Sub-atomic particales

STRUCTURE OF ATOM Atom is made up of 3 sub -atomic particles. The particles are Electron,
Proton and Neutron.

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON:
The Electron was discovered by J.J Thomson by conducting a Cathode ray tube
experiment.

Properties of cathode rays

1. They are found to travel in straight line.
2. Cathode rays are formed of material particles.
3. They are negatively charged.
4. they can also produce heating effect.
5. They cause ionization of gas through which they passed.

From the above properties and experiment it was concluded that cathode rays are
made up of negatively charged particles called electron.
o Charge :1.6 x 10-19C

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o Mass 9.1 x 10-31kg
We can define electron as:

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“A fundamental particle that is negatively charge of magnitude 1.6 x 10-19C and
mass equal to 9.1 x 10-31
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DISCOVERY OF PROTON:
IT WAS DONE BY E. GOLDSTEIN
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o In 1836 the same experiment was carried out where the same
conditions were provided. The gas at low pressure was taken and
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current was passed.
o Rays consist of positively charged particles called a proton.
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Properties of anode rays
1. They also travel in straight line.
2. They are also made up of particles.
3. They carry positive charge.
4. Their ratio of charge to mass was different for different gas that was
taken in tube.
5. The mass of particles were found to be different for different gases. It was
nearly equal to the mass of atom.
When hydrogen gas was taken in the tube its mass was found to be minimum. As
we know, Hydrogen atom is the lightest one and its charge to be same as
Electron. It is 1.6x10-19C and its e/m ratio taken as standard that is 1.67x 10-24g.
Proton is defined as a

“fundamental particle which carries one-unit positive charge and mass nearly same
as hydrogen atom.”
Designed
By
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON:
Edustudy point
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It was discovered by Chadwick. In which he bombarded some light elements with He said,
fast moving alpha particles. He found, that some new particles were emitted
which carried no charge and had mass equal to that of proton.These neutral o Atom is electrically neutral.
particles were named as neutron. o Nucleus is in center.
o In which protons & neutrons are present.
So, neutron is defined as:
o Outside nucleus electrons revolve like planets
“the fundamental particle which carries no charge and mass equal to that of revolve around sun.
hydrogen atom.” He said, atom is made of two parts: nucleus and extra
nuclear part .
ATOMIC MODELS OF ATOM In Nucleus, positive charge is present and in extra
nuclear part electrons are present as shown in figure:
J.J THOMSON PLUM PUDDING MODEL
Proton -> (+)vely charged

In 1904, the attempt to explain structure of Atom was done by J.J Thomson. Electron -> (-)vely charged

According to Thomson :Atom is positively charged sphere in which few negative Neutron -> No charge
charges are scattered at certain places like plums in pudding or cherries in ice

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creams. Limitation : “he failed to explain the stability of an atom”
According To Electromagnetic theory, a charged

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particle revolving in circular path continuously emits
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Limitation of this model: The reason about failure was as it wasn’t possible energy and shorten its path.
that few negative charges remain scattered in the positive sphere. As we know,
opposite charges attract each other. So, these negative charges would have been As a result, they should finally fall into nucleus. But this
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neutralized. They can’t remain scattered. However, this couldn’t be explained by doesn’t happen.
Thomson therefore the model failed.
Some definitions were also given related to
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RUTHERFORD SCATTERING EXPERIMENT: atom:
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Atomic number: It is equal to number of protons in an atom .It is represented by
‘Z’and is written as subscript.
In order to explain the structure of atom, Rutherford performed the scattering Atomic Mass: It is equal to number of nucleons, or we can say sum of protons and
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experiment. neutrons in nucleus of an atom. It is represented as ‘A’ and is written as
superscript.
For this, he took Gold foil and passed Alpha rays through it. The source of these
Alpha rays was radioactive substance.
Representation of atom of an element:
Following observations were made: -
1. Some rays passed straight.
2. Some rays were deflected through small
& large angles.
3. Some rays rebound back.

Conclusion drawn:
o Most of the space in atom is empty.
o There is something in center of an
atom called Nucleus.
o Nucleus is +vely charged.
ISOTOPES, ISOBARS, ISOELECTRONICAND ISOTONES:
So, According To Rutherford ,structure of an
atom is similar to solar system. o ISOTOPES: Are those elements which have same atomic number ,but
different mass number.

