Unit – 2

Mechanical behaviour of materials

Study Material Compiled by: Dr. P. Sagayaraj

Head & Associate Professor of Physics, Loyola College, Chennai

Technical Assistance by:

Mr. R. Mahesh, Research Scholar, Department of Physics, Loyola College, Chennai

Contents
2 Introduction 2

2.1 Elastic behavior 4

2.2 Atomic model of elastic behaviour 4

Young’s modulus 5

Poisson’s ratio 6

Shear modulus 6

Bulk modulus 6

2.3 The modulus as a parameter of design 6

2.4 Rubber-like elasticity 8

2.5 Plastic deformation 11

2.6 Tensile stress - strain curve 12

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2. Introduction

Fig 1. The atoms of a metallic solid are distributed on a repetitive three-

dimensional lattice. The springs represent interatomic forces.

When a large number of atoms come together to form a metallic solids,

such as an iron nail, they settle into equilibrium position in a three-
dimensional lattice, a repetitive arrangement in which each atom is a well-
defined equilibrium distance from its nearest neighbours. The atoms are held
together by interatomic forces that are modeled as tiny springs in fig 2a.
The lattice is remarkably rigid, which is another way of saying that the
“interatomic springs” are extremely stiff. It is for this reason that we
perceive many ordinary objects, such as metal ladders, tables, and spoons, as
perfectly rigid. Of course, some ordinary objects, such as garden hoses or
rubber gloves, do not strike us as rigid at all. The atoms that make up these
objects do not form a rigid lattice like that of figure but are aligned in long,
flexible molecular chains, each chain being only loosely bound to its
neighbours.

All real “rigid” bodies are to some extent elastic, which means that we
can change their dimensions slightly by pulling, pushing, twisting or
compressing them. To get a feeling for the orders of magnitude involved,
consider a vertical steel rod 1 m long and 1 cm in diameter attached to a
factory ceiling. If you hang a subcompact car from the free end of such a
rod, the rod will stretch but only by about 0.5 mm or 0.05%. Furthermore,
the rod will return to its original length when the car is removed.

If you hang two cars from the rod, the rod will be permanently
stretched and will not recover its original length when you remove the load.
If you hang three cars from the rod, the rod will break. Just before rupture,

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the elongation of the rod will be less than 0.2%. Although deformation of this
size seems small, they are important in engineering practices. (Whether a
wing under load will stay on an airplane is obviously important.)

Figure shows three ways in which a solid might change its dimensions
when forces act on it. In Fig (a), a cylinder is stretched. In Fig. (b), a cylinder
is deformed by a force perpendicular to its long axis, much as we might
deform a pack of cards or a book. In Fig (c), a solid object placed in a fluid
under high pressure is compressed uniformly on all sides, what the three
deformation types have is common is that a stress, or deforming force per
unit area, produces a strain, or unit deformation, in a below figure, tensile
stress (associated with stretching) is illustrated in fig (a), shearing stress in
fig (b), and hydraulic stress in fig (c).

The stresses and the strains take different forms in the three
situations of Fig, but over the range of engineering usefulness-stress and
strain are proportional to each other. The constant of proportionality is
called the modulus of elasticity.

Stress ∝ strain

Stress = Modulus of elasticity × strain (2.1)

Fig 2 (a) A cylinder subject to tensile stress stretches by an amount ∆L. (b)
A cylinder subject to shearing stress deforms by an amount ∆x,
somewhat like a pack of playing cards would. (c) A solid sphere subject
to uniform hydraulic stress from a fluid shrinks volume by an amount
∆V. All the deformations shown are greatly exaggerated.

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2.1 Elastic Behaviour

Brittle materials, such as concrete, cast iron and silicate glasses, under
tensile stress show elastic deformation right up to the point of fracture.
Ductile materials such as annealed copper and aluminium are elastic up to a
certain stress called the elastic limit. Thereafter, they plastically deform. In
both these groups of materials, within the elastic limit, the strain produced is
directly proportional to the stress applied, as given by Hooke’s law. This
behaviour can be called ordinarily elastic (or truly elastic) behaviour. In
rubber-like behaviour, the elastic strain is very large and is not a linear
function of stress.

2.2 ATOMIC MODEL OF ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR

Fig 3. The interatomic force-distance curve. Changing the bond length

from r0 to r” requires an external force of magnitude F’ or F”.

