, singing songs, playing with alphabet toys,
and playing word games).
• The presence of children’s books in the home also continued to show a strong positive
relationship with reading achievement. The average reading achievement difference
between students from homes with many children’s books (more than 100) and those
from homes with few children’s books (10 or fewer) was very large (91 points, almost one
standard deviation). On average across countries, there was a slight decrease in parents’
reports of the number of children’s books in the home, perhaps reflecting increased
access to internet-based literacy media.
• In PIRLS 2006, on average across countries, 37 percent of the fourth-grade students

had parents who read more than five hours a week: 43 percent for one to five hours, and
20 percent for less than one hour a week. Not surprisingly, reading achievement was
highest for students whose parents had favorable attitudes toward reading.
172 5: TEACH
References
Atwell, N. (2014). “Secret Gardens.” In L. Bridges Mapp, K. Carver, I., and Lander, J. (2017). Powerful
(Ed.), Open a World of Possible: Real Stories Partnerships: A Teacher’s Guide to Engaging
About the Joy and Power of Reading. New Families for Student Success. New York:
York: Scholastic. Scholastic.
Bayless, C. (2010). “Growing a Reading Culture: Mapp, K. (2014). “Born to Read.” In L. Bridges (Ed.),
Just for Parents.” Retrieved from: www. Open a World of Possible: Real Stories About
slideshare.net/ThroughtheMagicDoor/ the Joy and Power of Reading. New York:
growing-a-reading-culture-1647123 Scholastic.
Colker, L. (2014). “What Can Families Do to Keep Miller, D., and Sharp, C. (2018). Game Changer!
Kids Reading During the Summer?” Reading Is Book Access for All Children. New York:
Fundamental. Retrieved from: www.rif.org/us/ Scholastic.
literacy-resources/articles/what-can-families-
do-to-keep-children-reading-during-the- Mullis, I. V. S., and Martin, M. O. (2007). Overview
summer.htm of PIRLS 2006 Results. Boston: International
Association for the Evaluation of Educational
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Smart: How to Develop and Support International Study Center.
Successful, Motivated Readers. New York:
Oxford University Press. Needlman, R. (2014). “How a Doctor Discovered
Reading.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World
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Educational Success: Books and Schooling in
27 Nations.” Research in Social Stratification Perkinson, K. (2014). “Getting Your Child to Love
and Mobility. Vol. 28. Reading.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department
of Education. Retrieved from: www.rif.org/us/
Harvey,
AUTHENTIC TEXTSS.,AND
andTEXT
Ward,COM-
A. (2017). From Striving to literacy-resources/articles/getting-your-child-
Thriving: How PLEXITY
to Grow Confident, Capable to-love-reading.htm
Reading Is Fundamental. (2014). “Motivating Kids
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with Words: Language, to Read: Teenagers and Reading,” Retrieved
Life, and Work in Communities and from: www.rif.org/us/literacy-resources/articles/
Classrooms. London: Cambridge University teenagers-and-reading.htm
Press.
Scharer, P. (2018). Responsive Literacy: The
Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report: Sixth Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Edition (2016). Commissioned by Scholastic Scholastic.
and conducted by YouGov.
Lindsay, J. (2010). Children’s Access to Print

Material and Education-Related Outcomes:
Findings from a Meta-Analytic Review.
Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates.
HOME READING
EARLY READERS
CULTURE 173
THE READ-ALOUD AND READING
ROLE MODELS BOOST LEARNING
“Reading aloud with children is known to be the single
most important activity for building the knowledge and
skills they will eventually require for learning to read.”
—Dr. Marilyn Adams, Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print
KEY FINDINGS
> The American Academy of Pediatricians (AAP) recommends that pediatricians

encourage parents to read aloud daily, beginning as early as six months of age
(2014). Dr. Pamela High, lead author of the APP policy explains the aim: “… Those
15-20 minutes spent reading with a child can be the best part of the day. It’s a
joyful way to build child-parent relationships and set a child on the pathway to
developing early literacy skills.”
> “A joyful relationship to books is part of what it means to be healthy”

