Eye

Eye
• Eye is 24mm diameter and situated in orbital cavity

• 3 Layers
• outer fibrous layer
• Middle vascular layer
• Inner nervous layer called Retina
Outer layer
• Sclera and Cornea(Avascular)
Middle layer- Choroid
• Posterior 2/3 rd called Choroid
• In front thickens to form Ciliary body
• Ciliary body continues forward to form Iris
• It contains 2 types of smooth muscles Circular and Longitudinal
• Ciliary body is attached to suspensory ligaments which hold lens in
position.( Zonule)
• IRIS
• Pigmented and opaque gives colour to the eye
• It has an aperture called Pupil
• 2 types of muscle – Circular Sphincter pupillae- Parasympathetic
• And Radial – Dilator pupillae Sympathetic
• Divides space into anterior and posterior chamber filled with Aqueous
humour
• INNER LAYER OR RETINA
• An outer pigmented layer Epithelial cells that is attached to whole of
inner surface of Choroid
• Inner layer which contains Photoreceptors Rods and Cones.
Lens
• Circular lens is a biconvex transparent body enclosed with a capsule.
• Held in position by suspensory ligaments.
• All nerve fibers from retina converge to form Optic nerve.
• The small area where optic nerve leaves the eye is called Optic disc.
• This area does not contain rods and cones hence called Blind spot.
• Lens has no blood supply – Takes up nutrients from aqueous humour
Fovea centralis
• Near the posterior pole of the eye is a yellowish spot called macula
lutea
• Fovea is 1.5 cm in diameter and 3mm temporal to optic disc
• This marks the location of fovea centralis a thinned out rod free
portion of retina where cones are densely packed.
• Point of maximum visual acuity.
• In fovea cones are densely packed & each synapse with a single
bipolar cell which inturn synapse with a single ganglion cell providing
a direct pathway to brain
Aqueous & Vitreous humour
• Aqueous humour lies in front of the lens & vitreous humour lies
between posterior surface of lens & retina
• Aqueous humour is a freely flowing fluid
• Vitreous humour called vitreous body is a gelatinous mass held
together by a fine network composed of greatly elongated
proteoglycan molecule
• Prevents the walls of eye ball from collapsing
Intraocular pressure
• Measure of fluid pressure in the eye exerted by Aqueous humour
• Normal IOP varies between 12 and 20 mm Hg.
• Increase in IOP is called Glaucoma.
• The photoreceptor cells are mainly of two types: the
rods and cones.
• Rods function mainly in dim light and provide black-

and-white vision, while cones support daytime vision
and the perception of colour
• Loss of Cone system causes Blindness
• Loss of Rod system causes Night blindness.
Layers of the retina
1.Pigment epithelium
2.Photoreceptor layer
3.Outer limiting membrane
4.Outer nuclear layer
5.Outer plexiform layer
6.Inner nuclear layer
7.Inner plexiform layer
8.Ganglion cell layer
9.Nerve fiber layer
10. Inner limiting membrane
I order neuron:
Primary neuron – bipolar cells- dendrites
synapse with rods & cones & axons with
dendrites of ganglion cells
II order neurons:
Ganglion cells- axons of the ganglion cell pass
backwards along the optic nerve to the optic
chiasma-
where the nasal fibres cross to the opposite
side & the temporal fibres remain uncrossed in
the same side
Two optic tracts are formed – Where majority
of fibres end in lateral geniculate body & a
small group of fibres end in superior
colliculus - synapse with pretectal nucleus-
centre for pupillary reflexes
Few fibers ends in superior colliculus.
III order neuron:

Located in LGB- axons form
geniculocalcarine tract (optic radiations) -
pass to the visual cortex in the occipital
lobe
• Primary visual area Area 17
• Macula has large central representation than that of peripheral
retina.
• Visual area 18 Above and anterior to area 17.
• Concerned with Visual orientation ,depth perception,
• Area 19 Occipital eye field Area concerned with deviation and

movement of eye ball.
• Area 8 Frontal eye field Conjugate deviation of eyes to opposite side.

