Unit - II

UNIT-II
Introduction to C Programming- Identifiers, The main () Function, The printf () Function
Programming Style - Indentation, Comments, Data Types, Arithmetic Operations, Expression
Types, Variables and Declarations, Negation, Operator Precedence and Associativity, Declaration
Statements, Initialization.
Assignment - Implicit Type Conversions, Explicit Type Conversions (Casts), Assignment
Variations, Mathematical Library Functions, Interactive Input, Formatted Output, Format
Modifiers.
Introduction to C Programming:

Basic Structure of C Program: To write a C program, we first create functions and then put them
together. A C program may contain one or more sections. They are illustrated below.

1. Documentation section: The documentation section consists of a set of comment lines

giving the name of the program, the author and other details, which the programmer would
like to use later.
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2. Link section: The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from
the system library.

3. Definition section: The definition section defines all symbolic constants.

4. Global declaration section: There are some variables that are used in more than one
function. Such variables are called global variables and are declared in the global
declaration section that is outside of all the functions. This section also declares all the
user-defined functions.

5. main () function section: Every C program must have one main function section. This
section contains two parts; declaration part and executable part

1. Declaration part: The declaration part declares all the variables used in the
executable part.

2. Executable part: There is at least one statement in the executable part. These two
parts must appear between the opening and closing braces. The program execution
begins at the opening brace and ends at the closing brace. The closing brace of the
main function is the logical end of the program. All statements in the declaration
and executable part end with a semicolon.

6. Subprogram section: The subprogram section contains all the user-defined functions that
are called in the main () function. User-defined functions are generally placed immediately
after the main () function, although they may appear in any order.

Indentation and comments

Indentation is one of the most important aspects in any programming domain. But this is
often the most neglected part during the programming and the developers are mostly reluctant to
follow it.

Code Indentation

Programming style and indentation can be defined as the way you follow to organize and
document your source code. Code indentation is a part of style and it is more of aesthetic interest.

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If we follow proper style guide and indentation then a program can be just like a POEM. And the
reader will be comfortable enough to SAIL through it and understand the meaning. As we know a
proper code indentation will make it:

 Easier to read
 Easier to understand
 Easier to modify
 Easier to maintain
 Easier to enhance
The purpose of code indentation and style is to make the program more readable and
understandable. It saves lots of time while we revisit the code and use it. A style guide provides a
road map which the developer should follow and implement in coding. So in a group of developers,
all the code generated will be of consistent in nature and reusable by any coder/developer. The
worst part of coding is not to follow the style and indentation guide when the project is in the mid
way of development. Some time it happens due to time pressure and many other factors. But we
need to keep in mind that good code is always better even if we need to give some more time
because in the long run it will save a lot of time. But unfortunately, it is often forgotten and the
trouble comes at a later stage. And in that stage it is very difficult to rectify and recover.
As we know, a program is written only once during coding but it is read many times at a
later stage. Following are some future points when we refer the code again.
 During reading an understanding the program
 During code debugging
 During adding new code to the existing program
 During updating the existing program

Example program with comments and indentations:

For example:
if (victor(human))
{
human_wins++;
printf("I am your humble servant.\n");
}

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else
{
computer_wins++;
printf("Your destiny is under my control!\n");
}
Following code sample shows the spacing best practices
// NOT Recommended // Recommended
test (i, j); test(i, j);

All array names should be immediately followed by a left square bracket.

// NOT Recommended // Recommended
arr [0]; arr[0];

All binary operators should maintain a space on either side of the operator.
// NOT Recommended // Recommended
a=b-c; a = b - c;
a = b-c;
a=b - c;

// NOT Recommended // Recommended

z = 6*x + 9*y; z = 6 * x + 9 * y;
z = (7 * x) + (9 * y);

All unary operators should be written immediately before or after their operand.
// NOT Recommended // Recommended
count ++; count++;

// NOT Recommended // Recommended

i --; i--;
// NOT Recommended // Recommended
++ i; ++i;

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All commas and semicolons must be followed by single whitespace.
// NOT Recommended // Recommended
for ( j = 0;j < 10;j++) for ( j = 0; j < 10; j++)

// NOT Recommended // Recommended

getDetails(id,age); getDetails(id, age);
All keywords like if, while, for, switch, and catch should be followed by a single space.
// NOT Recommended // Recommended
if(true) if (true)

// NOT Recommended // Recommended

while(conut < 7) while (count < 7)

// NOT Recommended // Recommended

for(int j = 0; j < 10; j++) for (int j = 0; j < 10; j++)

Identifiers:

 Identifier refers to the name of variables, functions and arrays. These are user defined
names and consists of a sequence of letters and digits.
 Both uppercase and lowercase letters can be used, and C language is case sensitive. A
special symbol underscore ( _ ) is also permitted.
 Rules for identifiers
 First character must be an alphabet or underscore.
 Must consist of only letters, digits or underscore.
 Should not be a keyword and should not have any blank space.
 First 31 characters of an identifier are significant (32 bit computer)
 C is a case – sensitive language i.e, AREA and area both are different identifiers.
 Example : - int num;
Char name;
Where num and name are identifier names.

