Pesticide Certification Information #15

DISEASES OF VEGETABLE CROPS

WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERVICE AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY/ AFFIRMATIVE ACTION INSTITUTION

DISEASES OF VEGETABLE CROPS

DISEASES OF BEANS
ROOT ROT is caused by several different soilborne fungi. Symptoms vary depending on organisms present and on environmental conditions. Root rot is a possible cause if plants wilt and die, if leaves turn yellow or drop off, if plants are stunted, or if pods are small with undersized seeds. Characteristic symptoms caused by three major root rot fungi are described here. Fusarium Dry Root Rot symptoms appear after seedlings emerge. The taproot is first slightly discolored, and gradually becomes brown with longitudinal cracks. Bottom roots are usually killed; new fibrous roots may form just above the discolored area and just below the soil surface. Continuous bean culture causes a buildup of the fungus in the soil. The fungus can survive in the absence of beans for about five years. Rhizoctonia Root Rot is characterized by seed rot, a water-soaked stem rot near the soil line which results in wilt and death of new seedlings and slightly sunken reddish-brown longitudinal stem cankers near the soil line. If inner stem tissue is invaded, it becomes brick red. Pythium Root Rot is characterized by colorless to dark-brown wet rot near the soil line. Young plants and sometimes older plants wilt and die. BACTERIAL BLIGHTS on beans and lima beans are caused by several different bacteria, each causing a different disease. Halo Blight on beans is characterized by numerous dead leaf spots with yellow halos. At high temperatures, halos may be absent, and entire leaves may be killed as the bacterium moves systemically in the plant. Under humid conditions, a creamy ooze is produced on pod spots. Syringae Blight, more common on lima beans than on other beans, is characterized by small reddish-brown irregular spots on leaves. As spots enlarge, centers turn gray and drop out. Veins on lower leaf surfaces turn reddish-brown. Pod spots are more elongate than leaf spots. Bacteria that cause these blights overwinter in the seed and in refuse from diseased plants left in fields; syringae blight also overwinters in several woody plants including lilac, cherry, pear, poplar, rose, and forsythia. Bacteria is spread by splashing rain, by man, and on implements. Halo blight is favored by cool wet weather whereas common blight is favored by warm weather. MOSAIC SYMPTOMS include plant stunting; leaf mottling, puckering, and stunting; and sometimes pod distortion and stunting. Common Bean Mosaic and Yellow Bean Mosaic are two major bean virus diseases. Common bean mosaic is seedborne. Yellow bean mosaic is not seedborne but overwinters in clovers and gladiolus. Both viruses are spread from diseased plants to healthy plants by aphids, by leaves rubbing against each other, and by man working with healthy plants after working with diseased plants. ANTHRACNOSE is characterized by black sunken lesions about 1/2 inch in diameter, and by salmon-colored ooze on pods, cotyledons, and stems. Pod spots are most conspicuous. Veins on lower leaf surfaces commonly turn black. The anthracnose fungus overwinters in bean seed and in field soil or refuse from diseased plants. The fungus is spread by wind, rain, animals, man, or implements. Cool wet weather promotes disease development. DOWNY MILDEW OF LIMA BEANS has as its most conspicuous symptom a white downy mold on pods. Infected pods shrivel, die, and turn black. Young shoots, flowers, and leaves are also affected. Leaf veins may become purplish and distorted; not much mold develops on leaves. The downy mildew fungus overwinters in diseased seed. In wet weather, the fungus grows,

reproduces, and spreads rapidly by wind. A susceptible planting can be destroyed in a few days. POD BLIGHT OF LIMA BEANS affects leaves and pods. Affected leaves have irregular brown patches with concentric circles of small black specks. Similar black specks develop on affected pods. Seeds in affected pods fail to form or are shriveled. The disease-causing fungus overwinters on seeds and in refuse from diseased plants. Sticky disease-causing spores are produced in the black speck-sized pustules on leaves and pods. Wet conditions promote spore production, spore spread, and disease development. WHITE MOLD is characterized by a white cottony growth on pods and stems. Small, hard, black seed-like structures often form in the white mold growth. Rotted pods become wet and soft. Affected plants often die. The causal fungus overwinters in and near bean fields in refuse from diseased plants. Fungus spores are produced in wet spring weather and are carried to bean plants by wind. The disease gets its start on dying blossoms and on injured tissue. Disease development is promoted by moist conditions. GRAY MOLD, chiefly a pod disease on beans, is characterized by a distinctive grayish powdery mold on bean pods. The causal fungus is present on most dead organic matter in fields. It grows and reproduces in moist conditions, and dry reproductive spores are spread by wind. Wet conditions promote disease development. RUST is characterized by reddish dusty pustules, mostly on lower surfaces of leaves but also on pods. It is most prevalent on mature plants. The causal fungus overwinters on refuse from diseased plants. Dusty spores produced in leaf and pod pustules are spread by movement of man and implements in fields, and by wind. POWDERY MILDEW begins as faint, discolored leaf spots from which a characteristic grayish-white, talcum-like powdery growth spreads to all aboveground parts. Young leaves are dwarfed and curled and may turn yellow and drop. Pods are dwarfed and distorted. Powdery mildew usually develops late in the season on mature plants.

