The Teacher Educator

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Using teacher narrative research in teacher

development

Gretchen Schwarz

To cite this article: Gretchen Schwarz (2001) Using teacher narrative research in teacher
development, The Teacher Educator, 37:1, 37-48, DOI: 10.1080/08878730109555279

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 USING TEACHER NARRATIVE RESEARCH IN
TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

Gretchen Schwarz
School of Curriculum and Educational Leadership
Oklahoma State University
Abstract
Professional development is key to ongoing school reform, and effective
and empowering professional development should begin in teacher educa-
tion. Too often both current inservice and preservice professional develop-
ment depend on generic prescriptions, unrelated to the actual daily lives
of teachers, and unresponsive to diverse individual needs. The author
argues that teacher development should be humanistic, constructivist,
and should recognize and encourage teachers' voices. One means for such
development is teacher narrative research, teacher inquiry built on
teacher lore or story. Several examplesfrom students are provided that
demonstrate how such research and narrative meet the human needs of
preservice teachers; help new teachers construct, both individually and
with their peers, knowledge about teaching; and acknowledge diverse
voices in education.
Professional development, from preservice to inservice education,
has become a major theme as school reform efforts continue. In
1994, teacher education and professional development was added to
the original six National Education Goals (Dilworth & Imig, 1995,
p. 1). As McClure (1991) stated, "Professional growth is at the heart
of school renewal, and ultimately, the restructuring of American
education" (p. 221). Despite the rhetoric, professional development
opportunities for inservice teachers have changed too little, and the
focus of preservice teacher education generally remains on traditional,
top-down competency training. Teacher narrative research is one
means of offering teachers more authentic professional development
for ongoing school improvement beginning in teacher education
programs.
In spite of increased attention to professional development,
teachers are still subjected to one-size-fits-all training so they can
implement the latest fad or policy. Lieberman (1995) observed,
"Most of the inservice training or staff development teachers are now
exposed to is of a formal nature. Unconnected to classroom life, it is

37
often a melange of abstract ideas that pays little attention to the
ongoing support of continuous learning and changed practices" (p.
592). Likewise, most common teacher education reforms center
around quality control measures such as state or national
standardized tests, mandated performance and/or portfolio checklists,
and compliance with external accreditation standards. Preservice
teachers have even less voice or choice than inservice teachers in their
education and hence little to no practice in designing their own
ongoing development. Authentic professional development should
recognize the genuine needs of teachers as diverse human beings and
as thoughtful adult learners, even in preservice education; it should
include opportunities that are humanistic and constructivist and that
recognize teachers' voices in the process. Humanistic can be a slippery
term, but here it is used to indicate what Merriam-Webster's Collegiate
Dictionary (1999) terms an emphasis on "an individual's dignity and
worth and capacity for self-realization" (p. 564). Humanistic also
acknowledges the whole human being, affective as well as cognitive
capacities. Brooks and Brooks (1993) defined constructivism as a
theory about knowledge and learning in which, as teachers and
learners, "we construct our own understandings of the world in
which we live. We search for tools to help us understand our
experiences" (p. 4). Teacher narrative research is one approach that is
humanistic, constructivist, and honors teachers' voices. Teacher
narrative research is teacher research built on narratives of experience,
a combination of teacher story and teacher research. Teacher narrative
can serve as both the impetus for research and a method of inquiry.
Teacher research has captured the attention of a growing number
of educators, kindergarten to university, because it seems realistic,
accessible, useful and also empowers teachers as reflective
practitioners (see, for example, Hollingsworth & Sockett, 1994).
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1993) defined teacher research as
"systematic and intentional research carried out by teachers" (p. 7).
They argued, as follows:
[John Dewey] emphasized the importance of teachers' reflecting on their
practices and integrating their observations into their emerging theories of
teaching and learning. He urged educators to be both consumers and
producers of knowledge about teaching—both teachers and students of
classroom life. (p. 9)
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999), reflecting on a decade of the
teacher researcher movement, added, "In its broadest sense, the
emphasis of the movement is on teacher as knower and as agent for

