Agrivita

EFFECT OF SLOPE, ASPECT, AND POSITION ON SELECTED SOIL

PROPERTIES FROM DIFFERENT DEPTHS IN OIL PALM PLANTATION
AT SELANGOR, MALAYSIA.

Omar Mohamed Ibrahim Abdalrahem1, Mohd Hasmadi Ismail1* and Daljit Singh A/L
Karam Singh2
1
Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and
Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

*Corresponding authors: mhasmadi@upm.edu.my

Abstract

There is limited information on the study of land and topographic characteristics, their
impact on palm oil yield, and their effects on the soil's physio-chemical properties.
Such information is critical because it can affect nutrient and yield management
strategies. A study was conducted to examine the effect of slope, aspect and position
from different soil depths on physical and chemical properties in an oil palm (Elaeis
guineensis) plantation. Two sites with distinct north and south aspects at each slope
site were selected. It was divided into three equal slope positions on each slope,
namely, Summit, Sideslope and Toeslopes, respectively. Random sampling covering
two depths (0 - 20 cm, 20- 40) for soil physical and soil chemical properties
determination was done. The soil chemical properties considered in this study were
pH, EC, total N, P, K, Ca, and Ma, as well as soil texture, which were determined in
the laboratory using standard methods. The result revealed a significant difference
(P<0.05) among the soil properties in different slope positions, depths, and aspects of
the slope. The major factors accounting for the variations in the soil properties studied
were the slope position and soil depth. Slope position had a significant effect (p<0.05)
on soil pH, CE, Ca, Mg, K, and N. Soil depth significantly affected (p<0.05) all soil
properties studied. The slope aspect had a significant effect (p<0.05) on pH, Ca, Mg
and K. The soil texture class of the soil ranged from sandy clay to sandy clay loam.
The sand was the highest soil particle in both aspect slopes, followed by clay. The
clay content increased with a depth of 20-40 cm. The findings revealed that slope,
aspect, and depth significantly affected the soil's chemical properties in this study.

Keywords: Slope, aspect, position, soil depth, effect, soil properties, oil palm.

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Introduction

Due to a lack of arable land in some countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia, new
oil palm plantations have spread into marginal land regions such as hill slopes
(Moradi et al., 2012). However, hill slopes are prone to soil erosion by surface water
runoff, which affects soil's physical and chemical qualities and, as a result, lower soil
fertility (Bakar et al., 2011; Sung et al., 2011). Flooding, sedimentation, water supply
and quality decline are possible consequences of degraded soil qualities. Examining
soils on a slope is the greatest way to learn about the spatial interrelationships
between soils and topography. The geomorphic and hydrological circumstances affect
the sequence of soils from the crest down the valley bottom. Toeslopes are the bottom
slopes. Thus, they receive sediments and water from higher altitudes and overflowing
streams. Because of the sediment’s accumulation, toe slopes have a finer texture than
other slope parts; as a result, the topsoil tends to be thicker, while the wetness
indicators are stronger and more prominent (Životić et al., 2017).

Landscape topography is an important factor in biogeochemical processes that occur

in the earth's near-surface layer. Topography is crucial in soil formation because it
regulates hydrological regimes and controls gravity-driven soil movements.
Understanding soil chemistry and physics need both quantitative and qualitative
topography data (Li & McCarty, 2019). By regulating the solar insolation, the slope
aspect can moderate the growth of local vegetation and ecosystem types, directly
affecting soil water content and temperature regimes (Lozano-García et al., 2016).
The aspect and slope of a hillslope can also influence the transport of water and
nutrients. The spatial changes in soil qualities showed that the slope aspect had a
greater influence on plant communities than the elevation (Dearborn & Danby, 2017).
The vegetation structure inside a particular site had changed dramatically over the
short distance separating the North and South-facing slope sides (Qin et al., 2019).