The potential energy of a pair of atoms and interatomic forces

between them is shown as a function of their distance of separation ‘r’

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A general expression for the P.E ‘W’ is
𝐴 𝐵
𝑊 = − 𝑟𝑛 + 𝑟𝑚 (2.2)

Where A, B, n, and m are constants and m > n

Negative term on RHS represents attractive energy.

Positive term represent mutual repulsive energy between the atoms at

closest distances of approach.

The net interatomic force F is the negative derivative of W w.r.t r:

𝑑𝑊
𝐹=− (2.3)
𝑑𝑟

at equilibrium distance of separation r0,The P.E is minimum and F = 0 (Fig. 3)

In order to decrease or increase the interatomic distance from r0 to r’

or r”. An external force Fapp equal in magnitude but opposite in sign must be
applied.
𝑑𝑊
𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 = −𝐹 = (2.4)
𝑑𝑟

To decrease (in Fig. 3) the distance from r0 to r’, a compressive force

F’ must be applied and to increase the distance from r0 to r” a tensile force
F” must be applied.

A tangent to the force – distance curve drawn at r0 practically

coincides with the curve over small range of displacement on either side of r 0.

Then the negative of the slope of the F vs r curve at r0 is proportional

to the Young’s modulus ‘Y’ of the material.

The curvature of the potential energy curve is proportional to the

elastic modulus,

𝑑𝐹 𝑑2 𝑊
𝑌 ∝ − 𝑑𝑟 = (2.5)
𝑑𝑟 2

The curvature obtained above is also equal to the slope of the Force-distance
curve. To obtain Y we can take that the force is acting over an area of 𝑟02 so
that
(𝑑𝐹⁄ 2 )
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟0
𝑌 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑𝑟
(2.6)
( ⁄𝑟0 )

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 1 𝑑2 𝑊
= 𝑟 (𝑑 2 𝑟 2 ) (2.7)
0 𝑟=𝑟0

Materials with strong bonds have a deep potential energy well with a sharp
curvature. Hence, strong bond result in large values for the elastic
modulus.

DEFINITION OF POISSON’S RATIO AND INTERRELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN MODULI

The application of a tensile stress causes an elongation 𝛆l along the

tensile axis and transverse contraction εt. The ratio of these strains defines
Poisson ratio.
−𝜀𝑡
𝜈= 𝜀𝑙

(2.8)

For metals ν ~ 0.3

Polymers & rubber ν ~ 0.4 to 0.5

Ionic solid ν ~ 0.2

Shear modulus μ related to Y and 𝛎.

Shear Modulus is defined as ratio if shear stress applied to the shear

strain. The shear modulus μ is related to young’s modulus (Y) through poisson
ratio (𝛎) as
𝑌
𝜇 = 2(1+𝜈) (2.9)
Bulk modulus K, is the ratio of hydrostatic stress to relative volume
change and is related to Y as
𝑌
𝐾 = 3(1−2𝜈) (2.10)

2.3 THE MODULUS AS A PARAMETER IN DESIGN

The stiffness of a material is its ability to resist elastic deformation

or deflection on loading. The stiffness is dependent on the shape of the
structural component. For identical shapes, it is proportional to the elastic
modulus. Therefore, the elastic modulus is an important material parameter in

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mechanical design. Materials with high stiffness and hence high modulus
are often required.

Covalently bonded elements such as diamond have a very high modulus

(1140 GN m-2). However, they are not suitable for use in engineering practice,
due to high cost, non-availability and brittleness. Brittle materials cannot
withstand accidental overloading during service and may fail in a catastrophic
manner. Hence, they are not suitable as structural members, even though
they may have a high modulus.

Ductile elements such as metals withstand accidental overloading

without catastrophic failure and as such are suitable for structural
components. Among the metals, the elements of the first transition series
offer a good compromise of adequate ductility and a moderately high
modulus, in the range of 200 GN m-2. The metals of the second and the
third transition series have an even higher modulus but have the
disadvantage of high density. By suitable alloying, the young’s modulus of
metals can be increased. However, the modulus being a structure insensitive
property, it can be increased only in proportion to the concentration of the
higher modulus solute that is added.

In spite of their plasticity, polymers are not suitable for applications

where high stiffness is required. They have a low modulus, as the chain are
bonded together by secondary bonds. The value of the modulus is dependent
on the nature of the secondary bonding (Van der Waals or hydrogen
bonding), the presence of bulky side groups, branching in the chains and cross
linking. For example, unbranched polyethylene has a Young’s modulus of 0.2
GN m-2 whereas polystyrene with a large phenyl side group in the monomer
has modulus of 3 GN m-2. (Three dimensionally bonded network polymers such
as phenol formaldehyde and fully cross-linked rubber (ebonite) have a
modulus in the range 3-5 GN m-2). It is evident that polymers as a whole have
much moduli as compared to other primarily bonded materials. This places a
severe restriction on the use of polymers as structural components.