38
change . . ." (p. 22). Teacher research then can be powerful
professional development/teacher education. Similarly, teacher
narrative or teacher lore has become the focus of a growing number
of educators who see narrative propelling reflection. Jalongo and
Isenberg (1995) concentrated on the teacher personal narrative,
which they described as follows:
tedcher, written by (autobiographical) or about (biographical) classroom
teachers; personal, educational incidents that were personally experienced
and are used as tools for reflection; narrative or story, event-structured
material, told or written, that documents lived classroom experience,
(p. 4)
Proefriedt (1994), telling the story of his own development as a
teacher, recounted the power of teacher stories, conversations in a car
or tales told in the pub with other teachers, that helped him grow in
the classroom. He concluded:
Learning to be a teacher turned out for me to be much like learning to be
a person . . . This sort of rational discourse about teaching—a discourse
shaped by everyday problems in the classroom and by concerns with
educational purpose, with issues in the lives of young people that affect
theit capacity for learning, with reflections on one's own strengths and
weaknesses as a person and as a teacher—seems a more realistic starting
point for constructing a model for teacher education than the prevailing
notion of a professional body of knowledge about teaching, translatable
into prescriptions for teacher behavior in the classroom, (pp. 9-10)
In an effort to make teacher education more realistic and to give
future teachers more ownership of their own development, the
Secondary Education Program at Oklahoma State University (OSU)
requires students to do a "capstone paper," a teacher research project
during their student teaching internship. Although the capstone
paper adds an additional, time-consuming responsibility for students
during the internship, this requirement is built on the belief that
teacher research helps counter the trend for interns to settle for a "bag
of tricks" in order to survive. Burnaford (1996) noted the following:
In order for practicing teachers to learn to reflect, weigh alternatives, and
test their own assumptions about learning and teaching, they need
experience in posing a problem or question, adapting that line of inquiry
to a particular context or situation . . . and experiment with some
designed plan to discover its implications and consequences, (p. 144)
In fact, the demanding time of the internship gives future teachers a
realistic view of the effort it takes to reflect in the midst of teaching.
The approach taken here reverses Burnaford's; rather than starting
with an abstract issue such as inclusion, student teachers begin with a

39
particular context or situation in their own classrooms and then
develop an issue, such as inclusion, and methods of inquiry. The
students build teacher research on teacher narrative.
Clandinin and Connelly (2000) remarked, "Narrative inquiry is
the study of experience, and experience, as John Dewey taught, is a
matter of people in relation contextually and temporally" (p. 189).
Teacher research needs a real human context, so intern teachers are
asked to write a story from student teaching—some incident, some
concern that is ongoing, some events that provoke puzzlement. Some
novice teachers choose to write about a certain student and their
difficulties and/or victories with that child. Some tell about a
situation, such as their reception in the teachers' lounge or the
controversy brewing at their school over block scheduling. Some
describe ongoing problems with classroom management, at-risk
students, or difficult parents. Each student first presents his or her
idea to the whole class; the relevance of the story and its possible
implications for other teachers are discussed. A good story is one that
matters both to the teller and to an audience, and a good story
should lead to inquiry. From the written stories emerge questions, a
variety of significant issues and topics which have a personal
connection. Student teachers then develop research plans to explore
their questions. Hands-on research is encouraged: interviewing,
creating and administering surveys, observing, and collecting student
artifacts. They may also do library research, limited, of course, by
their full-time teaching. Students are required to turn in drafts of
their stories and outlines of intended research about midway in the
semester, and they are then given feedback on their stories and
research plans, including the need for further elaboration on the story
and its implications, other issues they may want to explore further,
potential resources, and editing suggestions. Some semesters the
group uses peer revision in the process during on-campus seminars.
Interns do their research and they report, in narrative form, what
they have learned and how they learned it, resulting in a teacher
narrative research paper by the end of the internship. The students
share these papers aloud, either in small groups or whole class
discussion, during on-campus seminars. Students also place their
papers in their final portfolios.
Allowing student teachers to write and design research from
personal experience can lead to learning that may well last longer
than anything on the state certification tests. For example, one
student teacher wrote a powerful, moving story about an adolescent