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Data types:

Data types in C refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions of different
types. The type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage and how the bit
pattern stored is interpreted.

Different data types:

1. Primary or Fundamental or basic Data types

2. Derived data types
3. User defined data types / enumerated
4. Empty data set / void type

Primary data types:

Integer Data Types: Integers are whole numbers with a range of values, range of values are
machine dependent. Generally an integer occupies 2 bytes memory space and its value range
limited to -32768 to +32767 (that is, -215 to +215-1). A signed integer use one bit for storing sign
and rest 15 bits for number.

To control the range of numbers and storage space, C has three classes of integer storage namely
short int, int and long int. All three data types have signed and unsigned forms. A short int requires
half the amount of storage than normal integer. Unlike signed integer, unsigned integers are always
positive and use all the bits for the magnitude of the number. Therefore, the range of an unsigned
integer will be from 0 to 65535. The long integers are used to declare a longer range of values and
it occupies 4 bytes of storage space.
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Syntax:

int <variable name>;

int num1;

short int num2;

long int num3;

Example: 5, 6, 100, 2500.

Integer Data Type Memory Allocation:

Floating Point Data Types: The float data type is used to store fractional numbers (real numbers)
with 6 digits of precision. Floating point numbers are denoted by the keyword float. When the
accuracy of the floating point number is insufficient, we can use the double to define the number.
The double is same as float but with longer precision and takes double space (8 bytes) than float.
To extend the precision further we can use long double which occupies 10 bytes of memory space.

Syntax:

float <variable name>;

float num1;

double num2;

long double num3;

Example: 9.125, 3.1254

Floating Point Data Type Memory Allocation:

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Character Data Type:

Character type variable can hold a single character and are declared by using the keyword char. as
there are singed and unsigned int (either short or long), in the same way there are signed and
unsigned chars; both occupy 1 byte each, but having different ranges. Unsigned characters have
values between 0 and 255, signed characters have values from –128 to 127.

Syntax:

char <variable name>;

char ch = ‘a’;

Example: a, b, g, S, j.

MODIFIERS IN C:
 The amount of memory space to be allocated for a variable is derived by modifiers.
 Modifiers are prefixed with basic data types to modify (either increase or decrease) the
amount of storage space allocated to a variable.
 For example, storage space for int data type is 4 byte for 32 bit processor. We can increase
the range by using long int which is 8 byte. We can decrease the range by using short int
which is 2 byte.
 There are 5 modifiers available in C language. They are,
1. short
2. long
3. signed
4. unsigned
5. long long
 Below table gives the detail about the storage size of each C basic data type in 16 bit
processor.
Please keep in mind that storage size and range for int and float datatype will vary depend
on the CPU processor (8,16, 32 and 64 bit)

storage
S.No C Data types Size Range

1 char 1 –127 to 127

2 int 2 –32,767 to 32,767

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1E–37 to 1E+37 with six digits of

3 float 4 precision

1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits

4 double 8 of precision

1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits

5 long double 10 of precision

6 long int 4 –2,147,483,647 to 2,147,483,647

7 short int 2 –32,767 to 32,767

8 unsigned short int 2 0 to 65,535

9 signed short int 2 –32,767 to 32,767

–(2power(63) –1) to 2(power)63

10 long long int 8 –1

11 signed long int 4 –2,147,483,647 to 2,147,483,647

12 unsigned long int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295

unsigned long
13 long int 8 2(power)64 –1

 Signed data types can hold both positive and negative values.
 Unsigned data types can hold large positive values but cannot hold negative values.

Variable:

A variable definition tells the compiler where and how much storage to create for the variable. A
variable definition specifies a data type and contains a list of one or more variables of that type as
follows:

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Syntax:

type variable_list;

- type must be a valid C data type.

- variable_list may consist of one or more identifier names separated by commas.