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 When all the electromagnetic radiations are arranged in order of increasing
wavelengths, and decreasing frequencies the complete spectrum is called
electromagnetic spectrum as
shown below:
o ISOBARS: Are those elements which have same mass number, but
Limitations of this theory
different atomic number.
It failed to explain various
phenomenons that are
mentioned below:

o ISOTONES: Are those elements which have same number of neutrons. 1. Black body radiations.
Example:- C6N7O8 ( all have 8 electrons) 2. Photoelectric effect.
o ISOELECTRONIC: the species containing same number of electrons. 3. The variation of heat
Example:- O7-, F-, Mg2+,Al3+ (all have 10 electrons) capacity of solids at
different temperatures.
4. The line spectra of atoms.
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT: DEVELOPMENT LEADING TO BOHR’S MODEL
There were so many factors, phenomenon that lead to the failure of Rutherford Particle nature of Electromagnetic radiations :There were two important
model: phenomenon that couldn’t be explained by considering Light with wave
character:
1. Dual nature of matter The phenomenon is:

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2. Atomic spectra
But before studying Bohr model, we need to learn electromagnetic radiations. o Black body radiation

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o Photoelectric effect
Electromagnetic theory: According to this theory
1. Black body radiation: Black body is defined as perfect emitter and absorber
1. Energy is emitted or absorbed continuously in the form of radiant energy.
of light.
2. These radiations consist of electric and magnetic field acting perpendicular
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For example, whenever we heat an Iron ball
to the direction of propagation of wave.
like objects, on heating they become first Red,
3. These waves can travel through medium as well as through vacuum.
then Orange, then Yellow and at very high
4. The radiations travel with speed =3x108m/sec.
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temperature they become White.
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Characteristics of wave
o Wavelength: It IS Distance between two
crest or trough. This phenomenon shows, that if we keep on
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Units Used:- pm(picometer) heating the light that it emits. It will show
changes in wavelength. That means the
1 pm:- 10-12 wavelength keeps on decreasing but after
1nm :- 10-9 White there is no further change.
1nm :- 10-10
o Frequency: number of waves produced in one second. 2. Photoelectric effect
Units Used:- sec-1, Hertz It is the ejection of electrons from metal surface when light of suitable
o Velocity of light: It is distance travelled with respect to time in any wavelength strikes the metal surface.
direction.
The apparatus set to demonstrate this effect is given
Units Used:- m/sec below:
o Amplitude: maximum displacement of particle from its mean position.
Units Used:- m or cm
o Wave number: number of waves in 1cm length. To check the current flow, the ammeter is introduced
in the circuit. The following observations were noticed:
Electromagnetic spectrum
1. Light of suitable frequency can only eject electrons. Every metal surface
has a set value of frequency that can cause ejection and that
corresponding frequency is called threshold frequency (v o).

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 2. Number of electrons ejected is directly proportional to intensity of light. So, in that case:
3. Kinetic energy of electron is directly proportional to frequency of light that
strikes the surface. o Where one-colour merges into another and there is no definite
boundaries, that spectra is called continuous spectra.
Planck’s quantum theory: o If we study it for atoms the spectra obtained is discontinuous spectra.
o The study of spectra is called spectroscopy
According to this theory:
Atomic spectra are of two types
1. Energy emitted or absorbed is not continuous, but is in the form of o Emission spectra
packets called quanta .In terms of light it is called as photon.
o Absorbtion spectra
2. Each photon carries an energy which is directly proportional to the
frequency of wavelength i.e. E depends upon v (nu). Emission spectra: It is obtained when emitted light is analyzed.The light is
1. Or E=hv (where v is frequency) emitted when an atom is heated or electric current is passed.These are also
2. Value of h =6.634 x 10-34Jsec referred as finger prints of atoms.
3. Energy associated with no of packets is given by:
E=nhv (where n is an integral multiple)
Emission spectra of hydrogen
This formula can also be written as: o The hydrogen gas ,at low
pressure is taken in the tube.
E = (nhc)/ (λ)
o Then light emitted by it was

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examined
(Because we know frequency=speed of light/wavelength)
o It was noticed that spectra