(Needlman, 2014).
> “Having reading role model parents or a large book collection at home has more
of an impact on kids’ reading frequency than does household income” (Scholastic
Kids and Family Reading Report, 2013; Graeper, 2014; Hailey, 2014).
> Lisa Pinkerton (2018) explains the transformative power of the read-aloud: “As
students move through experiences with literary texts, they forge links between the
literature they experience and their own lives ...Walking in the shoes of characters
with experiences unlike their own can help to expand students’ understandings of
what it means to be human, building empathy for others.”
> Reading aloud increases your child’s vocabulary and attention span. Additionally,
reading aloud to your child is a commercial for reading. When you read aloud,
you’re whetting a child’s appetite for reading. A child who has been read to will
want to learn to read herself. She will want to do what she sees her parents doing.
But if a child never sees anyone pick up a book, she isn’t going to have that desire
(Miller and Sharp, 2018; Laminack, 2016; Trelease, 2013; Massaro, 2016).
174 5: TEACH
KEY FINDINGS
> “Children who have an enthusiastic reader as a role model may stay determined
to learn to read, even when facing challenges, rather than becoming easily
discouraged” (Cunningham and Zibulsky, 2014).
> The interactive read-aloud results in student gains in vocabulary (Beck and
McKeown, 2001), comprehension strategies and story schema (Van den Broek,
2001), and concept development (Scharer, 2018; Wasik and Bond, 2001; Pinnell
and Fountas, 2011).
More to Know: Doctor’s Orders:

Read Aloud Every Day
The American Academy of Pediatrics, which represents 62,000 pediatricians, recommends
reading aloud to infants from birth. As a result, our youngest children, from birth to age
three, stimulated by daily read-alouds, will enjoy a significant increase in important brain
development. The formal recommendation, in part, is meant to enhance young children’s
vocabulary development and other communication skills. The aim is increase the number
of words that children hear before they are able to speak and use the words. According to
research,
AUTHENTIC TEXTS ANDandTEXT
pediatric
COM- development, talking and singing to infants can result in advances
PLEXITY
in cognition that are recognizable as early as 18 months (Needlman, 2014; Massaro, 2016).
Reading Role Models Make a Difference

We’ve long believed that the parent-child read-aloud plays a pivotal role in helping
youngsters learn to read (Miller and Sharp, 2018; Scharer, 2018; Laminack, 2016; Graeper,
2014; Hailey, 2014). An intergenerational reading study provides the research to back that
belief. Indeed, the research demonstrates that not only is the read-aloud effective, the
strength of the relation between parent-child reading and outcome measures “is as strong
a predictor of reading achievement as is phonemic awareness.” The Scholastic Kids and
Family Reading Report (2016) also notes the critical importance of reading relationships
and books in the home: “Having reading role-model parents or a large book collection at
home has more of an impact on kids’ reading frequency than does household income.”
The available data on the read-aloud supports intergenerational literacy programs

intended to stimulate parent-preschooler reading as an effective way to better prepare
young children for beginning reading instruction. Book reading affects acquisition of
storybook language—syntax and vocabulary (“once upon a time,” for example)—that’s
unique to the written language used in children’s literature (Scharer, 2018; Lever and
Sénéchal, 2011; Sénéchal and Young, 2008; Bus, van IJzendoorn, and Pellegrini, 1995).
THE READ-ALOUD AND READING ROLE MODELS BOOST