Visual cortex
Accommodation
• Lens is convex on both its anterior and Posterior surfaces. As its
anterior and posterior surfaces.
• When eye is focusing on a close object the lens becomes more
convex causing greater refraction of rays
• This increase in curvature is called Accommodation.
• This is by Parasympathetic fibers.
Accommodation-3C
• Convergence
• Constriction of Pupil
• Increase in anterior Curvature of Lens
Pathway for accommodation reflex
Visual information
Via visual pathway
Primary visual area, area 17
Frontal eye field, area 8

Via corticonuclear fibers
III Nerve (Edinger-westphal nucleus)
Ciliary muscle; Sphincter

pupillae and medial rectus
Types of Lenses
• A Lens is a piece of transparent glass bounded by two spherical
surfaces.
• Convex lens
• Concave lens
• Cylindrical lens
Optical center and Principal axis
Principal axis
• SI Unit of power of Lens is Diopter.
• Convex lens power is Positive
• Concave lens power is Negative.
Myopia-short sight
• Refractive error where parallel rays of light comes & focus in front of
retina
• The person cannot see distant objects
• Treatment is by giving concave lenses
Visual acuity
• Degree to which the details and contours of the object are perceived
• Clinically tested with Snellen’s chart
• Impaired in myopia and hypermetropia

Hypermetropia
• It is an error of refraction where parallel rays are focussed behind the
retina
• Almost all eyes are hypermetropic at birth
• Treatment is by giving convex lenses
Hyperopic vision
Astigmatism
• Condition where refraction varies in different meridians of the
eye.Hence a point focus cannot be formed on the retina
• It is caused by abnormalities in the curvature of cornea
Treatment of astigmatism
• Cylindrical lenses
• Contact lenses
• Optical keratoplasty
Presbyopia
• When we become old our ability to accommodate is decreased & it is
difficult to focus.This defect is known as presbyopia
• Symptom is blurring of near vision in dimlight
• Treatment is to give bifocal glasses the upper segment for distant
vision & lower segment for reading
Pathways for light reflex (direct and consensual)
Light information
Optic Nerve
Optic tract
Superior colliculi (both sides) or pretectal nucleus

Via colliculonuclear fibers
III nerve (Endinger-westphal nucleus)
Ciliary ganglion
Via short ciliary nerve
Sphincter pupillae
Primary colors
• Red
• Green
• Blue
Complementary color
• When any color is mixed with its

complementary color, the mixture appears
white
• Purple and green

• Orange and blue
• Yellow and dark blue
Colour vision
• The ability of the eye to discriminate between colours
excited by light of different wavelengths.
• Colour vision is the function of cones
• Sensation of colour is subjective

Cone pigments
• Cones more concentrated near fovea- adapts to
a wide range of illumination colours and levels.
• Cone pigments help in colour vision- Respond to

different wavelengths
• Contain retinene1 & opsin - 3 types of pigments–

cyanopsin, iodopsin phorphyropsin
Theories of colour vision
1. Trichromatic theory : Young- Helmholtz theory
Postulates the existence of 3 types of cones
Red sensitive cone pigment (erythrolab) L
Green sensitive cone pigment (chlorolab) M
Blue sensitive cone pigment (cyanolab) S
Color blindness
• Partial loss of color vision or the inability
to distinguish certain colors is termed
color blindness
• Prefixes prot-, deuter-, and trit are

used to describe red, green and blue cone
• Suffix anamoly means color weakness and

anopia means absence of a cone
Colour blindness
Classification:
• Anomalous Trichromacy (Protanomaly,
Deuteranomaly, Tritanomaly)
• Dichromacy (Protanopia, Deuteranopia,

Tritanopia)
• Monochromacy
Colour blindness
Protonopia- Red colour blindness
Deutronopia- Green colour blindness
Tritanopia- Blue colour blindness

Classification
• Trichromats commonest type -

have all 3 cones, but one is weak
• Dichromats - have only 2 cone
system, may have protanopia,
deuteranopia or tritanopia
• Monochromats - have only one
cone system
• Holmgren’s wool test
• Ishihara chart
• Edridge green test

Ishihara’s chart

Eye

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Eye

• Eye is 24mm diameter and situated in orbital cavity

• All nerve fibers from retina converge to form Optic nerve.

• Rods function mainly in dim light and provide black-

III order neuron:

• Area 19 Occipital eye field Area concerned with deviation and

• Area 8 Frontal eye field Conjugate deviation of eyes to opposite side.

Frontal eye field, area 8

Ciliary muscle; Sphincter

• Clinically tested with Snellen’s chart

• Impaired in myopia and hypermetropia

Superior colliculi (both sides) or pretectal nucleus

• When any color is mixed with its

• Purple and green

• Colour vision is the function of cones

• Sensation of colour is subjective

• Cone pigments help in colour vision- Respond to

• Contain retinene1 & opsin - 3 types of pigments–

• Prefixes prot-, deuter-, and trit are

• Suffix anamoly means color weakness and

• Dichromacy (Protanopia, Deuteranopia,

Deutronopia- Green colour blindness

Tritanopia- Blue colour blindness

• Trichromats commonest type -

• Edridge green test

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