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V = (c/ λ) obtained consist of large
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number of closely spaced
EXPLANATION OF BLACK BODY AND PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ON THE lines which falls in different
regions as shown:
BASIS OF QUANTUM THEORY.
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For the ejection, minimum frequency is required called threshold frequency .Let’s Rydberg gave the formula to
say light that falls, has energy equal to hv .Out of this h , a amount of h is used determine the wavelength of these
lines. That is:
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as binding energy and rest is given to electron as kinetic energy.
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Following observations were made
1. If frequency is greater than threshold frequency: Than ejection occurs and
also, kinetic energy is imparted to ejected electron.
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2. If frequency is equal to threshold frequency, than only ejection occurs.
3. If frequency is less than threshold frequency, than no ejection occurs and Limiting line: the limiting line in H
no kinetic energy is imparted. spectrum was when n2=infinity
Please note hvo is called as wave function.

EMISSION AND ABSORBTION SPECTRA

Atomic spectra: Absorption and Emission spectra.
This is the phenomenon that gave serious blow to Rutherford model.It can be BOHR MODEL OF AN ATOM
defined as: ‘splitting of light’ into various colours or colour bands is called According to Bohr:
spectra.” 1. Atom is electrically neutral i.e. number of Protons = number of Electrons.
2. In center of an atom, a dense body called Nucleus is present.
When we see VIBGYOR the Violet colour merges into another and likewise other 3. In Nucleus, Protons and Neutrons are present.
color merges into another. 1. P = +ve
2. N = no charge.
4. Outside nucleus, shells or energy levels designated as K, L, M, N ----so on
are present.
5. In shells Electrons revolve
1. E = -vely charged
6. Each shell has fixed amount of energy therefore they are called as
stationary states or energy levels.

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 7. The energy of electron is DUAL NATURE OF PARTICLE: DEBROGLIE AND HEISENBERG
quantized. UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Usefulness of Bohr model: It was explained by De-Broglie: According to him when any particle is in motion it
1. It explained stability of an atom. emits wave.”
2. It explained the spectrum of
The wavelength associated with it is given
hydrogen:

EXPLANATION OF HYDROGEN
SPECTRA

According to Bohr,
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
o When energy is supplied to According to Heisenberg ,it is impossible to measure both the position and
atoms of hydrogen, the momentum of moving particle with accuracy.
electron from lower energy
o If value of position is small ,it can be measured accurately but not

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gets excited to higher energy
momentum.
level.
o If value of momentum is small it is measured accurately but not the

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o The excited state being unstable, it jumps back to its original state
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position.
that is ground state.
Mathematically that means:
o Some electrons move to their ground state in one jump, some in
multiple jumps. Each jump corresponds to line in a spectrum.
Significance
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o As we know the gas in tube consists of many hydrogen atoms.
This holds good only for microscopic particles, as energy of photon is not enough
o Therefore, each electron on getting energy gets excited. to change the position and velocity of bigger bodies. So, in our daily routine it has
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o On returning to the ground state, they either move in single jump or no significance.
multiple jump.
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o This is the reason that we get so many lines in different regions in QUANTUM MECHANICS
hydrogen spectrum. It was given by Schrodinger. He said if we take both the characters in account
that is particle character and wave character, we have to define a property that
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The wavelength emitted by them can be calculated as:
is a wave function.

Physical significance of wave function:

o It gives the amplitude associated with it. But if we do square of it, than
it gives the probability of finding the electron in particular region.
Orbital: It is three-dimensional space, where probability of finding an electron in
maximum.

Limitations of Bohr model of an atom:

1. Bohr model failed to explain the line spectra of multi-electron atoms.
2. He couldn’t explain splitting of line in the magnetic field (Zeeman effect)
and in electric field (stark effect).
3. He failed to explain three-dimensional model of an atom.
4. He was unable to explain the shapes of molecule.
5. He couldn’t explain the dual nature of matter and Heisenberg uncertainty
principle.

