DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

CE403

Course Instructor : Dr. Nithin V.L

Connections
● The various elements of a steel structure are connected by fasteners.
● Connections in steel structures carry equal or more importance as the members.
● If the connections are inadequately designed/installed, the result will be a poor
structure in spite of the most efficiently designed member.
● Most of the failures of steel structures in past have revealed that connections are
the weakest link in a structure.
● Forces and stress distributions in connections are quite complex due to factors
such as geometric imperfections, geometric complexities, lack of fit, residual
stresses, etc., making it difficult to exactly assess and analyze the joints.
● To simplify the analysis and design, a number of assumptions and
approximations are made.
● Different types of fasteners - Rivets (obsolete), Bolts, Pins and Welds
● Ultimate aim of connection design is to produce a joint that is simple, compatible,
feasible, easy to fabricate and is safe and economical.
Riveted Connections
● Riveted connections have become obsolete in
structural constructions.
● An understanding of its behaviour and design will help
in the strength evaluation and rehabilitation of older
structures.
● Analysis and design of riveted connections are same
as that for ordinary bolts
● Rivet is made of a round ductile steel bar piece (mild
or high tensile) called shank, with a head at one end.
● The shank is made of the length to extend through the
parts to be connected and with sufficient extra length
for a second head to be made at the other end.
● Length of rivet to be used is grip (distance between
undersides of the two heads) of the rivet plus the
extra length required to form the second head.
Riveted Connections (Contd.)
● When the grip becomes long, the rivet is subjected to bending in addition to
bearing and shearing stresses.
● Grip length should not be more than 4 times rivet diameter. If the grip is more,
then the diameter should be proportionately larger. The grip has, therefore, an
important bearing upon the fixing of the rivet diameter.
● The head at the other end can be formed by hammering (when the rivet bar is red
hot), hydraulic pressure driving or by pneumatic pressure driving.
● A hole slightly greater than the rivet diameter is drilled in the parts to be
connected. The rivet is inserted and the head is formed at the other end by
hammering. This complete processis called riveting.
● The rivets may be placed in a cold state or in a red hot state.
● When the hot rived placed in the rivet hole is hammered (to form a head at other
end), it expands and fills the rivet hole completely.
Riveted Connections (Contd.)
● On cooling, the rivet shrinks both in length and diameter. Due to the shortening of
the rivet shank length, the connected parts become tighter.
● The use of cold driven rivets (rivets driven at room temperature) is limited as high
pressures are required to from the head at room temperature and it may not be
feasible to use the equipments for making the head in the field.
Bolted Connections
● A bolt is a metal pin with a head at one end and a shank threaded at the other
end, to receive a nut.
● Bolted connections are quite similar to riveted connections in behavior but have
some distinct advantages as follows :
○ The erection of the structure can be speeded up.
○ Less skilled persons are required.
○ The overall cost of bolted construction is cheaper than that of riveted construction because of
reduced labour and equipment costs and the smaller number of bolts required for resisting the
same load.
● Limitations to the use of bolts are the following:
○ Cost of material is high, about double that of rivets.
○ The tensile strength of the bolt is reduced because of area reduction at the root of the thread and
also due to stress concentration.
○ Normally, these are of a loose fit excepting turned bolts and hence their strength is reduced.
○ When subjected to vibrations or shocks, bolts may get loose.
● Holes for placing the bolts in the joints may either be drilled or punched.
Bolted Connections (Contd.)
Classification of Bolted Connections
● On the Basis of Resultant Force Transferred
○ Concentric connections － When the load passes through the CG of the section, e.g., axially
loaded tension and compression members
○ Eccentric connections － When the load is away from the CG of the connection, e.g., bracket
connections, seat connections;
○ Moment resisting connections － When joints are subjected to moments, e.g., beam to column
connections in framed structures.
● On the Basis of Type of Force
○ Shear Connections － When the load transfer is through shear, e.g., lap joint and butt joint;
○ Tension Connections － When the load is transferred by tension on bolts, e.g., hanger connection;