Begum et al. (2010) and Akbari et al. (2014) reported that soil genesis, soil microbial
function and diversity, biomass production and soil organic matter, soil hydrology,
and microclimate regulation are all influenced by the slope. These factors influence

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the physicochemical qualities of the soil due to the microclimate impact. The slope
aspect can affect surface runoff and erosion (Akbari et al., 2014; Begum et al., 2010).
As a result of topographic changes, diverse microclimates were created, resulting in
variances in faunal abundance and variety, soil water content, temperature, and
organic matter, influencing soil fertility and eventually soil quality (Akbari et al.,
2014). The composition and distribution patterns of vegetation and soil biological
characteristics differ depending on the slope aspect of mountainous landscapes'
hydrological and solar energy systems.

The slope angle has an indirect impact on surface runoff and erosion. Soil erosion is
not the same on slopes of the same grade but with various perspectives. Differences in
the microclimate are the principal effect of slope aspect on surface runoff and erosion.
The amount of solar radiation a sloping landform receives is directly proportional to
the aspect. The importance of the slope aspect is more apparent in the drier areas
compared to the humid regions (Burnett et al., 2008). Daniels et al. (1987) referred
that topography leads to rapid evapotranspiration in southern aspects by altering the
area's microclimate. Meanwhile, the rate of soil formation on north-facing slopes
leads to a thicker solum with higher organic matter and denser flora (Daniels et al.,
1987). Because of the substantial rainfall and compensation for the radiation
disparities between aspects, the slope aspect had no significant influence on soil
parameters. In other words, the humid environment in the area lowers the impact of
radiation differences on the different aspects (Khormali et al., 2007).

The effect of slope gradient and length has gotten much attention, but research on the
impact of slope aspects on soil geochemical processing in Malaysia is still limited. A
very strong relationship was observed between soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil
nitrogen and soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) of coarse-textured soil under oil
palm plantation in West Kalimantan (Kasno & Subardja, 2010). Thus, physical and
chemical soil properties are significant in determining site-particular management
(Yao et al., 2014). Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine how the
slope aspects affected some soil physicochemical properties under oil palm
plantations in Selangor, Malaysia.

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Materials and Methods

Study area

This study was conducted at an oil palm plantation established on a sloping terrain in
FELDA Gedangsa plantation, Selangor, Malaysia (Figure 1), on the latitude and
longitude of 03 43'N and 101 24'E, respectively. It has a tropical rainforest climate.
Based on rainfall data collected at the Tanjung Malim Meteorological Station, located
approximately 15 km from the study area, the average annual rainfall in the study
areas for two years, 2019 and 2020, was 3410 mm.

Figure 1: The FELDA Gedangsa; Hulu Bernam, in the district of Hulu Selangor, and
the study site of North and South slope aspects.

Field study

An eleven (11) year old oil palm plantation on sloping land in the study area was used
for the research. Two slope aspects, the south-facing and north-facing slope aspects,
were selected. The first site faced South with an area of 100.1 ha, while the second

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faced North with a land mass of 168.21 ha. The palm trees are planted in an
equilateral triangular pattern, with equal distance from one another. The row and
inter-row spacing were nine meters. Each slope was divided into three slope positions,
namely the summit, side slope, and toe slope. The experimental design was a split-
plot arranged in RCB design with three replications. On each slope aspect, three
sectors were arranged at a 50m x 100 m spacing along the horizontal contour Figure
2. In each sector, three plots were established in a row and spaced 50 m x 20 apart.
The sampling was carried out 1m away from the palm trunk. The sampling was done
twice; March 2019 and March 2020. The North and South slope aspect form the main
plot, while the summit, side, and toe slope positions constitute the subplot.