40
girl suffering from cystic fibrosis. Through her capstone paper
emerged a brutally honest reflection on this student teacher's hidden
prejudice toward students with physical disabilities—kids who made
her feel "uncomfortable and impotent in my ability to help them."
The sick girl was quiet but she looked different, and the intern, who
had previously considered herself very "pc," simply ignored this
student at first. Ultimately, she came to care about and respect this
bright, courageous girl who wanted to be treated like everyone else.
This student teacher decided to do library research on the disease of
cystic fibrosis and its effect on young people. She concluded that her
special student had "opened my eyes to the kind of world we live in,
and exactly what kind of person I want to be while in it." Learning
where to find out about children's disabilities and challenging one's
own attitudes are personally meaningful lessons that this novice
teacher gained from research based on narrative of experience.
Doing teacher narrative leading to research offers novice teachers
an educational opportunity that is humanistic, attending to teachers
and students as unique, significant, and whole human beings—with
hearts as well as minds. Humanistic teacher education happens still
too rarely at either the preservice or inservice level. Boyd (1993), for
instance, contended there has been a double standard: "Teachers have
long been admonished to attend to their students' affective and
humanistic needs—this is important, they are told, for motivation
and personal growth . . . In staff development planning, however, the
idea that teachers have these needs, rarely emerges" (p. 3). Preservice
teachers' emotions, concerns, doubts, successes, and questions—
which tend to center around relationships with students—need
attention. As Westerhoff (1987) said, "To be a teacher means more
than to be a professional who possesses knowledge and skills . . .
Teaching is a human relationship. It is the teacher as a person who is
key to learning" (p. 193). As the narrative research approach has been
continued over several years, student teachers have confronted the
human faces of a boy who wrote a graphic story of violence against a
teacher, an eighth-grade girl who mutilated herself, and a high school
boy with learning disabilities who wanted to get into college.
Teachers in teacher education must see themselves as human as well
as recognize the humanity of their students.
One paper that stands out for its humanistic character was
written by a young lady in a piece called "Falling Through the
Cracks," in which the student teacher detailed the challenge of
helping an ESL student in a school without resources or aid for such

41
students. A young girl, in sophomore English, spoke Spanish and
barely understood English, so the student teacher attempted to give
extra help. She described asking "Maria" whether she could come in
after school and "Finally, she said, 'Yes, I would like' while seeming
to fight back tears. While these four words do not seem like much,
they truly were a step for Maria." The intern later got Maria
interested in The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros (1991).
Unfortunately, Maria ultimately got too little help too late and failed
the course. However, the new teacher tried to find out what she
could do to help ESL students as she went on into her teaching
career. Her research included library research and interviews with
other teachers and the school counselor. Clearly, she found no easy
answer, but this young teacher was determined, "Educators must
open their eyes to the student in the back of the classroom, who has
not said a word, and find a place for him or her before it is too late."
Authentic professional development should not only be
humanistic but also should be based on current insights into
learning, many of which are based on constructivism. Osterman
(1991) suggested that a constructivist perspective will enable teachers
to link theory and practice in ways that promote change. When
professionals create their own questions and means for answering
those questions, they can construct their own understandings and
their own classroom improvements. Osterman endorsed the
following:
a model of knowledge generation that is constructivist in nature and an
assumption that the inquiry process should address the specific needs of
the constituency. Professional growth is envisioned as an odyssey whose
purpose is not knowledge in an abstract sense, but knowledge of a very
personal and purposeful nature, (p. 212)
The constructivist perspective honors teachers as adult learners.
Neufeld and Grimmett (1994) stated:
[Teachers] merit a personal autonomy, with the assumption that teachers
exercise discretion and are self-directed, having the right to decide the
specific direction of their own professional development... growth . . .
can take place through reflection on the ordinary, day-to-day experience
of instructing students in classrooms, (p. 210)
A constructivist approach has not been characteristic of teacher
education reforms mandated by most national reformers.
Standardized tests, checklists of competencies, and paperwork/forms
and extensive portfolios demanded by the National Council for the
Accreditation of Teacher Education or state agencies have not allowed
for preservice teacher input; a behaviorist outlook still seems to