EARLYLEARNING
READERS 175
Children acquire this language as they hear stories read aloud—which eventually aids in
reading comprehension. Furthermore, this meta-analysis shows that the effect of book
reading is not restricted to children of preschool age. However, the effect seems to
become smaller once children become conventional readers and are able to read on their
own. The data makes clear that parent-preschooler reading is a necessary preparation
for beginning reading instruction at school (Mapp et al., 2017; Bus, van IJzendoorn, and
Pellegrini, 1995).
Dominic Massaro (2016) compared the vocabulary that mothers used in conversation with
their young children versus the vocabulary that they shared while reading picture books
aloud to their children. The results were striking. Massaro found that picture books are two
to three times as likely as parent-child conversations (Pinnell, 2018; Hiebert, 2019) to include
a word that isn’t among the 5,000 most common English words. Indeed, picture books
include language that’s even more sophisticated than the typical adult conversation. For
example, Pout Pout Fish by Deborah Diesen features words such as “aghast” and “grimace.”
And another added bonus: reading to children encourages them to listen. And, as Massaro
notes, “Good listeners are going to be good readers.”
Closing Thoughts
We can begin to read to babies on the day they are born. Set aside time every day for
special reading time. Read aloud to children, and, as they grow, ask them to read aloud to
you, or encourage independent reading. Discuss with your children the different materials
that you are reading and why, the books you are reading to them, and the books that they
are reading on their own. As Jairrels (2009) notes, when children are read three stories a day,
by the time they enter first grade, they will have heard more than 6,000 books.
Create a “reading culture” inside the home (Jairrels, 2009): with cozy places to nestle with
books, reading routines throughout the day, dinner table discussions about what family
members are reading—including all the different print materials that pour into the house
every day. Talk with children about their interests, plan trips to the library, and find books
that will support and extend what interests your children most. Make books their first go-to
resource (Allyn and Morrell, 2016).
As author Emilie Buchwald wisely observed many years ago, “Readers are born on the laps
of their parents.” Mem Fox (2001) may have said it best of all:
The fire of literacy is created by the emotional sparks between a child, a book, and
the person reading. It isn’t achieved by the book alone, nor by the child alone, nor
by the adult who’s reading aloud—it’s the relationship winding between all three,
bringing them together in easy harmony.
176 5: TEACH
References
Allyn, P., and Morrell, E. (2016). Every Child a Super Construction.” Journal of Experimental Child
Reader: 7 Strengths to Open a World of Psychology. Vol. 108.
Possible. New York: Scholastic.
Mapp, K., Carver, I., and Lander, J. (2016). Powerful
Beck, I., and McKeown, M. (2001). “Text Talk: Partnerships: A Teacher’s Guide to Engaging
Capturing the Benefits of Read-Aloud Families for Student Success. New York:
Experiences for Young Children.” The Reading Scholastic.
Teacher. Vol. 55.
Massaro, D. (2016). “Two Different Communication
Bus, A., van IJzendoorn, M., and Pellegrini, A. Genres and Implications for Vocabulary
(1995). “Joint Book Reading Makes for Success Development and Learning to Read.” Journal
in Learning to Read: A Meta-Analysis on of Literacy Research.
Intergenerational Transmission of Literacy.”
Review of Educational Research. Volume 65 (1). Martini, F., and Sénéchal, M. (2012). “Learning
Literacy Skills at Home: Parent Teaching,
Cunningham, A., and Zibulsky, J. (2014). Book Smart: Expectations and Child Interest.” Canadian
How to Develop and Support Successful, Journal of Behavioral Sciences. Vol. 44.
Motivated Readers. New York: Oxford University
Press. Miller, D., and Sharp, C. (2018). Game Changers!
Fox, M. (2008). Why Reading Aloud to Children Will
Change Their Lives Forever, Second Edition. Needlman, R. (2014). “How a Doctor Discovered
New York: Mariner Books. Reading.” In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of
Possible: Real Stories About the Joy and Power
Gambrel, L. (2014). “Great Mentors, Great Teachers.” of Reading. New York: Scholastic.
In L. Bridges (Ed.), Open a World of Possible:
Real Stories About the Joy and Power of Pinkerton, L. (2018). Interactive Read-Aloud: The
Reading. New York: Scholastic. Bedrock of the Literacy Block. In P. Scharer,
(Ed.), Responsive Literacy: A Comprehensive
Graeper, J. (2014). “It’s Not the Easiest Thing to
PLEXITY Framework: New York: Scholastic.
Do with Your Child at the End of a Long Day.”
Retrieved from: oomscholasticblog.com/post/ Pinnell, G. S. (2018). Oral Language as a Foundation
its-not-easiest-thing-do-your-child-end-long-day of Literacy.” In Scharer, P. (Ed.), Responsive
Literacy: A Comprehensive Framework. New
Graeper, J. (2014). “We Know Reading York: Scholastic.
Aloud Is Important but Why?” Retrieved
from: oomscholasticblog.com/post/ Pinnell, G. S., and Fountas, I. (2011). Literacy
we-know-its-important-read-birthbut-why Beginnings: A Prekindergarten Handbook.
Jairrels, V. (2009). African Americans and
Standardized Tests: The Real Reason for Low Rich, M. (2014). “Pediatrics Group to Recommend
Test Scores. Sauk Village, IL: African American Reading Aloud to Children from Birth.” New
Images. York Times.
Juel, C. (2006). “The Impact of Early School Scharer, P. (2018). Responsive Literacy: A
Experiences on Initial Reading.” In D. K. Comprehensive Framework. New York:
Dickinson and S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook Scholastic.
of Early Literacy Research. Vol. 2. New York:
Sénéchal, M., and Young, L. (2008). “The Effect of
Guilford.
Family Literacy Interventions on Children’s
Laminack, L. (2016). The Ultimate Read-Aloud Acquisition of Reading from Kindergarten to
Resource. New York: Scholastic. Grade 3: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Review of
Educational Research. Vol. 78.
Lever, R., and Sénéchal, M. (2011). “Discussing
Stories: How a Dialogic Reading Intervention Trelease, J. (2013). The Read-Aloud Handbook, 7th
Improves Kindergarteners’ Oral Narrative Edition. New York: Penguin Books.
EARLY READERS 177