The selected palm trees for sample collection (Yield, soil, and leaf),
SU 1, SU 2, SU 3: Three replications in summit position.
SI 1, SI 2, SI 3: Three replications in side slope position
TO 1, TO 2, TO 3: Three replications in toe slope position

Figure 2: Typical slope layout for the experimental design and sampling protocol for
leaf, soil, and yield within a typical block

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Soil sampling

Two sampling depths of 0 - 20 cm and 20 - 40 cm were employed. Each analysis was

carried out on a composite sample formed by mixing five soil subsamples from five
points (Figure 3). A soil auger was used in the sampling. The soil samples were air-
dried at room temperature, crushed, debris removed and then sieved through a 2 mm
sieve.

Figure 3: Layout soil sampling at oil palm plantation FELDA Gedangsa.

Soil chemical analysis

Total nitrogen was determined using the Kjeldahl technique. After extraction with
Bray P-1 solution, available phosphorus was determined colourimetrically (Bray &
Kurtz, 1945). Soil exchangeable cations such as potassium (Exc. K), calcium (Exc.
Ca), and magnesium (Exc. Mg) were extracted using the shaking method (ammonium
acetate). A 1:2.5 ratio of soil to distilled water was used to determine the soil pH. A
pH meter (Model Metrohm 827, Rive rview, FL, USA) (Peech, 1965). The electrical
conductivity (EC) was measured in the 1:5 soil solution by taking a soil sample,
making a saturated paste of soil and deionized water, extracting the water, and then
measuring the EC of the extracted solution. The EC was measured using an EC meter
(Mettler Toledo Seven Easy TM Conductivity Meter S30, Hamilton, New Zealand)
(Peech, 1965).

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Statistical analysis

A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant differences
in soil properties and oil palm yield between different slope positions and aspects.
Differences between means of parameters were considered significant at the 0.05
level using Tukey’s studentized test. Relationships among the variables were
determined using Pearson’s correlation using the SPSS version 26 software package.

Results and discussion

Effect of slope aspect on selected soil properties for the northern slope and
southern slope at a depth of 0–20cm.

Different soil properties were influenced by the slope position and aspect, as shown in
Table 1, where the means of the selected soil at 0-20 cm depth on both the northern
slope and southern slope for the years 2019/2020 were compared.

Soil pH

In this study, the pH of the soil in both slope aspects was found to be acidic, which
ranged from 4.09±.0.02 to 5.62±0.29. The highest soil pH was observed in Toeslope
at the South aspect, while the lowest was in the North aspect of Toeslope. Oil palm
can survive acidic soil and grow well in a wide range of pH levels ranging from 4.00
to 5.50 (Kee et al., 1995). In addition, significant differences (p < 0.05) between the
North aspect slope and the South aspect slope were observed and between the three
positions in both aspect slopes. In the South aspect slope, the highest value was in the
Toeslope and the lowest in the summit, and this is consistent with Tan et al. (2014),
who reported that soil pH was higher at the Toeslope position under oil palm
plantations (Tan et al., 2014).

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Similarly, Yasin and Yulnafatmawita (2018) mentioned that soil organic matter,
among several factors, contributes to the higher pH value at the bottom slope.
Rosenani et al. (2016) reported that increasing organic matter application at the
bottom slope position had increased the soil pH.

Table 1: Comparison of the mean of selected soil properties at 0-20 cm depth on both
the Northern and Southern slope aspects for two years, 2019 and 2020

Southern Slope Northern Slope Soil

Toeslope Sideslope Summit Toeslope Sideslope Summit properties

5.62±0.29 a
4.56±0.13 bc
5.13±0.45 ab
4.09±0.02 c
4.43±0.11 bc
4.33±0.27c pH
0.07±0.01a 0.03±0.00b 0.04±0.01b 0.08±0.01a 0.03±0.00b 0.04±0.01b EC ds/m
2.50±0.34a 0.99±0.11c 1.61±0.03b 1.16±0.15bc 1.07±0.10bc 1.22±0.06bc Ca (cmol/kg-1)

0.31±0.05a 0.13±0.01b 0.13±0.01b 0.19±0.04b 0.14±0.02b 0.15±0.01b Mg (cmol/kg-1)