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Difference between orbit and orbital: 2. Azimuthal quantum number:
o It gives information about sub shell of an atom.
o It is represented as ‘l’.
o It was introduced by Somerfield.
o It always has value (n-1).
Example: if n=1 ,l=0

If n=2,l=0,1

If n=3,l=0,1,2

3. Magnetic quantum number:

o It describes the behavior of electron in magnetic field.

o It is represented as ‘m’.
o It was given by land.
o Its value is equal to –l,0, +l
For example: if n=1, l=0, m=0 that is only one orbital

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If n=2, l=0,1, m=-1,0, +1 that is three orbitals

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4. Spin quantum number:
Orbital: They are of four types
o s orbital: Spherical in shape, non-directional. It has only 1 orbital o It gives the info about spinning of electron about its axis i.e.
therefore, can accommodate only 2 electrons. clockwise or anticlockwise
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o P-orbital: dumb-bell shaped and directional. It has 3 orbital (px, py, pz). It o It is denoted by ‘s’.
can accommodate maximum of 6 electrons.
o Its value is either =+1/2, -1/2
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o d-orbital: It has double dumbbell, directional. It has 5 orbital
(dxy,dyz,dzx,dx2-y2,dz2).It can accommodate maximum of 10 electrons
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o F-orbital: It has diffused shape. It has 7 orbital therefore, can Pauli’s exclusion Principle
accommodate maximum of 14 electrons. According to it: “no two electrons can have the same set of all four quantum
numbers.”
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Quantum numbers Shapes of atomic orbitals:
They are set of 4 numbers, which give complete information about the address of
1. s –orbital
electron.
Its shape is spherical.For 1s the
There are 4 types of quantum numbers: probability of finding electron is
maximum near nucleus and it
decreases as we move away from
1. Principal quantum number:
nucleus.
o It is represented as ‘n’.
o It was given by Bohr. For 2s: Again, probability of finding electron is maximum near nucleus and
decrease as the distance increase. But it has one ring in it, where probability of
o It represents the orbit where electron is going to be present.
finding electron is zero that is a nodal plane or a node.
Uses:
The shape of 2s differs from 1s as it has one node and 1s has no node. Similarly,
1. It gives number of electron in orbit by formula 2 n2. in 3s there are two nodes.
2. It gives angular momentum of electron.
3. It gives energy of electron. The different s orbitals differ from each other in number of nodes, size and
4. It gives radius of orbit. energy.

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 2. Shape of p orbital 2. If two orbitals have same value of n+l , than the orbital with lower value
Its shape is dumb-bell. It is found that of n is filled first.
probability of finding electron is maximum in For example: Out of 3p and 4s, n+l for both is 4 . Therefore, 3p is filled first as it
both the lobes. There is a plane passing possess lesser value of n.
through nucleus where probability of finding
the electron is almost zero. That is nodal plane. 3. Pauli’s exclusion principle:
According to it, an orbital can
There are 3 sub-shells: px, py and pz. accommodate maximum of
two electros and that must
It is directional in nature.All the 3 p orbitals be of opposite spin.
are degenerate that is have same energy. For example: If orbital has s 2, then
the orbital has the arrangement as
given below.

3. Shape of d orbital:

It has 5 subshells:dxy,dyz,dzx,dx2-y2 and dz2 Hund’s rule of maximum

There shapes are given as shown:
multiplicity: According to it,

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The shape of dz2 is called as doughnut shape or electron pairing in degenerate
baby soother type shape. orbital will not take place until and

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Number of nodes in any orbital can be unless, each orbital is singly filled.
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calculated by: (n-l-1). For example,if the d orbital has d6 ,then
the filling is not:
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o Sodium (Na) , Atomic number=11
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Electronic configuration = 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s1
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RULES OF WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:
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“It is the number of electrons in different orbitals. “
o For Potassium(k) :Atomic
There are certain set of rules that are followed: number =19
Aufbau principle: It states that in ground state of Electronic configuration =
atom, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s1
energies. That is electrons first occupy the lower
energy orbital then higher energy orbitals are filled.
The orbitals are filled in order: o For Aluminium ion

1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p… Atomic number of Aluminum =13

To know the energy of orbital with lower energy the Aluminum ion (Al3+)=1s2,2s2,2p6
n+l rule is followed:
According to it:
1. The lower the value of n+l for an orbital, the lower is its energy and is
filled first. KHATAM
For example: Out of 2s and 2p ,2s is filled first as n+l for 2s, is 2+0=2 and for 2p it
is 2+1=3. Therefore, 2s is filled first.

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