DISEASES OF CRUCIFERS
WIRESTEM, BOTTOM ROT, AND HEAD ROT are caused by the same fungus that causes damping-off. Wire Stem is characterized by stems darkened and girdled near the soil line. Affected plants are weakened, produce small heads, and sometimes wilt and die. Bottom Rot develops on plants after they are transplanted to the field. Dark, slightly sunken spots develop on basal leaves near the soil. In moist conditions and in storage, rot spreads to adjacent leaves and causes a Head Rot. The causal fungus is present in all field soil. Disease is promoted by moist conditions. DOWNY MILDEW, most serious in seedbeds, appears as small leaf spots which are first yellow and later turn brown with bluish-black, lace-like markings. In moist weather, a white downy mold develops on the underside of leaves. Vascular tissue becomes discolored. The causal fungus overwinters on seed, on crucifer weeds, and possibly in soil. Disease is promoted by cool, wet weather in the spring and in the fall. Downy mildew can predispose plants to bacterial soft rot. BLACK LEG symptoms are first seen as dark sunken cankers at the base of the stem. Stem cankers then enlarge and girdle stems, causing plants to wilt. Circular light-brown spots appear on leaves. A diagnostic feature of black leg is the presence of distinct tiny black specks within stem cankers and leaf spots. The causal fungus overwinters on seed and for two to three years in refuse from diseased plants. The disease-causing fungus can be moved long distances on seed or on transplants; it can be spread within fields by dipping diseased and healthy plants in the same water, by working in fields containing diseased plants, and by splashing and running water.
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BLACK ROT affects both young and mature plants. Affected seedlings turn yellow and die. On older plants, yellow sectors that turn brown form on leaf margins. Heads are dwarfed and one-sided, and lower leaves fall off. Vascular tissue turns black in veins running through dead leaf sectors. Vein discoloration then progresses to the base of the plant. Soft rot often develops on affected heads. The black rot bacterium overwinters (on seed and for one to two years in refuse from diseased plants. Long-distance and local spread is the same as for black leg. CLUBROOT causes wilting and yellowing of above ground parts. The diagnostic symptom is the presence of greatly enlarged roots. The causal fungus is soilborne and persists for at least seven years. Soil pH below 7.2 favors disease development. FUSARIUM YELLOWS is most severe on cabbage but also affects other cole crops. Affected plants have a sickly, yellow, dwarfed appearance. Affected leaves frequently have purple edges and brown bases. Lower leaves drop one by one. Vascular tissue in veins turns dark in affected sides of leaves and plants. This discoloration develops from the base of the plant toward leaf margins. The causal fungus is soilborne and can persist for many years. Disease development is promoted by high soil temperature. ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT develops on lower leaves as distinct spots with concentric dusty black circles. Black dusty fungus growth develops on spots during moist periods. During storage, spots expand; soft rot may get started in dead leaf spots. The causal fungus overwinters in seed and in refuse from diseased plants. Wet conditions promote disease development. EDEMA appears as small brownish-gray wart-like growths on the leaf surface. The wart-like growths are thought to be initiated by leaf injury caused by sand or insects. It usually develops during cool nights following warm muggy days. Under these conditions, water uptake is faster than water loss; consequently, the leaf epidermis breaks, and expanding leaf cells are exposed and become corky.