Examples:

int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;

Example
Try the following example, where variables have been declared at the top, but they have been
defined and initialized inside the main function:
#include <stdio.h>
main ()
{
/* variable definition: */
int a, b;
int c;
float f;
/* actual initialization */
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;
printf("value of c : %d \n", c);
f = 70.0/3.0;
printf("value of f : %f \n", f);
}

Operators: An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform a specific operation of the
operands.
Operand : An operand is the data or the variable on which the operator performs the operation.
The operators are classified depending upon the number of operands for the operation.The
opearators are divided into following types:

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1. Arithmetic operators
2. Relational operators
3. Logical operators
4. Assignment operators
5. Increment and decrement operators
6. Conditional operators
7. Bitwise operators
8. Special operators

Arithmetic Operators: C allows us to perform basic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division.

Operator Meaning Example

+ Addition 2+3 = 5
- Subtraction 9-2 = 7
* Multiplication 2*3 = 6
/ Division 9/3 = 3
% Modulo division 9%2 = 1
Arithmetic operators can be classified as

1. Unary arithmetic : It requires only one operator

Example: +x, -y

2. Binary arithmetic : It requires two operands.

Example: x+y, x-y, a/b, a%b, x*y
3. Integer arithmetic : It requires both the operands of integer type.
Example: a= 5 b= 4
a+b =9 and a-b = 1
4. Floating point arithmetic : It requires both the operands of floating point type.
Example: a = 6.5 b =3.5
a + b = 10.00 a – b = 3.00

Note: modulo operations can be performed only on integer data type.

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Example program to illustrate the usage of arithmetic operators.
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a = 21;
int b = 10;
int c ;
c = a + b;
printf("Line 1 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a - b;
printf("Line 2 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a * b;
printf("Line 3 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a / b;
printf("Line 4 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a % b;
printf("Line 5 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a++;
printf("Line 6 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a--;
printf("Line 7 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
}
Output:
Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 11
Line 3 - Value of c is 210
Line 4 - Value of c is 2
Line 5 - Value of c is 1
Line 6 - Value of c is 21
Line 7 - Value of c is 22

Relational Operators: Relational operators are used to compare two or more operands.
Operands may be variables, constants or expressions.

Operator Meaning Example Return Value

< Is lessthan 2<3 1
<= Is lessthan or equal to 2<=2 1
> Is greater than 2>9 0
>= Is greater than or equal to 3 >= 2 1
== Is equal to 2==3 0
!= Is not equal to 2 != 2 0

 The value of relational operators is either 0 or 1.

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 Relational operators are used in decision making process, they are generally used in
conditional or control statements.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a = 21;
int b = 10;
int c ;
if( a == b )
{
printf("Line 1 - a is equal to b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 1 - a is not equal to b\n" );
}
if ( a < b )
{
printf("Line 2 - a is less than b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 2 - a is not less than b\n" );
}
if ( a > b )
{
printf("Line 3 - a is greater than b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 3 - a is not greater than b\n" );
}
/* Lets change value of a and b */
a = 5;
b = 20;
if ( a <= b )
{
printf("Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b\n" );
}
if ( b >= a )
{
printf("Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b\n" );
}

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}

Output:
Line 1 - a is not equal to b
Line 2 - a is not less than b
Line 3 - a is greater than b
Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b
Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b

Logical Operators: Logical operators are used to combine the results of 2 or more conditions.

Operator Meaning Example Return value

&& Logical AND (9 > 2) && ( 17 > 2) 1
|| Logical OR (9 > 2) || (17 = = 7) 1
! Logical NOT 29 ! =29 0

Logical AND Logical OR Logical NOT

Input output Input output Input output

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a = 5;
int b = 20;
int c ;
if ( a && b )
{
printf("Line 1 - Condition is true\n" );
}
if ( a || b )
{
printf("Line 2 - Condition is true\n" );
}
/* lets change the value of a and b */
a = 0;

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b = 10;
if ( a && b )
{
printf("Line 3 - Condition is true\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 3 - Condition is not true\n" );
}
if ( !(a && b) )
{
printf("Line 4 - Condition is true\n" );
}
}

Output:
Line 1 - Condition is true
Line 2 - Condition is true
Line 3 - Condition is not true
Line 4 - Condition is true

Assignment Operators: Assignment operators are used to assign a value or an

expression or a value of a variable to another variable.

Syntax : variable = expression or value

Eg: x =10;

x = a+b;
x = y;

Compound assignment: C Provides compound assignment operators to assign a value to a

variable in order to assign a value to a variable after performing a special operation.