In composite materials, an attempt is made to increase the stiffness,

without the disadvantages of brittleness. Boron has a low density and is
suitable for light weight applications and for air borne structures. Its elastic
modulus is one of the highest for elements (Y=400 GN m-2), but it is brittle.

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It can be used as a reinforcing fibre for a ductile matrix (such as Al). In the
Al-B composites, the elastic modulus is increased due to the presence of the
boron fibres. At the same time, the disadvantages of the brittleness of
boron are countered, by the cushioning effect of the ductile matrix. The
ductile matrix stops a propagating crack, if a fibre embedded in it breaks
accidentally. If the entire material were to consist of boron only, a
propagating crack would culminate in the fracture of the entire cross-
section. The young’s modulus Yc of a composite in a direction parallel to the
fibres can be expressed as a linear function of the moduli of the fibre and
the matrix, Yf and Ym

𝑌𝐶 = 𝑉𝑓 𝑌𝑓 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑌𝑚 (2.11)

Where Vf and Vm are the volume fractions of the fibre and the matix.
Thus, a 40 vol% of boron in an aluminium matrix can raise the Young’s modulus
from 71 GN m-2 for pure aluminium to 2019 GN m-2 for the composite. This
composite would then be as stiff as steel but less than one-third its density.
The volume fraction of the fibre in a composite material cannot be increased
indefinitely, as at some the problems of aligning the fibres and keeping them
separated from one another become serious.

2.4 RUBBER-LIKE ELASTICITY

Materials which undergo recoverable deformation of a few hundred

percent are called elastomers and exhibit Rubber like Elasticity.

The stress is not proportional to strain in these materials. Elastomers

are long chain molecules with some cross-linking between the chains. This
cross-linking is important, because this feature keeps the molecules from
slipping past one another (permanently) during stretching. When a stress is
applied to an elastomer, equilibrium in the molecular configuration is
established very quickly, so that we can ignore the time dependent aspect
of stretching.

In the unstrectched state, the chain molecules are randomly coiled. A

large number of configurations of equal P.E is then possible. This large
number of distinguishable arrangements means an appreciable configurational
entropy and a very low free energy. On application of an external stress, the
coiled molecules respond by stretching out. The stretching reduces the

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number of possible configurations (as all move only in one direction) and hence
lowers the configurational entropy.

The coiling and uncoiling of long chain molecule in an elastomer is

illustrated in Fig. Experimental results indicate that the change in the
enthalpy (bond energy) on stretching a rubber is zero

The stretching merely uncoils the coiled molecules, but does not
change the bond lengths or bond angle. This behavior is in contrast to
ordinary elastic material.

(a)
(b)

Fig 4. The coiling (a) and uncoiling (b) of an elastomer chain molecules as a
function of tensile stress and temperature.

Using the experimental results and the 1st and 2nd law of
thermodynamics, it can show that the stretching force F at temperature T
is related to entropy S and length L of the material as follows:
𝜕𝑆
𝐹 = −𝑇 (𝜕𝐿) (2.12)
𝑇

From Boltzmann’s equation for configurational entropy, we can write

the entropy change for a change in length from L0 to L as:
𝑤
𝑆 − 𝑆0 = 𝑘 ln (𝑤 ) (2.13)
0

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 where, S0 and w0 are the entropy and the number of possible
configurations before stretching and S and w represent the same quantities
after stretching.

Using permutations, the change in entropy in terms of length is expressed

as:

1 𝐿 2 𝐿
𝑆 − 𝑆0 = − 2 𝑁0 𝑘 [(𝐿 ) + 2 ( 𝐿0 ) − 3] (2.14)
0

Where N0 is the number of chain segments between cross-linking points.

Combining equations (2.12) & (2.13) , we get:

𝑁0 𝑘𝑇 𝐿 𝐿 2
𝐹= [(𝐿 ) − ( 𝐿0 ) ] (2.15)
𝐿0 0

This is the equation of state of the Rubbery material.