○ Combined Shear and Tension Connections when an inclined member is to be connected to a
column through bracket, e.g., connections of bracings.
● On the Basis of Force Mechanism
○ Bearing type － Bolts bear against the holes to transfer the force, e.g., slip-type connections;
○ Friction type － When the force is transferred by friction between the plates due to tensioning of
bolts, e.g., slip-critical connections.
Types of Bolts
● There are several types of bolts used to connect the structural elements.
However, the commonly used bolts are unfinished bolts and high-strength bolts.
● Unfinished Bolts - Also called Ordinary, Common, Rough or Black Bolts
○ These are used for light structures subjected to static loads and for secondary members such as
purlins, bracings, etc., and for roof trusses. They are not recommended for connections subjected
to impact load, vibration and fatigue.
○ These bolts are made from mild steel rods with square or hexagonal heads.
○ They are available from 5 to 36 mm in dia. and are designated as M5 to M36.
○ IS: 800 stipulates that the net tensile area of bolt to be considered is the area at the root of the
threads. This area is also called the stress area or proof area.
○ The ratio of net tensile area at root of threads to nominal plain shank area of bolt may be taken as
0.78 (as per IS: 1367 (part 1)).
○ The nuts on bolts are tightened with wrenches, producing little tension, and are called snug tight
bolts. No clamping force is induced on the sections jointed.
○ The grade of a bolt is represented in the form X.Y, where X indicates 1/100th of nominal ultimate
tensile strength and the decimal 0.Y indicates the ratio of yield strength to ultimate strength.
○ Grade 4.6 bolt will have ultimate strength of 400 N/mm2 and yield strength of 0.6✕400=240
N/mm2.
Types of Bolts (Contd.)
● High Strength Bolts - Also called Friction Type Bolts
○ They are made from bars of medium carbon heat-treated steel and from alloy steel.
○ These bolts may be tightened until they have very high tensile stresses (two or more times that of
ordinary bolts) so that the connected parts are clamped tightly together between the bolts and nut
○ heads. This permits loads to be transferred primarily by friction and not by shear.
○ Due to this friction, the slip in the joint (there in joints with ordinary bolts) is eliminated.
○ Care must be taken that bolts are tightened up to the required tension, otherwise slip may occur at
service loads and the joint will act as a bearing type joint.
○ High-strength bolted joints may be snug-tight and, slip-critical types. The type of joint used is
dependent on the type of load that the bolts will have to carry.
○ Snug tight bolts are much more economical to install and should be used where permitted.
○ In building construction, snug-tight bearing-type connections can be used for most cases, including
connections subject to stress reversal due to wind or low seismic loading. In situations where
fatigue is expected, the snug-tight bolts are not recommended.
○ A slip-critical connection is achieved when the snug-tight bolts are further tightened until they reach
a fully tensioned condition.
Types of Bolts (Contd.)
● High Strength Bolts (Contd. from previous slide)
○ As the bolts are in tension up to proof load, loosening of nut and washer is checked. Because of
this property, the vibrations and impact resistance of the joint is also improved. Slip-critical
connections are most suitable for bridges where stress reversal may occur or slippage is
undesirable.
○ Due to their high tensile strength as compared to ordinary (black) bolts, a fewer bolts are required
for making the connection.
○ The high strength bolts are available in sizes from 16 to 36 mm and are designated as M16, M20,
M24 and M30. These bolts are identified by the property class identification symbol such as 8S,
8.8S, 10S or 10.9S embossed on the head of the bolt. Here, S stands for high strength.
○ The specifications for high strength bolts are laid in IS: 3757-1985 and IS: 4000-1992. High
strength bolts have replaced rivets and ordinary (black) bolts and are being used in structures,
such as high rise buildings, bridges, machines, etc.
Types of Bolted Joints
Lap Joint
● There are two types of bolted joints subjected
to axial forces (the loads are assumed to pass
through the centre of gravity of the group of
bolts) : Lap joint and butt joint.
● Lap Joint Single Bolted
Lap Joint
○ Members to be connected are overlapped and
connected together.
○ Load in lap joint has eccentricity, as CG of the load in
one member and the CG of load in the second member
are not in the same line. A couple is formed which
causes undesirable bending in the connection and the
bolts may fail in tension. To minimize this bending Double Bolted
effect, at least two bolts in a line should be provided. Lap Joint