DISEASES OF CUCURBITS

ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT occurs primarily on muskmelons but also on cucumbers and other cucurbits. Leaf spots are first small, circular, and water-soaked; they then expand up to 1/2 inch in diameter with concentric circles within the spots. Spots coalesce causing defoliation that starts with crown leaves. This disease-causing fungus overwinters on and in seed, and in refuse from diseased plants. Disease-causing spores are spread by wind, by running and splashing water, on field workers, and by implements. Weak and aging plants are more susceptible than vigorous plants. ANTHRACNOSE affects cucumbers, muskmelons, and watermelons. Muskmelon and cucumber leaf spots begin as yellowish or water-soaked areas that enlarge rapidly, turn brown, and shatter to form a ragged hole within the spot. Leaf spots on watermelons turn black. Elongated dark spots with light centers often develop on petioles and stems and can cause death of tissue beyond these spots. Young fruit may be killed, but large fruit usually develops depressed darkbordered cankers with flesh-colored ooze in the center. The fungus overwinters in seed and in refuse from diseased plants, and it spreads in splashing water. Humid weather and frequent rains promote disease development and spread. ANGULAR LEAF SPOT OF CUCUMBER is characterized by conspicuous leaf symptoms; stem and fruit symptoms occur but are less conspicuous. Leaf spots are angular and irregular in shape and size. Spots are first water soaked, later turn brown, and then drop out leaving ragged holes. The bacterium causing this disease overwinters on seed and persists on crop refuse from diseased plants. Splashing rain spreads the bacterium in fields. POWDERY MILDEW affects cucumber, muskmelon, pumpkin, and squash. It is caused by a fungus that appears as a white powdery growth on leaves. Crown leaves are affected first and may wither and die. The disease-causing fungus can be introduced on greenhouse-grown plants
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or from southern areas by wind. Disease development is favored by high temperatures. DOWNY MILDEW on cucumbers and muskmelons overwinters in the south and develops in northern areas when environment favors early northward spread. Irregularly shaped yellowish to brown spots appear on the upper sides of leaves, usually at the center of plants. Under moist conditions, a purplish mildew develops on the underside of leaf spots. Leaves are killed as spots increase in size. Spread is rapid from the crown toward new growth. Moist conditions favor disease development. SCAB affects muskmelons and susceptible cucumber varieties. Dry, corky spots, up to 1/2 inch in diameter, develop on cucumber and green muskmelon fruit. Under moist conditions, a dark olive-green, velvety growth covers the spot; this distinguishes scab from angular leaf spot on cucumber fruit. Spots also develop on young terminal stem growth and on petioles. When spots girdle young stems and petioles, growth beyond the spot is killed. Irregular leaf areas are killed on very young leaves. The disease-causing fungus overwinters on seed and in refuse from diseased plants. Disease development is promoted by foggy, cool weather and cool night temperatures. CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS (CMV) is important on muskmelons, summer squash, and cucumbers. CMV also affects other cucurbits and other vegetables. On affected plants, vines are stunted; new leaves are dwarfed, mottled, and sometimes distorted; leaves sometimes wilt and die. Old expanded leaves on muskmelons and cucumbers often slowly turn yellow and dry up, resulting in a slow decline of affected plants. CMV overwinters in many biennial and perennial flowers and weeds. CMV is carried to new plantings by aphids and is spread within plantings by aphids and by man when he works in the plantings. BACTERIAL WILT is characterized initially by wilt and drying of individual leaves which may exhibit cucumber beetle chewing injury. Wilted parts may recover at night, but they wilt on successive sunny days, and finally die. A diagnostic test for bacterial wilt is to cut a wilted stem near the crown, squeeze sap from the newly cut stem, and watch for a white exudate from the vascular bundles. If a clean knife is touched to and then slowly withdrawn from the newly cut surface of the stem, a white ooze may string out in a fine thread between the knife and the stem. Presence of the white exudate and stringing out of the ooze is a positive test for bacterial wilt. Positive test results appear to be easier to obtain for cucumber and for some squash than for muskmelons. The disease is more prevalent on cucumber and muskmelon than on pumpkin and squash. The wilt-causing bacterium overwinters in striped and 12-spotted cucumber beetles, and is carried to plants when beetles feed. FUSARIUM WILT OF MUSKMELONS is characterized by stunting, yellowing, wilting, and dying of vines. A streak, at first water-soaked, later turning yellow to tan, and finally dark brown, often appears at the soil line on one side of the vine; this symptom is diagnostic. The disease-causing fungus survives in soil for many years. High soil temperature favors fungus growth. FUSARIUM WILT OF WATERMELONS is characterized by seedling damping-off, and by stunting, wilting, and death of established plants. Vascular tissue may be discolored. White mold may develop on dead vines. The disease-causing fungus is soilborne and can persist in soil for many years. LATE COLLAPSE OF MUSKMELONS is characterized by a sudden collapse of plants. Collapse occurs late in the season on bright sunny days following heavy rains and cold nights that cause a significant drop in soil temperature. Temperatures of 500 F at the four-inch soil depth appear to trigger the collapse. Collapse can be severe after cool wet summers because (a) the critical soil temperature can be reached relatively easily, and (b) cool wet weather favors root rooting, an additional stress that promotes wilting.

CHOANEPHORA WET-ROT is a summer squash fruit rot affecting wilted blossoms and spreading to attached fruit. Invaded fruits rot rapidly and are covered with fungus growth. The fungus growth resembles small black-headed pins stuck into the fruit. The disease-causing fungus is spread by insects, wind, and splashing water. Disease development is promoted by high moisture conditions. FUSARIUM FRUIT ROT ON MUSKMELONS, caused by a soilborne fungus, is characterized by fruit spots of 1/2 inch to 1 inch in diameter on ripe muskmelons. The rot is dry and usually has 1/2-inch deep, spongy, white (sometimes rosecolored) tissue that can be easily removed from unaffected tissue. In wet conditions and during storage, a white mold develops on the surface of the fruit spot. BLACK ROT (FRUIT ROT) AND GUMMY STEM BLIGHT are caused by the same fungus. Different symptoms develop on different cucurbits. Winter squash, pumpkins, and gourds are affected most by black rot. Black Rot starts as irregular circular fruit spots that are first fadedgreen or yellow, later gray to brown, and finally black. The fruit rot penetrates through the rind and causes a dry rot in the flesh below. Other rot organisms may follow and cause a wet rot that affects the entire fruit. Muskmelons, cucumbers, and watermelons are affected most by Gummy Stem Blight, which begins as pale brown or gray spots on leaves, petioles, and stems. Stem spots usually start at the nodes and elongate into stem streaks. Leaves on affected vines turn yellow and die, and occasionally entire plants are killed. Tiny, black, pimple-like structures develop on fruit, stem, and leaf spots. The disease-causing fungus overwinters in seed and in refuse from diseased plants.