42
dominate. Teacher narrative research, however, offers preservice
teachers choices about what kinds of inquiry to pursue, opportunities
to build new knowledge with peers, and a basis for professional
growth that is personal and purposeful. In the past couple of years,
interns with whom this writer have worked have discovered for
themselves ways to help hyperactive kids who would otherwise fall
through the cracks, resources for students who cannot read well, the
value of Native American literature to bring together Native
American and white students engaged with reading in the classroom,
and the limitations of televised courses in rural schools.
One young man constructed an outlook on discipline in his
teacher narrative research. In a paper he called "Breaking Through,"
he told how he learned he would have to become more stern and
directive or his seventh graders would drive him crazy. He knew
himself to be easy-going, but his cooperating teacher told him he
would have to do something he did not want to with one class—gain
control. The student teacher observed, "As long as my students did
not openly defy me, I was willing to put up with a variable amount
of classroom disruption, disheartened by their behavior as I was." He
had a break-through experience one day, but he still wanted to know
more about discipline and classroom management; his research was
based on interviews with various teachers in his building. He received
all kinds of advice and diverse opinions. Ultimately, the intern
constructed for himself this view:
We frequently encounter dilemmas today that teachers twenty years ago
probably did not: gangland schools, homeless students, serious threats of
violence, and now, nothing short of massacre. [This was the semester of
the school shootings in Littleton, Colorado.] I believe it is more important
now than ever before that teachers try to do as much as they can to create
a manageable learning environment in their classrooms. We should expect
students to act the way they know to be appropriate; we should establish
solid teacher-student relationships, monitor individual student behavior,
contact parents, display our humorous sides, and have a plan that fairly
deals with disruption or threats. Also, we should utilize peer pressure to
our advantage, as I learned in my own experience.
Educators can talk about discipline in education courses endlessly,
but teachers have to develop philosophies and techniques for
themselves out of their own experiences.
At the end of student teaching, all secondary student teachers at
OSU attend a meeting of the interns from across all subject areas,
and several capstone papers are read. Many students seem to come
away with a greater understanding of teaching issues across the

43
curriculum. For example, after hearing papers on alternative schools,
hands-on science, and the abuses of Ritalin, one student remarked
during a recent meeting, that "we all have a lot in common."
Students listened with interest to one another, asked thoughtful
questions, and continued discussing these papers later. Certainly,
teachers have in common a demanding calling, emotionally and
physically as well as intellectually—with many students who are
needy, growing public demands, and the hard work of making
curriculum relevant and challenging. At the end of the semester the
interns share their papers with cohort groups, too, and similar stories
are related and good ideas noted. Then, further opportunities to
continue growing through the kind of work offered by such
organizations as the National Writing Project, the Boston Women's
Teachers' Group, and Philadelphia Teachers Learning Cooperative are
pointed out. Teacher research does not end with certification. Local
practicing teachers doing teacher research, teachers who have done
teacher research for dissertations or are working with our Writing
Project are brought in during on-campus seminars. Teacher narrative
research can help build professional community and growth as
educators, novice and experienced, discover what they have in
common and how much they still need to learn.
The theme of autonomy often found in constructivist
literature—or voice—is key to professional growth for both
preservice and inservice teachers. Preservice teacher education is
more directive because preservice teachers have spent little time
teaching in actual classrooms or in reflection on that experience, and
preservice teachers are at a different developmental stage from veteran
teachers. Still, if we want to improve teacher education and if we
expect novices to become reflective practitioners and change agents,
they need to begin finding their voices in university teacher
education programs.
The notion of voice is something that feminist scholars, in
particular, have emphasized. The teaching force continues to be
mostly female, while educational administrators and policy makers
remain mostly male and white. Hargreaves (1994) argued that "the
dominant paradigms of teacher development research and practice
tend to be rational, calculative, managerial, and somewhat masculine
in nature" (pp. 24-25). Authentic professional development should
be open to all teachers' voices, including those of beginners,
acknowledging, in Hargreaves' words, "their feelings for and in their
work," which are "absolutely central to teacher development efforts"