Operator Example Meaning

+= x+=y x=x+y
-= x-=y x=x-y
*= x*=y x=x*y
/= x/=y x=x/y
%= x%=y x=x%y

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Nested or multiple assignment: We can assign a single value or an expression to multiple
variables.

Syntax: var1=var2=var3=……….varn= single variable or expression

Example: i=j=k=1;

x=y=z=(i+j+k);

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j,k;

k=(i=4, j=5);

printf(“ k=%d”,k);

Output: k=5

Increment and decrement operators: ‘C’ has two very useful operators not generally found in
other languages, these are increment (++) and drecement(--) operators.

The ++ adds 1 to the variables and – subtracts 1 from the variable.

These operators are called unary operators, because they act upon only one variable.

Operator Meaning
++x Pre increment
--x Pre decrement
x++ Post increment
x-- Post drecrement

++x is equivalent to x=x+1 or x+=1

--x is equivalent to x=x-1 or x-=1

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a=10;

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printf(“a++=%d\n”, a++);
printf(“++a=%d\n”,++a);
printf(“—a=%d\n”,a--);
printf(“a--=%d\n”,--a);
}
output:
a++ = 10
++a = 12
--a = 11
a-- = 11

Conditional Operator ( Ternary operator): The conditional operator contains a condition

followed by two statements or values. If the condition is true the first statement is executed
otherwise second statement.

Syntax: Condition ? (Expression1) : (Expression2);

Two expressions are separated by colon (:) If the condition is true expression1 is
evaluated otherwise expression2 is evaluated.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
printf(“result =%d”, 2==3?4:5);
}
Output :
Result = 5

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
3>2 ? printf(“true”) : printf(“false”);
}
Output:
True

Bitwise operators: Bitwise operators work on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. These are
used for testing the bits or shifting them right or left. May not be applied for float/double. he
truth table for &, |, and ^ is as follows:

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P Q P&Q P|Q P^Q

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0

Assume A = 60 and B = 13; in binary format, they will be as follows:

A = 0011 1100

B = 0000 1101

----------------------

A&B = 0000 1100

A|B = 0011 1101

A^B = 0011 0001

~A = 1100 0011

Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator (A & B) = 12, i.e., 0000
copies a bit to the result if it 1100
exists in both operands.

| Binary OR Operator copies (A | B) = 61, i.e., 0011

a bit if it exists in either 1101
operand.
^ Binary XOR Operator copies (A ^ B) = 49, i.e., 0011
the bit if it is set in one 0001
operand but not both.
~ Binary Ones Complement (~A ) = -61, i.e., 1100
Operator is unary and has 0011 in 2's complement
the effect of 'flipping' bits. form
<< Binary Left Shift Operator. A << 2 = 240, i.e., 1111
The left operands value is 0000
moved left by the number
of bits specified by the
right operand.
>> Binary Right Shift Operator. A >> 2 = 15, i.e., 0000
The left operands value is 1111
moved right by the number of
bits specified by the right
operand.
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Example:

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
unsigned int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */
unsigned int b = 13; /* 13 = 0000 1101 */
int c = 0;
c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */
printf("Line 1 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */
printf("Line 2 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a ^ b; /* 49 = 0011 0001 */
printf("Line 3 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = ~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */
printf("Line 4 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a << 2; /* 240 = 1111 0000 */
printf("Line 5 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a >> 2; /* 15 = 0000 1111 */
printf("Line 6 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
}
Output:

Line 1 - Value of c is 12
Line 2 - Value of c is 61
Line 3 - Value of c is 49
Line 4 - Value of c is -61
Line 5 - Value of c is 240
Line 6 - Value of c is 15
Expression types: An expression is any legal combination of symbols that represents a
value. There are 3 types of expressions
1. Simple ex:c=++a
2. Combined ex: c=a+b
3. Complex ex:d=(a*x+b)/c
Formatted output:

Syntax of printf statement:

Printf(“Control string”, arg1,arg2,…argn);

[arg = argurment]
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Types of control strings:

The control string consists of three types of items:

 Characters that will be printed on the screen as they appear.

 Escape sequence characters such as \n and \t.
 Format specifiers that define output format for the display of variable.

:The control string indicates how many arguments follow and what the types are:”. The
arguments (arg1, arg2, …… argn) are the variables whose values are formatted and printed
according to the specifications of control string.

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
printf(“Pragati Engineering College\n”);
printf(“Mechanical Engineering\n”);
}

Output:
Pragati Engineering College
Mechanical Engineering

Note: The number type and order of arguments should match with the format specifiers.