DISEASES OF PEAS
PEA ROOT ROTS are caused by several different soil fungi. These fungi cause conspicuously discolored and rotted areas on the main root and at the base of the stem. It is difficult to distinguish between root rots caused by different fungi. Often several different root rots are present on the same plant. Specific symptoms characteristic for some root rots are noted below. Diseases are named for the organism that causes the rot. Aphanomyces Root Rot is characterized by water-soaking, softening, and slight discoloration of the tap root and lower stems. Often the outer root tissue can be readily slipped from the central woody root tissue. Fusarium Root Rot symptoms appear on the stem just above the region of seed attachment. Affected stem areas turn dark reddish-brown. Internal woody stem tissue sometimes turns brick red. Rhizoctonia Root Rot symptoms begin as purplish streaks above and below ground on the stem and particularly at nodes. Streaks enlarge into dark brownish-purple areas which may girdle the stem and extend several inches above ground. These root rot fungi persist in soil and in refuse from diseased plants. In addition, Ascochyta is seedborne. Excessive soil moisture, whether from heavy rainfall or from poor drainage, favors root rots. Root rot is more likely to develop on weak, slowly growing plants than on vigorous, more rapidly growing plants. PEA BLIGHTS of most importance are ascochyta blight and bacterial blight. Ascochyta Blight is caused by any of three related fungi. Symptoms develop on stems, roots, leaves, and pods. Black to purplish streaks develop on stems. Streaks are most conspicuous at the nodes and enlarge into brown to purplish irregular-shaped areas from the roots to about ten inches up the stem. Root rot symptoms are described in the ascochyta root rot section. Leaf spots are gray to purplish and may be very small and irregular, or large and circular. Concentric rings sometimes form in leaf spots. Severely affected leaves may shrivel and die. Pod spots are gray to purplish, lack concentric rings, and are sunken. The blight-causing fungi are seedborne. Abundant rainfall favors disease spread and development. Bacterial Blight affects all above-ground plant parts. Seedlings from diseased seed may be killed. On older plants, water-soaked spots develop on pods, stems, and leaves. In wet weather,
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spots enlarge, and a white to cream-colored slimy ooze may collect on the spot surface. In dry weather, leaf spots dry up, turn brown, and become papery. The causal bacterium overwinters in seed and likely is introduced yearly through infected seeds; it probably does not overwinter in refuse. FUSARIUM WILT AND NEAR WILT are two major pea wilts. Symptoms and controls for these two wilts differ although they are caused by related fungi. Fusarium wilt initial symptoms are yellowing of lower leaves and stunting of the entire plant. Leaflet margins curl down and inward. The stem may be slightly swollen and brittle near the soil line. The internal woody stem tissue is often discolored lemon to orange-brown. Externally, the root system appears healthy; however, secondary root rots are likely on plants wilted for long periods. Eventually, wilted plants may die. Near Wilt symptoms are similar to fusarium wilt symptoms. However, plants infected with near wilt die more slowly than those infected with fusarium wilt. Also, internal woody stem tissue is usually brick red in near wilt plants; this discoloration extends through the entire plant. Fungi that cause fusarium wilt and near wilt can be introduced with the seed. Once present, these fungi persist indefinitely in soil. PEA VIRUSES include these four important diseases, each caused by a different virus and each showing a different set of symptoms. Pea Enation Mosaic virus causes yellowish areas on leaves and blisterlike ridges (enations) on undersides of leaves; on pods, it causes pod distortion, and suture splitting. Bean Yellow Mosaic virus (BV-2) causes green and yellow-green mottle or mosaic patterns, and promotes growth from axillary buds. Pea Stunt, caused by red clover vein mosaic virus, is characterized by light-colored veins, terminal rosettes, stunting, and poor pod set. Pea Streak, caused by a combination of the pea enation and pea stunt viruses, is characterized by purplish-brown flattened pods, purplish-brown streaks on stems, death of veins, yellowing on some leaves, and eventual wilting and death of terminal growth. Viruses that cause these diseases overwinter in some plants belonging to the pea family (clovers, vetches, alfalfa). Aphids pick up viruses from these plants and transmit the viruses to peas.