LIFETIME BENEFITS:
THE CASE FOR
INDEPENDENT READING
Renowned children’s librarian Frances Clark Sayers once famously declared, “I am summoned by
books!” Nearly two decades into the 21st century, such a declaration might seem quaint. But it is as
potent now as it was when Sayers first uttered the words more than 50 years ago. Although our
summons today may arrive via digital reader, the essence of books as a gateway to vibrant language,
transcendent content, and dimensions beyond our imaginations remains the same as ever. For that
reason, as we consider the skills that our students need to survive and thrive in the 21st century, let
us understand that we and our students have no more essential, life-enhancing resource than
the book.
The adage “a rising tide lifts all boats” is apt when we consider independent reading. When we
read independently, many other literacy skills and understandings rise too. We have decades
of research proving that avid readers are almost always skillful readers and strong writers. They
know more about the conventions of language such as spelling, punctuation, and grammar
because every time we open the pages of a book, we get a lesson on effective writing. Avid
readers have robust vocabularies and they know about the world. Reading makes us smart, and
reading changes us in ways that expand our understanding and soften our hearts (Beers and
Probst, 2017; Krashen, 2011; Sullivan and Brown, 2013; Cunningham and Stanovich, 2001).
Gay Ivey and Peter Johnston (2012) conducted their research inside a high-needs middle school
in Virginia that implemented independent reading without any other instruction. The students
were mostly reading novels and they were soon hooked, wanting to spend all their time deep
inside their books. Their test scores soared. What made the difference? “The kids hadn’t been
reading, and now they were” (Calkins et al., 2012).
As you’ve followed your own interests through the research compendium, we hope you’ll be
inspired as both an educator and parent—or a concerned citizen—to help the children you know.
I can learn about anything, travel anywhere, ask my own

questions, and seek my own answers because I read.
—Donalyn Miller, literacy educator and author
178 THE JOY AND

CHAPTER 3: EQUITY
POWER OF READING
179
LIFETIME BENEFITS: THE CASE FOR INDEPENDENT READING 179
Notes
Notes
SCHOLASTIC PRODUCES EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS TO ASSIST AND INSPIRE STUDENTS • TO
CULTIVATE THEIR MINDS TO UTMOST CAPACITY • TO BECOME FAMILIAR WITH OUR CULTURAL HERITAGE
• TO STRIVE FOR EXCELLENCE IN CREATIVE EXPRESSION IN ALL FIELDS OF LEARNING, LITERATURE, AND
ART • TO SEEK EFFECTIVE WAYS TO LIVE A SATISFYING LIFE • TO ENLARGE STUDENTS’ CONCERN FOR AND
UNDERSTANDING OF TODAY’S WORLD • TO HELP BUILD A SOCIETY FREE OF PREJUDICE AND HATE, AND
DEDICATED TO THE HIGHEST QUALITY OF LIFE IN COMMUNITY AND NATION • WE STRIVE TO PRESENT THE
CLEAREST EXPLANATION OF CURRENT AFFAIRS AND CONTEMPORARY THOUGHT, AND TO ENCOURAGE
LITERARY APPRECIATION AND EXPRESSION CONSISTENT WITH THE UNDERSTANDING AND INTERESTS
OF YOUNG PEOPLE AT ALL LEVELS OF LEARNING. • WE BELIEVE IN THE WORTH AND DIGNITY OF EACH
INDIVIDUAL • RESPECT FOR THE DIVERSE GROUPS IN OUR MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY • THE RIGHT OF EACH
INDIVIDUAL TO LIVE IN A WHOLESOME ENVIRONMENT, AND EQUALLY, THE PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY OF
EACH INDIVIDUAL TO HELP GAIN AND PRESERVE A DECENT AND HEALTHFUL ENVIRONMENT, BEGINNING
WITH INFORMED CARE OF ONE’S OWN BODY AND MIND • HIGH MORAL AND SPIRITUAL VALUES
• THE DEMOCRATIC WAY OF LIFE, WITH BASIC LIBERTIES — AND RESPONSIBILITIES — FOR EVERYONE •
CONSTITUTIONAL, REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT, AND EVEN-HANDED JUSTICE THAT MAINTAINS
EQUALITY OF RIGHTS FOR ALL PEOPLE • RESPONSIBLE COMPETITIVE ENTERPRISE AND RESPONSIBLE
LABOR, WITH OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL • COOPERATION AND UNDERSTANDING AMONG ALL PEOPLE FOR THE
PEACE OF THE WORLD • WE PLEDGE OURSELVES TO UPHOLD THE BASIC FREEDOMS OF ALL INDIVIDUALS •
WE ARE UNALTERABLY OPPOSED TO ANY SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OR SOCIETY THAT DENIES THESE
FREEDOMS • WE OPPOSE DISCRIMINATION OF ANY KIND ON THE BASIS OF RACE, CREED, COLOR, SEX,
SEXUAL ORIENTATION OR IDENTITY, AGE, OR NATIONAL ORIGIN • GOOD CITIZENS MAY HONESTLY DIFFER ON
IMPORTANT PUBLIC QUESTIONS. WE BELIEVE THAT ALL SIDES OF THE ISSUES OF OUR TIMES SHOULD BE
FAIRLY DISCUSSED — WITH DEEP RESPECT FOR FACTS AND LOGICAL THINKING — IN CLASSROOM MAGAZINES,
BOOKS, AND OTHER EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS USED IN SCHOOLS AND HOMES.
2319-04 11/19