Output format for integers:

 The output format for integers is %wd.

 W is an integer and it is optional.
 W specifies the minimum field width for the display of output.
 If it is +ve, the output will be displayed right justified.
 If it is –ve, the output will be displayed left justified.

Example:

int i=1234;

printf(“%6d”,i); 1 2 3 4

printf(“%-6d”,i);
1 2 3 4
printf(%d”,i);

printf(%06d”,i); 0 0 1 2 3 4
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Output format for floating point number:

 The output format for floating point numbers is %wpf.

 W indicates the minimum field width to display the output and it is optional.
 P (precision) indicates the number of digits to be displayed after the decimal point.
 If it is +ve, the output will be displayed right justified.
 If it is –ve, the output will be displayed left justified.

Example:

Float f =56.7891;

Printf(“%9.4f”,f); 5 6 . 7 8 9 1
Printf(“%7.2f”,f); 5 6 . 7 9
Printf(“%-7.2f”,f); 5 6 . 7 9
Output format for characters:

 The output format for characters is %wc.

 W indicates the minimum field width for the display of output.
 If it is +ve, the output will be displayed right justified.
 If it is –ve, the output will be displayed left justified.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char ch = ‘a’;
printf(“%3c”, ch);
}
Output:
A
Formatted input:

Syntax for scanf statement

Scanf(“Control string”, arg1, arg2,…… argn);
[arg = argurment]

 Arguments indicate the address of the variable.

 The control string indicates the format specifiers.

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Example :
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
printf(“enter the value of i:”);
scanf(“%d”,&i);
printf(“\n%d”,i); or printf(“\nthe value of i is %d”, i);
}
Output:
Enter the value of i: 5
The value of i is 5
Operator Precedence:

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

Bitwise AND & Left to right

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Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= Right to left

^= |=

Comma , Left to right

Type Conversion: The ‘C’ language allows mixing of constants or variables of different data
types, and then it follows a rule for evaluating those expressions.
The type conversion or type casting refers to the process of changing one data type to
another. There are two types of conversions.
1. Implicit type conversion – it is referred as Coercion
2. Explicit type conversion – it is referred as Casting

Implicit conversion: It is an automatic type conversion. When the types of the two operands in a
binary expression are different, C automatically converts one type to another. This is known as
implicit type conversion.
Example-1:
int i = 1234;
float f = 35.0;
char c = ‘a’;
i = c; /* value of I is 65 */
f = i; /* value of f is 1234.0 */

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Example-2:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i = 3650;
float d = 245.3;
char c = ‘a’;
printf(“ int * float is = %f\n”, i * d);
printf(“float * char is = %f \n”, d*c);
}
Explicit type conversion: It can be made possible to convert one data type to another forcefully
by ourselves.
To convert data from one type to another, we specify the new type in parenthesis before
the conversion.
Syntax: var1 = (data type) variable2;
Example: int a =10;
float(a);
float (a) will contain 10.00
Example: float a = 6.5;
Float b = 6.5;
int result = (int) a + (int) b;
int result = 12;
Hence the result is 12 instead of 13.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a=100,b=45;
float c;
c=(float)(a/b);
printf(“float = %f”,c);

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}
Output:
float = 2.22
Mathematical Library functions:
The math.h header defines various mathematical functions and one macro. All the functions
available in this library take double as an argument and return double as the result.
Function & Description:
1. double exp(double x)
returns the value of e raised to the x power
2. double log(double x)
returns natural log of x; x must be zero or positive
3. double log10(double x)
returns base-10 log of x; x must be zero or positive
4. double pow(double x, double y)
returns the value of x raised to the y power
Note: to square a number, multiply it by itself:
x_sqd = x * x;
This is much faster! The pow function calculates and uses logarithms, and does not check
for the power being a small integer.
5. double sqrt(double x)
returns square root of x; x must be zero or positive
6. double cos(double x)
returns cosine of x
7. double sin(double x)
returns sine of x
8. double tan(double x)
returns tangent of x
9. double acos(double x)
returns arc cosine of x
10. double asin(double x)
returns arc sine of x

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11. double atan(double x)

returns arc tangent of x
12. double atan2(double x, double y)
returns arc tangent of y/x
13. double ceil(double x)
returns smallest floating point integer greater than or equal to x
14. double floor(double x)
returns largest floating point integer less than or equal to x
15. double fabs(double x)
returns absolute value of x
16. long labs(long x)
returns absolute value of x
17. double fmod(double x, double y)
returns the remainder of x/y - this is the double analog to the modulo operator ‘%’ which
is only defined for integers.
examples:
fmod( 13, 12 ) is 1
fmod( 13.5, 12 ) is 1.5
fmod( 13.5, 12.5 ) is 1
fmod( 20, 2.5 ) is 0
fmod( 22, 2.5 ) is 2