DISEASES OF POTATOES
BLACK LEG symptoms appear at the stem end of tubers as yellowish tissue which eventually becomes black. The rot may hollow out the entire tuber, and may be slimy, watery, or dry, depending on soil conditions. When infected seed pieces decay, the bacteria may enter new shoots, causing the stems to become soft and black. High moisture conditions and warm weather favor disease development; in warm and dry weather, infection will not cause plant death, but will retard growth and reduce yield. The bacteria, which overwinter in seed tubers, soil, or plant debris, can enter the plant only through wounds caused by insects, bruising, sunscald, or pathogenic fungi. RING ROT first appears as a light-yellow to light-brown discoloration of the vascular ring at the stem end. As the disease progresses, the entire vascular ring rots with cavities extending to the center of the tuber. The surface of tubers may be cracked and depressed. Disease-causing bacteria persist in stored potatoes, on equipment, in plant debris, and in cull tubers in the field. In storage, the bacteria can infect seed. COMMON SCAB appears as darker-than-normal, corky, rough areas raised above or sunken below the healthy skin. The disease-causing fungus persists in the soil and on infected seed tubers. Dry soils and temperatures between 65 to 700 F favor scab development. Soil-insect larvae are frequent invaders of the lesions, and thus make the disease more severe. LEAK fungus invades seed pieces, making them watery, but not slimy. Seed planted in warm, moist soil becomes yellowish to brown, and then black. Water from affected tubers is most often
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clear, but may be yellowish or brown. Tubers can be infected through wounds, bruises, or insect injuries. If infected tubers are placed in storage, the disease is not evident for two to four weeks, at which time they become watery and soft. The central portion of the tuber is dark brown to black, with a sharp line separating healthy from rotted tissue. If the tuber is squeezed, a clear, yellowish water will come out. Late-planted cut potato seed is most vulnerable to infection, especially if harvested when temperatures are above normal and soil is moist. PINK ROT is caused by a soil-inhibiting fungus that attacks tubers. Internal symptoms begin at the stem end, first as rubbery tissue from which water will exude under pressure. The tissue turns pink as the decay progresses. Basal stem decay and top wilting may occur. High soil moisture and temperatures in the mid-70s are optimum for tuber rot development. At high temperatures, the rot is usually jelly-like; at low temperatures, it is usually dry and may extend far into the tuber. Fungus infection requires open wounds, warm temperatures, and moisture. RHIZOCTONIA causes different symptoms on tubers and on shoots, stolons, and roots. On tubers, black scurf develops. On the shoot, stolon, and roots, cankers develop. Black scurf is common and usually harmless. It detracts from the appearance of the potato. Black scurf consists of scattered black dots which range from pinhead size to 1/4 inch in diameter. Any spots (fungal bodies) on seed will germinate when the seed is planted; these fungal bodies will infect shoots, roots, and stolons. When rhizoctonia attacks shoots and stolons, it causes sharply delimited, sunken brown lesions. The lesions may extend to several inches long, may be on one side, or may completely girdle the affected portion. The lesions damage the vascular tissue and cortex, and can kill the affected portion if they develop near the growing tips. When shoots and stolons are attacked less severely or late in the growing season, the plant is not killed. However, movement of nutrients from leaves to tubers is hampered, and the leaves become cupped, hard, and discolored, and aerial tubers develop. MOSAICS are virus diseases which do not affect the eating quality of potatoes. However, they reduce the size and number of tubers produced. Mild mosaic appears as yellowish or light-colored mottling of the leaf. The mottled areas are variable in size and are not limited by the veins. Diseased plants droop and die prematurely. Mild mosaic is usually more distinct during the early part of the season. Rugose mosaic is readily distinguished from mild mosaic by the smaller and more numerous mottled areas distributed closer to the main veins. On the undersides of lower leaves, thin black necrotic areas often develop on veins. The leaves become brittle and then drop; the plant dies prematurely. Mosaic diseases overwinter in stored tubers, and are spread from contaminated plants to healthy plants by insects, persons, or machines. LEAF ROLL virus disease is easier to detect on tubers growing from infected seed than on tubers infected while they are growing. Affected leaflets are lighter than normal and may show a red tint. The leaves curl upward, and assume a rigid, leathery texture. As new leaves form, they become infected; this decreases the number and size of the tubers. In tubers, the disease causes a conspicuous netted pattern of necrotic tissue. Aphids spread the disease in the field, and infected tubers carry it in storage. The storage temperature most favorable for disease development and spread is between 45 and 500 F. TUBER LATE BLIGHT first appears as small, irregular, pink to brick-red areas just beneath the skin. As the disease progresses, these areas enlarge and become depressed. Tubers blighted before harvest will usually decay rapidly, and are open to secondary invasion by soft rot bacteria. If tubers are blighted when harvested and are stored at temperatures of 50 to 600 F, the disease-causing fungus will spread and cause more disease in storage. Tubers become dry, firm, and leathery, and can be infected by soft rot.
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The disease-causing fungus is a water mold which requires high humidity or free water for reproduction and infection. Tuber blight is most prevalent and severe in heavy moist soils, but even loose soils--if they remain wet--will allow disease development. The fungus overwinters on blighted tubers. VERTICILLIUM WILT symptoms appear first on leaves at flowering time. The leaves become dull green with irregular yellow areas, and eventually become brown and withered. Leaf yellowing begins on the lowest leaves and progresses upward until the entire stalk is dead. The vascular ring in affected tubers is dark brown at the stem end and becomes progressively lighter through the tuber. The disease-causing fungus may be in the seed or in the soil from previously infected potatorelated crops. The fungus spreads from the seed piece into the sprout or from the soil into the roots or sprout. Cultural practices or environmental conditions which hasten maturity will cause earlier and more severe wilt symptoms. The disease causes serious yield losses in dry soils with low fertility, poor weed control, and heavy insect infestation. EARLY BLIGHT can affect both plants and tubers. On leaves, small, oval or angular darkbrown or black spots are surrounded by a narrow yellowish zone. Lowest leaves dry up first as the disease progresses upward on the plant. On tubers, the fungus causes sunken lesions slightly darker than the skin, with underlying tissue showing a corky dry rot. The margin around the lesion is well defined and sometimes slightly raised. The disease-causing fungus is windborne. SILVER SCURF is a fungus disease confined to tubers. It begins as circular or irregular brown lesions which appear silvery when moistened. As the color gets darker, the skin sloughs off and shrivels. The skin color on red varieties may become brownish. Tubers become susceptible as they approach maturity. High humidity is essential for disease development. FUSARIUM DRY ROT infects seed potatoes and stored tubers only through wounds and bruises caused during or after harvest. Symptoms vary greatly depending on the species of fusarium fungus and the environmental conditions. Generally, symptoms appear as brown or black sunken, shriveled, or broken areas which may have a white, yellow, or reddish mold growth on or in the tubers.