0.18±0.06a 0.05±0.01ba 0.07±0.06ab 0.06±0.01b 0.03±0.01b 0.05±0.01b K (cmol/kg-1)
0.08±0.01a 0.06±0.01ab 0.04±0.01b 0.08±0.01a 0.06±0.01ab 0.04±0.01b N%
3.29±0.41a 3.18±1.46a 1.71±0.23a 3.22±1.17a 2.70±0.60a 2.90±1.11a Avai P (mg/kg-1)
46.10±4.38a 36.32±0.89ab 36.31±4.36ab 46.03±0.39a 35.27±6.12b 35.36±2.75b Clay (%)

1.80±0.11a 1.69±2.23a 1.82±0.26a 1.90±0.23a 1.09±0.22a 1.93±0.85a Silt (%)

50.09±3.31c 59.40±2.72b 61.85±2.26ab 52.06±0.27bc 63.69±.6.23a 62.70±3.57ab Sand (%)
Note: Ca = Exchangeable Calcium, Mg = Exchangeable Magnesium, K = Exchangeable Potassium,
N = Total Nitrogen, Avai.P = Available Phosphorus.

The difference in soil pH was highly significant (p < 0.05) in the South aspect, which
is in line with the findings of Ofori et al. (2013) and Olubanjo & Maidoh (2017). They
stated that the increase in the pH value down the slope could be due to an increase in
the exchangeable cations, particularly magnesium and calcium, in the bottom slope
position because of the greater clay content. There was a significant difference (p <
0.05) between the North aspect slope and the South aspect slope, with higher pH in
the South aspect than in the North aspect slope (Ofori et al., 2013; Olubanjo &
Maidoh, 2017).

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Electrical conductivity (EC)

Electrical conductivity (EC) observed a significant difference (P > 0.05) among three
slope positions at both aspect slopes in-depth the highest value of the electrical
conduction was 0.08±0.01 on the toe slope at the north slope. In contrast, the lowest
value was 0.03±0.00 on the Sideslope for both slopes, while there was no significant
difference between the north and south aspect slopes. The erosion process depletes
soil productivity by changing the concentration of salts in the root zone (Khan et al.,
2013). The suspended clay accumulating water-soluble cations and anions also moves
down the slope with surface runoff. Therefore, it accumulates there at the toe slope,
which might have caused an increase in EC at the toe slope positions.

Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and Potassium (K)

The calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) content of the soil in the study
area were significantly (p<0.05) affected by different slope positions. The calcium
(Ca) concentration ranged between 2.50±0.34 and 0.99±0.11 in the south aspect slope,
while in the north aspect slope ranged from 1.22±0.06 to 1.07±0.10 cmol kg -1.
Furthermore, calcium was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by different slope positions
in the South aspect slope, with the highest Ca concentration in the toe slope. In
contrast, the lowest was on the side slope. In contrast, there were no significant
differences (p>0.05) between the three positions in the North aspect slope. On the
other hand, the aspect slope had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on Ca content, with a
higher value observed at the South aspect, while the lowest were recorded in the
North aspect slope.

On the other hand, the magnesium (Mg) concentration ranged between 0.31±0.05 and
0.13±0.01 cmol kg-1 in the South aspect slope, while in the North aspect slope, it
ranged from 0.19±0.04 to 0.14±0.02 cmol kg-1. Magnesium was significantly (p<0.05)
affected by different slope positions in the South aspect slope. The highest
concentration of Mg was at the toe slope, whereas the lowest was at the summit. In
contrast, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the three positions in

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the North aspect slope. The slope aspect had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the Mg
content, and the higher values were recorded at the North aspect slope while the lower
Mg were obtained at the South aspect slope.