C Tokens:

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Keywords:

 Keyword serves as the building blocks for program statements. All keywords have a fixed
meaning and cannot be changed.
 Keywords cannot be used as normal identifier names.
 There are 32 keywords available in traditional C.
 Few examples of keywords used in C are listed below
auto else long switch break enum
register typedef case extern return union
char float short unsigned const for
signed void continue goto sizeof volatile
default if static while do int
struct _packed double
 Additional keywords have been added in C99 and they are as follows:
complex bool imaginary inline
restrict

C TYPE QUALIFIERS The keywords which are used to modify the properties of a variable are
called type qualifiers.

TYPES OF C TYPE QUALIFIERS:

There are two types of qualifiers available in C language. They are,

1. const
2. volatile

1. CONST KEYWORD:
 Constants are also like normal variables. But, only difference is, their values can’t be
modified by the program once they are defined.
 They refer to fixed values. They are also called as literals.
 They may be belonging to any of the data type.
 Syntax: const data_type variable_name; (or) const data_type *variable_name;

2. VOLATILE KEYWORD:
 When a variable is defined as volatile, the program may not change the value of the variable
explicitly.

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 But, these variable values might keep on changing without any explicit assignment by the
program. These types of qualifiers are called volatile.
 For example, if global variable’s address is passed to clock routine of the operating system to
store the system time, the value in this address keep on changing without any assignment by
the program. These variables are named as volatile variable.
 Syntax: volatile data_type variable_name; (or) volatile data_type *variable_name;

Constants:
 A constant refers to fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program.
 Basic types of C constants are shown in the flowchart

TYPES OF C CONSTANTS:
1. Integer constants
2. Real or Floating point constants
3. Octal & Hexadecimal constants
4. Character constants
5. String constants
6. Backslash character constants

Constant
S.no type data type Example

intunsigned
int long 53, 762, -478 etc 5000u,
Integer int long 1000U
1 constants long int etc483,6472,147,483,680

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Real or
Floating
point
2 constants float doule 10.456789600.123456789

Octal 013 /* starts with

3 constant int 0 */

Hexadecimal 0x90 /* starts with 0x

4 constant int */

character
5 constants char ‘A’ , ‘B’, ‘C’

string
6 constants char “ABCD” , “Hai”

RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING C CONSTANTS:

1. INTEGER CONSTANTS IN C:
 An integer constant must have at least one digit.
 It must not have a decimal point.
 It can either be positive or negative.
 No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
 If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive.
 The allowable range for integer constants is -32768 to 32767.

2. REAL CONSTANTS IN C:
 A real constant must have at least one digit
 It must have a decimal point
 It could be either positive or negative
 If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive.
 No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant.

3. CHARACTER AND STRING CONSTANTS IN C:

 A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol enclosed
within single quotes.
 The maximum length of a character constant is 1 character.
 String constants are enclosed within double quotes.

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4. BACKSLASH CHARACTER CONSTANTS IN C:

 There are some characters which have special meaning in C language.
 They should be preceded by backslash symbol to make use of special function of them.
 Given below is the list of special characters and their purpose.

Backslash_character Meaning

\b Backspace

\f Form feed

\n New line

\r Carriage return

\t Horizontal tab

\” Double quote

\’ Single quote

\\ Backslash

\v Vertical tab

\a Alert or bell

\? Question mark

Octal constant (N is an octal

\N constant)

Hexadecimal constant (N –
\XN hex.dcml cnst)

Strings:
 Strings are nothing but array of characters ended with null character (‘\o’). This
null character indicates the end of the string.
 Strings are always enclosed by double quotes. Whereas, character is enclosed by
single quotes in C.
 Example :- char name[10];
In this example the variable name can store upto 10 bytes.

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Special Symbols :
 The following special symbols are used in C having some special meaning and thus, cannot
be used for some other purpose.
[] () {} , ; : * … = #

Braces {}: These opening and ending curly braces marks the start and end of a block of
code containing more than one executable statement.
Parentheses(): These special symbols are used to indicate function calls and function
parameters.
Brackets[]: Opening and closing brackets are used as array element reference. These
indicate single and multidimensional subscripts.

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