DISEASES OF SWEET CORN

STEWARTS BACTERIAL WILT is more severe on young plants than older plants. Symptoms appear first on leaves. Pale green to yellow streaks with wavy margins may extend the length of the leaf. These streaks usually change from pale green to yellow or brown. Brown discoloration and cavities may sometimes form in the center of the stem near the soil line. Earlyinfected plants may die; late-infected plants may be stunted or merely have streaked leaves. The disease-causing bacterium overwinters in flea beetles and is spread to corn when flea beetles feed on corn plants. Warm winters favor overwintering of flea beetles and usually precede seasons when Stewarts bacterial wilt is prevalent. Flea beetles can be expected if the average monthly temperatures of December, January, and Februarywhen addedtotal more than 90. For example, if the mean temperature of December is 340 F, that of January is 290F, and that of February is 300F, the presence of Stewarts Bacterial Wilt is a strong possibility for the next growing season. LEAF SPOTS found on sweet corn are Northern Corn Leaf Blight (NCLB), Southern Corn Leaf Blight (SCLB), Yellow Leaf Blight (YLB), and Anthracnose. Leaf spot size and color help distinguish different diseases from each other; also specific environmental conditions favor development of each disease. For convenience of comparison, specific information is summarized in the following table.

Disease NCLB SCLB Anthracnose YLB

Spot Size (Inches) 1/2 x 1 to 6 1/4 to 1/2 x 1/2 to 1 1/2 1/8 to 1/2 x 1/2 1/10 x 1/2

Spot Color Grayish-green to tan Tan with yellowish to reddish-brown border Brown with reddishbrown border Yellow-cream to tan; sometimes with yellow halo

Conditions Favoring Disease 65 to 770F, dew 68 to 900F, damp High temperatures, drying leaves Cool, wet

MAIZE DWARF MOSAIC (MDM) is characterized by distinct symptoms that appear on youngest leaves before tasseling. Affected plants have a fine stippling of dark green streaks on chlorotic young leaves. Upper internodes are shortened. Symptoms on older plants include yellowed leaves, plant stunting, excessive tillering, presence of multiple ear shoots, and poor seed set. MDM is caused by a virus that overwinters in grasses. Two virus strains (A and B) exist. Johnsongrass is likely a major overwintering host for strain A; strain B does not overwinter in this host. At least 12 kinds of aphids transmit the virus from infected grasses to corn. SMUT is characterized by presence of large, fleshy, irregular galls on leaves, stems, ears, and tassels. Immature galls are white and spongy; mature galls turn brown and contain powdery dark spores. Smut is caused by a fungus that overwinters in contaminated soil. Smut development is favored by dry conditions and by temperatures between 79 and 940 F. Disease development is promoted by plant injury caused by hail, cultivation, and insects.