The potassium (K) concentration ranged from 0.18±0.06 to 0.05±0.01 in the South
aspect slope and 0.06±0.01 to 0.03.±.0.01 in the North aspect slope. The potassium
(K) value was highest at the toeslope, which differed significantly (p<0.05) from
other slope positions in the South aspect slope. There was no significant difference
(p>0.05) between the three positions of the North aspect slope. On the other hand,
there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the South aspect slope and the
North aspect slope, especially in toeslopes. This is due to an increase in the clay
content at the toeslope, due to downward movement with runoff water from the
summit and accumulation there at the toeslope position. This agrees with Rasool et al.
(2014) and Olubanjo & Maidoh (2017), who reported that calcium and magnesium
were significantly (p<0.05) affected by different slope positions. The bottom slope
position had the highest values for calcium and magnesium due to an increase in the
clay content at the bottom slope (Olubanjo & Maidoh, 2017; Rasool et al., 2014).

Total Nitrogen (N)

The significantly higher Nitrogen (N) (0.08±0.01) was observed in the toeslope of
both slopes (North and South), and the lowest (0.04.±.0.01) was similarly obtained in
the summit of the slopes. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in terms of the
total nitrogen across the slope positions, but there was no significant difference
(p>0.05) between the South and north aspect slopes; this is due to the effect that soil
nutrients are transported from the summit to the toeslope of the slope at the planting
site by hydro erosion processes, which promotes increased microbial activity, which
may, in turn, enhance the decomposition process and the release of nutrients. This
agrees with (Mesfin et al., 2018). Also, (Dalal et al., 2011; Emiru & Gebrekidan,
2013) reported that crop residue and N fertilizer increased SOC and total N stocks at
10 cm depth. However, the effects of crop residue retention and N fertilizer were only

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seen in the early years of conservation practices and did not continue to increase SOC
and total soil N over time.

Available Phosphorus (P)

The distribution of available phosphorus (P) indicates that phosphorus content in

slope soil is medium to high, and the available phosphorus decreases as the slope
segment increases. The results showed no significant difference (p>0.05) between the
three slope positions concerning the available phosphorus in the soil. Also, there was
no significant difference (p>0.05) between the North aspect slope and the South
aspect slope, which might be due to nutrient downward movement with runoff water
from the summit position and accumulation there at the toeslope position; this agrees
with several researchers (Khan et al., 2013; Olubanjo & Maidoh, 2017; Rasool et al.,
2014) who reported that the highest value of phosphorus occurred at the bottom slope.

Soil Textural

At a depth of 0-20cm, the textural class of the soil of the study area ranged from
sandy clay to sandy clay loam. The clay content of the summit, side slope, and
toeslope positions under the South slope were 36%, 36%, and 46%, respectively,
which differed significantly. Also, under the North slope, the summit to side slope and
toeslope positions were 35%, 35 %, and 46%, respectively. However, there was no
significant difference (p>0.05) between the North and South slope regarding the clay
content.

Silt content of summit, side slope, and toeslope positions under the South slope was
1.8 %, 1.7 %, and 1.8 %, respectively, and there was no significant difference
(p>0.05) between the slope aspects. Similarly, there was no significant difference
(p>0.05) between the aspects of the North slope with 1.95 %, 1.1 %, and 1.9 % for the
summit, side slope, and toeslope aspects. No significant difference in the North and
South slopes.

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The sand was the highest soil particle in both aspect slopes with 61%, 59 %, and 50 %
from the summit, side slope, and toeslope position, respectively, under the South
slope. However, under the north slope, the summit, side slope, and toeslope positions
had 62 %, 63 %, and 52 %, respectively. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05)
between the three slope positions (summit, side slope, and toeslope) in terms of the
sand in both slope aspects. In the South slope aspect, the slope positions differ
significantly (p<0.05) from one another, with the higher value at the summit position
and the least in the toeslope position. The highest value was recorded in the side slope
position on the north slope, and the lowest was found in the toeslope position.
However, on average, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the North
and South slopes.