44
(p. 22). Voice is the major theme of Women's Ways of Knowing
(Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, &Tarule, 1986). Women's voices
have long been unheard. Oja (1991) commented:
Constructed knowers are able to weave together reason and emotion, the
objective and the subjective. . . . Throughout the interviews from
Women's Ways of Knowing the importance of "connected education" is
demonstrated. Connected education describes an educational
environment in which individuals value personal individual experience;
nurture each other's thoughts to maturity; construct truth through
consensus, not conflict; bridge private and shared experience; accord
respect for one another's unique perspectives; and base authority on
cooperation, not subordination, (p. 49)
Goodson (1997) also stated:
[P] articularly in the world of teacher development, the central ingredient
so far missing is teachers' voices.... What is needed is a focus that listens
above all to the person at whom development is aimed. This means that
strategies should be developed which facilitate, maximize and in a real
sense legitimate teachers' voices, (p. 42)
Voice is essential to humanistic, constructivist and authentic
professional development.
Another student teacher wrote a capstone paper peflecting on his
difficulties in motivating students in high school English. He had
read other teacher lore—published narratives of teacher
experiences—and he interviewed veteran teachers who gave him
contrasting advice. After his research, he concluded:
As a now firm advocate of the middle position, of a balanced role as a
teacher/motivator, I am seeking to balance my desire and professional
responsibility to interest and engage all of my students with a concurrent
commitment to allow students to be responsible for their own actions. I
will continue to try my best to provide exciting lessons that will draw
students in and, at the same time, allow them, if they choose, to fail,
pp. &-7)
Here is the voice of a professional who is not merely parroting what
the university instructor has told him or what other professionals or
"the research" have told him. He had chosen a topic that matters to
him, looked hnto that topic, and articulated a stance; this is a process
he may continue in his career. As Sergiovanni (1994) affirmed in his
work on building learning communities in schools, "Nor are
reflection and dialogue possible when someone in-services and
someone else is in-serviced . . . It requires a certain equality and a
certain willingness to know thyself better, to be open to new ideas,
and to strive to become" (pp. 154-155). Teachers must speak for
themselves.

45
 Interestingly, when this intern was told about the strengths of his
paper and his future as a teacher-researcher/writer, he said he hadn't
thought of that! One can talk about teacher research endlessly;
teacher candidates have to do it for themselves before it becomes real.
Other interns over time have found their own voices in examining
rampant student apathy in their classrooms, analyzing burn-out
among veteran teachers, and overcoming fears of dealing with a
junior high boy who was the product of fetal alcohol syndrome.
Teacher empowerment and the recognition of teacher voices must
begin in preservice education. Patterson, Stansell, and Lee (1990) put
it this way:
Every teacher has stories to tell. Every teacher has truths to share. Teachers
can learn to see children in ways no one else can. Teachers can show us
the ways students learn, and the reasons that learning is sometimes hard.
The research process can help teachers explore their decisions, find their
own voices, and tell their own stories. Through those stories based on
disciplined, systematic research many teachers have spoken out and
changed the ways in which schools work. Ultimately, through research, all
teachers can do t h i s . . . (pp. 1-2)
Teacher narrative research can serve as model professional
development for preservice teachers, building on the meaning that
motivates them and recognizing them as autonomous adult learners.
First of all, "Teacher lore validates teachers but it also challenges them
to consider new and multiple perspectives on classroom life, to
construct new knowledge . . . " (Schwarz & Alberts, 1998, p. 6).
Then, narrative research moves new teachers to clarify issues and find
answers or at least understandings. It encourages beginning teachers
to look to their colleagues and their community as well as other
resources to find help in solving problems; they talk to other teachers
and parents, survey students, and contact local resources such as the
police or health department. Research must yet be done to explore
this approach over time; questions remain such as whether teacher
narrative research impacts teachers later in their careers and to what
degree. Teachers today deal with such diverse students, students who
often have serious problems, and a society in the throes of rapid
technological change; training that offers only information, skills,
and technique is not enough.
New teachers need professional development that connects to
their own needs, interests, and knowledge. They need humanistic,
constructivist opportunities that help them find and share their
voices and empower them for future learning. Teacher narrative
research is one avenue for authentic learning and ongoing classroom

46
improvement. Beginning teachers need development activities early
on that reflect a rich and complex view of teaching. As Hargreaves
1997) put it: "Good teaching is not just a matter of being efficient,
developing competence, mastering technique and possessing the right
kind of knowledge. Good teaching also involves emotional work. It is
infused with pleasure, passion, creativity, challenge and joy" (p. 108).

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