DISEASES OF TOMATOES
Tomato diseases are grouped into symptom categories to help with diagnosis. Categories are: wilts, leaf spots and blights, fruit spots and rots, internal browning and graywall, and viruses and herbicides. TOMATO WILTS are caused by several different agents. Four common wilts are verticillium wilt, fusarium wilt, bacterial wilt, and walnut wilt. Information on varietal resistance, range of crops affected, proximity to walnut trees, soil temperature, and past cropping history help determine which wilt is present. Usually a laboratory isolation is needed to verify the cause. Bacterial Canker and Leaf Roll, two other disorders often mistaken for wilts, are also discussed here. Verticillium Wilt affects many plants and is prevalent on tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, peppers, strawberries, and raspberries. It is characterized by yellowing, drying, and premature dropping of leaves. Affected plants are usually stunted but not killed. Vascular tissue may be discolored. The disease is caused by a soilborne fungus that can persist in soil for many years. Verticillium wilt is prevalent in cool environments. Fusarium Wilt affects only tomatoes. It is characterized by plant stunting and leaf yellowing, wilting, and dying. Leaf symptoms appear first on oldest leaves at the base of the plant but later develop on successively younger leaves toward the plant top. Sometimes symptoms appear on plants only after they are dead. Vascular tissue turns brown in diseased plants. Fusarium wilt is caused by a soilborne fungus that can persist in soil for many years. Many tomato varieties are resistant to a common (race 1) of this fungus; however, these resistant varieties may not be resistant to a recent detected race (race 2). Fusarium wilt is restricted by cool climate.