The clay and silt percentages were highest in the toeslope position, while the summit
position had the lowest value. However, the sand was dominant particle size
irrespective of the slope positions, despite the greater sand content in the summit and
the lower at the toeslope. This is because when soil erosion occurs, especially in
terraces, fine particles are suspended in the accumulated water and transported down
the slope, leaving the coarse material in the upper slope sites with less porous areas
and greater soil density. Negasa et al. (2017) reported that slopes affect the
distribution of soil particles (sand, silt, and clay) under different land management
systems. Moreover, they referred that clay particles tend to be increased in the
sequential topography. However, Tan et al. (2014) reported a lack of erosion
susceptibility of < 8 % slope at oil palm plantations in central Pahang.

Effect of slope aspect on selected soil properties for the northern slope and
southern slope at a depth of 20-40 cm.

Different soil properties were influenced by the slope position and aspect, as shown in
Table 2. The result compared the means of the selected soil at 20-40 cm depth on
both the Northern and Southern slopes for the years 2019-2020.

Soil pH

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The soil pH at 20-40 cm depth in both slopes aspects was found to be acidic, whereas
the soil pH in both aspects slope ranged from 5.03±0.12 to 3.96±0.22, with the
highest value in the toeslope position of the South aspect, while the lowest was in the
summit position of the North aspect. In addition, there was no significant difference
(p>0.05) observed between the three slope positions at the South aspect slope;
however, significant differences were observed (p<0.05) between the slope aspects of
North and South. This is consistent with various studies (Ofori et al., 2013; Olubanjo
& Maidoh, 2017; Begum et al., 2010), who found a decrease in pH of the North
aspect slope and attributed it to the higher soil water content, higher organic matter,
and different vegetative cover. In addition, Dahlgren et al. (1997) attributed such
differences to variations in nutrient cycling by the contrasting vegetation.

Electrical conductivity (EC)

There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the North aspect slope and the
South aspect slope in terms of electrical conductivity (EC) among the three slope
positions irrespective of the slope aspects at a depth of 20 - 40 cm. The highest EC of
0.06±0.01 dS/m was observed in the toeslope position, while the lowest of 0.03±0.00
dS/m was recorded in the side slope position. Similarly, there was no significant
difference (p>0.05) between the two (North and South) slope aspects. However,
Samarakoon et al. (2006) stated that N, P, K and Ca uptake significantly increased
with higher EC values. Also, the increase in EC with depth is due to the downward
movement of soluble ions with percolating water during the erosion processes and its
accumulation in the compact subsoil(Ahmad & Khan, 2009; Khan et al., 2013).

Table 2: Some selected soil properties are at 20-40 cm depth of the northern and
southern slope aspects for 2019 and 2020.
Southern Slope Northern Slope Soil
properties
Toeslope Sideslope Summit Toeslope Sideslope Summit
a b a b b
5.03±0.12 4.56±0.08a 4.96±0.43 4.26±0.18 4.21±0.10 3.96±0.22b pH
a a a a a a
0.06±0.01 0.04±0.00 0.04±0.02 0.04±0.01 0.03±0.00 0.05±0.01 EC ds/m

1.51±0.25a 0.88±0.05b 1.09±0.15b 1.03±0.03b 0.98±0.08b 1.05±0.02b

Ca (cmolc kg-1)

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0.23±0.01a 0.12±0.01b 0.11±.0.01b 0.13±0.00b 0.13±0.02b 0.12±0.01b Mg (cmolc kg-1)

0.14±0.02a 0.05±0.02ba 0.07±0.02a 0.07±0.02a 0.03±0.02a 0.05±0.02a K (cmolc kg-1)

0.05±0.01a 0.04±0.01ab 0.02±0.01b 0.05±0.01a 0.04±0.01ab 0.02±0.01b N%

1.42±0.50a 1.35±0.18a 1.63±0.07a 1.85±0.77a 1.54±.0.10a 1.48±015a Avai P (mg kg-1)