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A SUMMARY OF RESEARCH AND EXPERT OPINION

Written by Lois Bridges, Ph.D.

CHAPTER 5: TEACH........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 131

CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LITERACY............................................................................................................................................................................. 161

LIFETIME BENEFITS: THE CASE FOR INDEPENDENT READING........................................................................................... 178

Reading Makes Us Smart

A childhood spent among books prepared

—Carol Jago, past president of the National Council of Teachers of English

WHAT READING MAKES POSSIBLE 3

• “Omnivorous reading in childhood and adolescence correlates positively with

In addition to increasing intellectual prowess and expanding vocabulary, reading also

The Reading Life

This research compendium aims to showcase decades of reliable reading research to

“Books have more than changed my life—

4 INTRODUCTION: WHAT READING MAKES POSSIBLE

• Readers: We profile early, adolescent, and boy readers—plus emerging bilinguals,

• Reading: High-volume readers build an expansive capacity to comprehend what

Instead, the compendium is meant to provide a brief introduction to the benefits of

HOW TO READ THE COMPENDIUM 5

Preschool Primary Grades Middle School High School College

Many of the texts I read as a child have been

—Dr. Alfred Tatum, dean of Curriculum and Instruction,

6 THE JOY AND POWER OF READING

> Adolescent Readers

> Diverse Learners

> Striving Readers

> “Learning to read represents the weaving together of multiple skills,

> The American Academy of Pediatricians (AAP) recommends that pediatricians

> Reading is superficially visual. “Visually perceived sequences of letters are

More to Know: The Miracle of Early

• Brain development is contingent on a complex interplay between genes

• Experiences wire the brain.

• Repetition strengthens the wiring.

• Brain development is nonlinear.

• Early relationships affect wiring.

How Literacy Develops and Predicts Later Academic Success

6. Interactions around writing. Adults engage in deliberate interactions with children

> Adolescent reading and writing practices “foster communication, relationships,

> Effective teachers understand the importance of adolescent choice and

What Adolescents Need

• Content-area teachers who provide instruction in the multiple literacy strategies

• A culture of literacy in their schools with a systematic and comprehensive

• Access to and instruction with multimodal texts

• Differentiated literacy instruction specific to their individual needs

• Opportunities to participate in oral communication when they engage in

• Opportunities to use literacy in the pursuit of civic engagement

• Assessments that highlight their strengths and challenges

• Access to a wide variety of print and non-print materials

More to Know: Boys Lag Academically

Scieszka, J. (2014). Guys Read: www.guysread.com

Scholastic Kids and Family Reading Report. (2016).

> “Translanguaging is the discursive norm in bilingual families and communities”

LEARNERS OF ENGLISH AS AN ALTERNATIVE LANGUAGE (EAL) 21

Language expert Ofelia Garcia explains “translanguaging” as a practice that enables

Moll and his colleagues initiated a series of teaching-learning experiments in

Teaching students to read in their first language promotes reading achievement

EAL learners need the following:

• Supports for Academic Vocabulary Acquisition What about all-important

– Interactive shared reading successfully supports EAL learners as well as native

Many of the texts I read as a child have been

6. Interactions around writing. Adults engage in deliberate interactions with children

> Background Knowledge