Bacterial Wilt affects several plants including tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, and peppers. It is characterized by sudden plant wilting without leaf yellowing. Stem centers (pith) become water soaked, later turn brown, and sometimes become hollow. Woody stem (vascular) tissue turns brown, and adventitious roots may be prevalent. The disease-causing bacterium does not overwinter in northern soils and usually is a problem only after it is introduced on transplants. Walnut Wilt affects several plants when they are growing within the root zone of walnut and butternut trees. The wilt is particularly prevalent on tomatoes. Woody stem (vascular) tissue turns brown in affected plants, and plants soon wilt and die. A toxin from both living and dead tree roots causes the problem. Bacterial Canker causes wilting, rolling, and bronzing of tip leaves. On older plants, foliage dies from the margin and finally kills the plant. Yellowish-white streaks may appear on petioles and stems and may develop into longitudinal cankers. Cavities may develop within stems. Spots on fruits are first small and whitish but soon develop raised brown centers surrounded by a white halo which later turns brown. The disease-causing bacterium may survive for one year in refuse from diseased plants. It is also seedborne and therefore can get started and be spread on transplants. Leaf Roll is characterized by upward curling of leaflets on older leaves. Leaf roll has been associated with severe pruning and with high soil moisture following heavy rains. TOMATO LEAF SPOTS AND BLIGHTS are caused by several different agents. Early blight, late blight, septoria leaf spot, and bacterial spot frequently occur. Early Blight can affect seedlings but is generally observed on older plants. On seedlings, dark spots develop in cotyledon leaves, stems, and true leaves. Spotted cotyledon leaves may be killed, and spotted stems may be girdled. On established plants, dark brown spots with dark concentric rings develop first on oldest leaves. Spotted leaves may die prematurely resulting in substantial early defoliation, fruit sunscald, and poor fruit color. (See the section about tomato fruit rots for fruit symptoms.) The disease-causing fungus overwinters in crop refuse from diseased plants and can persist in refuse at least one year. The fungus is also seedborne and can be introduced on seed and on transplants. Disease is promoted by cool wet conditions and is severe on plants of poor vigor. Late Blight affects both tomatoes and potatoes. On tomatoes, foliage and fruit are affected. Irregular, greasy, gray areas develop on leaves. During moist conditions, these areas expand rapidly, and a white downy mold growth appears at the margin of the affected area on the lower surface of leaves. If the white fungus growth is not observed, leaves with suspicious spots can be put into a polyethylene bag containing a wet sponge to supply moisture, and held for one day to promote appearance of this diagnostic sign. Fruit symptoms are described with tomato fruit rots. The disease-causing fungus overwinters in southern frost-free areas, on winter-grown tomatoes and potatoes, and in northern areas in potato cull piles and potato seed. It may be introduced to tomato fields on southern-grown transplants or may be windborne from diseased potatoes and tomato plants in nearby fields. Disease development is promoted by cool, wet conditions. Septoria Leaf Spot is characterized by small gray leaf spots with dark borders. Black pinpoint size specks may be found within the spot. The disease-causing fungus survives in refuse from diseased plants and on or in seed. Fungus growth and spread, and subsequent disease development, are favored by wet weather. Bacterial Spot affects tomatoes and peppers. Symptoms include dark greasy spots on leaves and stems. Fruit symptoms are more diagnostic and are described in the section on tomato fruit rots. The disease-causing bacterium may survive for one year in refuse from diseased plants. It is seedborne and therefore can get started on and can be spread on transplants. Wet weather promotes bacteria growth; splashing rain favors spread; and driving rain assists entrance of bacteria into plants. TOMATO FRUIT SPOTS AND ROTS frequently observed are Anthracnose, Early Blight, Late Blight, Blossom-end Rot, Bacterial spot, and Bacterial Speck. Anthracnose, a frequent rot on ripe fruit, first appears as small, circular, indented spots. Spots increase in size, and the central portion darkens. Anthracnose spots on a single fruit often coalesce. Spotted fruits may rot completely, often as a result of attack by secondary fungi. The anthracnose fungus overwinters in refuse from diseased plants and also on and in seed. The
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fungus can become established on early blight leaf spots and on other dead areas on leaves. Fruit spots are started by the fungus being splashed to the fruit either from the soil or from plant parts. Green fruit can become infected, although spots do not appear until fruit ripens. Disease is prevalent on fruit that is overripe and in direct contact with the soil. Wet weather promotes disease development. Early Blight, more important on foliage than on fruit, also causes rot on both green and ripe fruit. Spots usually begin at the stem end and develop into a black, leathery, sunken area, often with dark concentric rings. Leaf symptoms and important disease cycle information are presented with the discussion of tomato leaf spots and blights. Late Blight, although not common, can be devastating on both foliage and fruit. On green fruit, gray-green water-soaked spots enlarge to indefinite size and shape. Affected areas become dark brown, firm, wrinkled, and have a fairly definite margin. See the section on tomato leaf spots and blights for leaf symptoms and disease cycle information. Blossom-end Rot is characterized by a large, dry, brown to black, often depressed, leathery area at the blossom end of fruit. The rot is caused by calcium deficiency in developing fruit. This deficiency usually results from excessive nitrogen fertilization, rapid plant growth, heavy rainfall, or drought. Bacterial Spot is characterized by a distinct fruit spot. Small, dark, raised spots, sometimes surrounded by a water-soaked margin, appear on green fruit. Spots enlarge to 1/8 to 1/4 inch in diameter and become brown and scabby. Leaf symptoms and disease cycle information are presented in the section about tomato leaf spot and blights. Bacterial Speck affects only tomatoes. Small black spots appear on leaves, stems, fruit stems, and fruit. Fruit spots are most characteristic. They appear only on young green fruit and consist of superficial, slightly raised, 1/16-inch dark specks. Tissue around fruit specks remains green longer than the rest of ripening fruit. The disease-causing bacterium is thought to overwinter on seed, and possibly for short periods of time in refuse from diseased plants, or in soil. The bacterium can be introduced into fields on southern-grown transplants. Wet weather promotes bacteria growth; splashing rain and machinery movement through fields assist spread and entrance of bacteria into plants. INTERNAL BROWNING AND GRAYWALL (BLOTCHY RIPENING) are thought to be two different disorders with similar symptoms. Affected green fruit has grayish-brown blotches on the shoulders; internal wall tissue, particularly vascular tissue, is brownish. As fruit ripens, discolored blotches are yellowish on an otherwise ripe fruit. Internal Browning is caused by tobacco mosaic virus. Symptoms will develop on fruit approaching maturity if plants are infected at this late stage of fruit development. Fruit that develops on earlier infected plants is less likely to develop internal browning symptoms. Graywall (Blotchy Ripening) has been associated with specific environmental factors and possibly bacteria. Graywall is promoted by low light intensity (a condition prevalent among dense vines), low temperature, high soil moisture, excessive soil compaction, high nitrogen levels, and low potassium levels. VIRUSES AND HERBICIDES often cause leaf deformation that is most severe on new growth. Tobacco mosaic, cucumber mosaic, and 2, 4-D injury are three common causes of these symptoms. Tobacco Mosaic is caused by a virus that affects tomatoes, eggplants, peppers, and related plants. Symptoms on tomato foliage include light- and dark-green mottling with curling and slight malformation of leaflets. Sometimes green fruit is also mottled. Affected plants may be stunted. The virus is very persistent, infectious, and easily spread by merely brushing against plants. The virus is not spread by aphids. Cucumber Mosaic is caused by a virus that affects hundreds of unrelated plants. Infected tomato plants are stunted, have short internodes, and may have extremely distorted and malformed leaves. Very narrow leaves are referred to as the shoestring symptom. Cucumber mosaic virus is not persistent in refuse, is more difficult to transmit by rubbing than tobacco mosaic virus, and is usually spread by aphids. Since aphids are responsible for most spread, infected plants are usually widely separated within a field.

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2,4-D herbicide injury occurs frequently in greenhouses and fields. Symptoms include downward bending of leaves and of growing points. New leaves do not expand fully; they twist at the margin and are narrow and elongated with abnormally pointed tips. Leaf veins are prominent, light colored, and appear parallel. Plants exposed to small amounts of herbicide should outgrow the injury, whereas virus infected plants will not. Source of herbicide injury is often not readily apparent. Possible sources include (a) direct herbicide application and (b) soil, equipment, tools, containers, clothing and gloves contaminated from a previous herbicide use.

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