51.69±6.58a 39.61±1.63bc 40. 98±7.47b 50.88±1.63ab 39.70±2.14bc 38.87±2.15c Clay (%)

1.64±0.22a 1.41±0.32a 1.60±0.26a 1.67±0.07a 1. 31±0.14a 1.82±0.12a Silt (%)

49.66±1.42b 58.97±1.46a 61.07±1.48a 47.44±1.60b 59.31±1.72a 58.96±1.79a Sand (%)

Note: Ca = Exchangeable Calcium, Mg = Exchangeable Magnesium, K = Exchangeable Potassium, N = Total

Nitrogen, Avai.P = Available Phosphorus.

Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and Potassium (K)

The soil's calcium (Ca) content in the South aspect ranged between 1.51±0.25 to
0.88±0.05 at toeslope and side slope positions. Meanwhile, the calcium in the north
slope ranged between 1.05±0.02 to 0.98±0.08 in the summit to side slope position.
There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the three positions in the South
slope aspect, while there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the three
positions in the North slope aspect. On the other hand, there was a significant
difference (p < 0.05) between the South aspect slope and the North aspect slope at the
toeslope position. On the other hand, the magnesium (Mg) ranged between 0.23±0.01
to 0.11±.0.01 from toeslope and summit positions in the South aspect slope, while it
ranged between 0.13±0.00 to 0.12±0.01 from toeslope to summit positions in the
North slope aspect. The three slope positions differ significantly (p<0.05) from one
another at the South slope aspect; however, the slope positions did not differ under the
North slope aspect. On the other hand, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05)
between the South aspect slope and the North aspect slope at the toeslope position.
This agrees with Olubanjo & Maidoh (2017), who reported that calcium and
magnesium were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by variations in slope positions.

The potassium (K) content in the South slope aspect was 0.14±0.02 in the toeslope
position and 0.05±0.02 in the side slope position, and in the North slope aspect, it was
0.07±0.02 in the toeslope position, and 0.03.±.0.02 in the side slope position.
Potassium (K) concentration was the highest at the toeslope, which differed

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significantly (p < 0.05) from other slope positions in the South slope aspect. In
contrast, there was no significant difference in the three positions in the north aspect
slope. On the other hand, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the
South aspect slope and the North aspect slope, mainly in toeslopes positions. Depth
influenced calcium, magnesium, and potassium content, where the lowest value was
recorded at the 20-40cm depth. This agrees with Olubanjo and Maidoh, (2017), who
reported that calcium and magnesium were significantly (p<0.05) affected by
different soil depths.

Total Nitrogen (N)

The concentration of total nitrogen (N) in 20-40 cm depth was highest at the toeslopes
irrespective of the aspects with 0.05±0.01, and the lowest value of 0.02.±.0.01 was
recorded in the summit position under both slopes’ aspects. There was a significant
difference (p < 0.05) in the total nitrogen across the slope positions, but there was no
significant difference between the South aspect slope and the North aspect slope. The
depth of 20-40 cm had the lowest value of total nitrogen while 0-20 cm depth had the
highest value, which agrees with Olubanjo and Maidoh (2017), who reported a
decrease in total nitrogen content with an increase in depth in a study about the
influence of slope and depth on soil chemical properties in an oil palm plantation.

Available Phosphorus (P)

The distribution of available phosphorus (P) at 20-40 cm depth showed the highest
value at the South slope was 1.63±0.07, obtained in the summit position. Meanwhile,
the lowest value of 1.35±0.18 was found in the side slope position. In the North slope
aspect, the highest and lowest available P of 1.85±0.77 and 1.48±015.18 was obtained
in the side slope and summit position, respectively. There was no significant
difference between the three slope positions in the North and South aspect slopes.
Depth influenced the soil's phosphorus. In the 20-40 cm depth was observed the
lowest value. This agrees with Khan et al. (2013), Olubanjo & Maidoh (2017) and
Rasool et al. (2014).