○ Due to eccentricity, stresses are distributed unevenly

across contact area between the bolts and the
connected members. This puts a limitation on the use Eccentricity in
of lap joints. Lap Joint
Types of Bolted Joints (Contd.) Single-Cover
Butt Joint

● Butt Joint (Contd. from previous slide)

○ Two members to be connected are placed end to end.
Additional plate/plates (cover plates) is/are placed on
one/both sides and is/are connected to the main plates. Single Bolted
Single Cover
○ Single Cover Butt Joint - Single cover plate on one side Butt Joint
○ Double Cover Butt Joint - Cover plates on both sides
Double Bolted
○ Butt joint is better than lap joint for two main reasons : Single Cover
■ In double cover butt joint, total shear force to be Butt Joint
transmitted by the members is split into two parts
and the force acts on each half. But in the case of
Double-Cover
lap joints, there is only one plane on which the force Butt Joint
acts and, hence, the shear-carrying capacity of a
double cover butt joint is double that of a lap joint.
■ In the case of a double cover butt joint, eccentricity
of forces does not exist as in lap joint. Hence the
Single Bolted Double
bending effect is eliminated. Cover Butt Joint

Double Bolted Single

Cover Butt Joint
Bearing Type Connection and Slip-Resistant Connection
● Depending upon the type of bolts (ordinary or high-strength bolts), the connection maybe bearing-type
connection and the latter the slip-critical or slip-resistant connection.
● Bearing type Connection - Load transfer by shear and bearing (Ordinary or High Strength bolts are used)
○ In bearing type connection, bolts are brought to snug tight condition. When loads are applied,
slipping of the bolt will take place (when the negligible initial friction resistance is overcome). Then
the bolts will be placed in shear and bearing.
● Slip-critical or Slip-Resistant Connection - Load transfer by bearing (High strength bolts are used)
○ In slip-resistant connections, a very high tension is obtained in the high-strength bolts resulting in
large clamping forces and large amounts of frictional resistance to slipping. The entire forces are
resisted by friction and the joints are not placed in shear or bearing.
○ The bolts are first brought to snug-tight condition and are then further tightened. Joints with so
tightened bolts are also called pre-tensioned joints. However, when the load exceeds the frictional
resistance there will be slippage and consequently the bolts will be placed in shear and bearing
and will behave like bearing-type joint.
○ When the high-strength bolts are snug tightened only, there will be negligible friction between the
plates. On the application of loads the plates slip a little and the load will tend to shear the bolts off
on the interface (the plane between the plates) and press or bear against the side of the bolts. The
load transfer will be as for bearing-type connection.
Bearing Type Connection and Slip-Resistant Connection
(Contd.)

Force transfer mechanism in

Bearing Type Connection

Force transfer mechanism in

Slip Critical Connection
Failure of Bolted Joints
● The bolted joints may fail in any of the following six ways :
● Shear Failure of Bolts : Shear stresses are generated when the plates slip due to
applied forces. Shear failure of the bolt takes place at the bolt shear plane
(interface). The bolt may fail in single shear or double shear.
● Bearing Failure of Bolts : When an ordinary bolt is subjected to shear forces, the
slip takes place and bolt comes in contact with the plates. The bolt is crushed
around half circumference. Bearing failure of bolts generally does not occur in
practice except when plates are made of high strength steel and the bolts are of
very low grade steel.
● Bearing Failure of Plates : Bearing failure is occurring due to crushing of the
plate, as the plate material is weaker than the bolt material. The bolt spacing and
end-distance will influence the bearing strength.
● Shear Failure of Plates : When an ordinary bolt is subjected to bearing against
the plate, it cause plate in front of it to fail by shearing of the plate.
Failure of Bolted Joints (Contd.)
● Tension Failure of Bolts : Bolts subjected to tension may fail at the stress area.
● Tension or Tearing Failure of Plates : Tearing failure by occurs when the bolts are
stronger than the plates. Tension on both the gross area (yielding) and net
effective area (rupture) must be considered.
● Block Shear Failure : Bolts may have been placed at a lesser end-distance than
required causing the plates to shear out which, however, can be checked by
observing the specifications for end-distance. The failure of connections in block
shear may occur when a block of material within the bolted area breaks away
from the remainder area. The possibility of this increases when high strength
bolts are used; fewer bolts will be used for making connection. This type of failure
occurs with shear on one plane and tension on perpendicular plane leading to
tearing of hatched portion of the plate.
Failure of Bolted Joints (Contd.)

Tensile failure of plate

Shear failure of plate
Shear failure of bolt

Block Shear
Bearing failure of plate Bearing Failure
failure of bolt

Tensile failure of bolt