It can be also written as

𝜙(𝐹, 𝐿, 𝑇) = 0 (2.16)

If this function Φ is continuous and single valued, there is a theorem of

differential calculus which states that:
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑇
(𝜕𝐿 ) (𝜕𝑇) (𝜕𝐹) = −1 (2.17)
𝑇 𝐹 𝐿

Which can be verified experimentally. The stress-strain curve of an

elastomer is shown in fig. The dotted curve is calculated from Eq. (2.15). The
experimental curve follows the dotted curve up to a large amount of strain.
The steep increase in the slope of the experimental curve in the later stages
can be attributed to bond stretching in the straightened-out molecules. Bond
stretching is not accounted for in Eq. (2.15).

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 Fig 5 The stress-strain curve for an elastomer

2.5 PLASTIC DEFORMATION

The permanent deformation of materials on the application of load

can be either plastic deformation or creep.

In crystalline materials, at temperatures lower that ~ 0.4 Tm, where

Tm is the melting point in Kelvin, the permanent deformation is called plastic
deformation.

In this temperature range, the amount of deformation that occurs

after the application of load is small enough to be ignored. The rate at
which the material is deformed may, however, play a role in determining the
deformation characteristics.

At temperatures above ~ 0.4 Tm permanent deformation occurs also as

a function of time, following the application of the load. This behavior is
termed as creep.

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The tensile Stress – Strain curve.

Fig 6. The tensile load-elongation curve and the true

stress-true strain curve for a ductile material.

Plastic deformation can occur under tensile, compressive or torsional

loads. A typical tensile stress-strain curve is shown in figure 6. The applied
load is plotted against the elongation or extension of the specimen.

The applied load P divided by the initial cross-sectional area A0 of

the specimen is known as engineering stress.
𝑃
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (2.18)
𝐴0

Engineering strain is given by the fractional increase in the gauge length l0

∆𝑙
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (2.19)
𝑙0

Where ∆l is the increase in gauge length.

The deformation of the specimen is elastic up to the yield point,

beyond which it becomes plastic.

Beyond the yield point, the linear elastic region is followed by a non-
linear plastic region. In this region, the load required to cause further
deformation increases with increasing strain. This phenomenon is called
“WORK HARDENING”.

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 The slope of the load-elongation curve decreases, as the elongation
increases. It becomes zero at some maximum load. The engineering stress
corresponding to the maximum load is called the ultimate tensile strength
(UTS) of the material.

Beyond this maximum, a neck forms somewhere in the middle of the

specimen, where the cross-sectional area locally decreases. The applied load
decreases up to the point of fracture, where the specimen breaks into two
pieces across the reduced cross-section of the neck.

True stress is the actual stress, which is the applied load divided
by the minimum cross sectional area Ai of the specimen at any instant.
𝑃
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (2.20)
𝐴𝑖

And true strain is the increase in length expands as a fraction of

length at any instant.
𝑙 𝑑𝑙
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ∫𝑙 [ 𝑙 ] (2.21)
0

The true stress-strain curve is plotted in Fig (b). Unlike the load-
elongation curve there is no maximum in the true-stress-strain curve. The
slope in plastic region decreases with increasing strain, but does not become
zero before fracture. This indicates that there is no work softening beyond
the maximum in the load-elongation curve.

If σ – true stress

ε – true strain then

The POWER RELATIONSHIP between σ and ε is given by

𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 (2.22)

(K – Strength coefficient & n- work hardening exponent)

Materials with high work hardening exponent such as copper and

brass (n ~ 0.5) can give large plastic strain more easily than those which
have smaller n (e.g. Heat treated Steel n = 0.15)

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 If however, the rate of strain is varied over several orders of
magnitude, the stress – strain curve may change as a function of strain rate
𝜺̇ .

Another power relationship can be used to express σ at a given strain

ε in terms of strain rate έ.

𝜎 = 𝐴𝜀̇ 𝑚 (2.23)

Where A is constant and m is the index of strain rate sensitivity.

If m = 0, stress is independent of strain.

m ~ 0.2 for common metals

m = 0.4-0.9, the material exhibits super plastic behavior i.e. deform by

several hundred percent of strain without necking. (E.g. some stainless steels,
aluminium alloy with very fine grain size). The region is as soon as the necking
starts in some region, the strain rate increases locally, resulting in a rapid
increase of stress required to cause further deformation. m=1, the material
behaves like a viscous liquid and exhibits Newtonian flow.

Books for study

1. Raghavan V – Materials Science and engineering – a first course, IIIEd,
PHI 1990
2. Arumugam – Materials Science – Anuradha agencies & publishers, 1990
3. Gandhi M V and Thompson B S Smart Materials and Structures. Chapman &
Hall 1992

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