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Soil texture

The textural class of the soil in the study area based on the particle size distribution
(sand, silt, and clay) ranged from sandy clay to sandy clay loam at the lower depth of
20 – 40 cm.

The average clay content at the South slope was 41%, 40 %, and 52% in the summit,
side slope, and toeslope positions, respectively. A significant difference (p<0.05)
across the three slope positions on the South slopes existed. Also, in the North slope
aspect, the averaged clay content of summit, side slope and toeslope was 39 %, 40 %,
and 51%, respectively, which differ significantly (p<0.05) from one another.
Similarly, there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the North and South
slope aspects.

The silt content of the South slope was 1.6 %, 1.4 %, and 1.6 % in the summit, side
slope, and toeslope position slope, respectively, which did not differ significantly
(p>0.05). Also, in the South slope, silt content was 1.8 %, 1.3 %, and 1.7 % in the
summit, side slope, and toeslope positions, respectively, with no significant
difference. In addition, there was no significant difference between the North aspect
and the South aspect slopes.

The sand was the highest particle of soil texture in both aspect slopes, with 61%, 58
%, and 50 % in the summit, side slope, and toeslope position of the South slope
aspect, respectively. In the north slope aspect, the summit, side slope, and toeslope
positions had 59 %, 59 %, and 47 %, respectively. There was a significant difference
(p < 0.05) across the three slope positions (summit, side slope, and toeslope) in terms
of the sand proportions of both the North and South slopes aspect. The summit

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position had the highest sand content on the South slope, while the toeslope had the
lowest. While in the North slope, the highest sand content was recorded in the side
slope position, and the lowest was observed in the toeslope position. On the other
hand, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the north and south slope
aspects.

The clay content increased with depth as the higher content was gained at the lower
depth (20 - 40 cm), while the lowest clay content was recorded at the upper depth (0 -
20 cm). The silt and sand proportions were highest at 0 cm - 20 cm and decreased
downwards with their lower content at 20 cm - 40 cm depth. This is consistent with
Olubanjo et al. (2017), who stated that the highest content of sand was found on the
summit slope. The clay and silt fractions were highest in the toeslope position, while
the summit position had the lowest content. The sand was the dominant fragment in
the three slope positions, with the highest value occurring at the summit and the
lowest at the bottom. This is also in line with the work of Aweto & Enaruvbe (2010),
Khan et al. (2013) (Ezeaku & Eze, 2014).

Conclusion

The study on physio-chemical characteristics of the soil in different slope positions

and aspects in FELDA Gedangsa plantation, Selangor, indicated that there were
variations in soil properties among the different slope positions and slope aspects. Soil
pH in both slope aspects at 0-20 cm depth was shown to be acidic. In addition,
significant differences (p < 0.05) between the North aspect slope and the South aspect
slope and among their three different slope positions. Similarly, soil pH at 20-40 cm
depth in both slope aspects was found to be acidic, with a significant difference.
However, there was no significant difference between their three slope positions. At
0-20 cm depth, there was no significant difference between the North and South
aspect; however, a significant difference was obtained between their respective three
slope positions. At a depth of 20-40 cm, there was no significant difference between
the slope aspects and their slope positions in terms of the EC. The aspect slope had a
significant effect (p < 0.05) on calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) a concentration in

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the two depths. The potassium (K) concentration was similarly influenced by the
slope aspect at both surface and subsurface depths. In terms of the total N, the slope
aspects did not affect the N content irrespective of the soil depth as there was no
significant difference between the two; however, a significant difference was
observed among the slope positions of both North and South slope aspects. The
available phosphorus (P) clearly indicates that phosphorus in slope soil is medium to
high, and the available phosphorus decreases with the increase in slope segment.
Also, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the North aspect slope and
the South aspect slope at both depths. The clay and silt percentages were highest in
the toeslope position, with the summit position having the lowest value. At the same
time, the sand was the dominant particle irrespective of the slope positions and depth.

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