The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements, organized based on their atomic number, electron

configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The periodic table is a powerful tool for understanding the behaviour of
chemical elements and their compounds.

Periodic Table Classification

The modern periodic table has seven periods (rows) and 18 groups (columns). The elements are arranged in a way that shows
a periodic pattern in their properties.

Periods
The periods in the periodic table are the rows that run horizontally across the table. There are seven periods in the periodic
table, and each period corresponds to the filling of a new energy level in the atomic structure.

 Period 1 : This period contains only two elements, hydrogen (H) and helium (He).
 Period 2 : This period contains eight elements, starting with lithium (Li) and ending with neon
(Ne).
 Period 3 : This period contains eight elements, starting with sodium (Na) and ending with
Argon (Ar).
 Period 4 : This period contains 18 elements, starting with potassium (K) and ending with
Krypton (Kr).
 Period 5 : This period contains 18 elements, starting with rubidium (Rb) and ending with xenon
(Xe).
 Period 6 : This period contains 32 elements, starting with cesium (Cs) and ending with radon
(Rn).
 Period 7 : This period contains 32 elements, starting with francium (Fr) and ending with
Oganesson (Og).

Groups
The groups in the periodic table are the columns that run vertically down the table. There are 18 groups in the periodic table,
and each group corresponds to a specific set of elements with similar properties.

 Group 1 : This group is also known as the alkali metals. It contains elements such as lithium (Li), sodium (Na),
potassium (K), and rubidium (Rb).
 Group 2 : This group is also known as the alkaline earth metals. It contains elements such as beryllium (Be),
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and strontium (Sr).
 Group 13 : This group is also known as the boron group. It contains elements such as boron (B), aluminum (Al),
gallium (Ga), and indium (In).
 Group 14 : This group is also known as the carbon group. It contains elements such as carbon (C), silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), and tin (Sn).
 Group 15 : This group is also known as the nitrogen group. It contains elements such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
arsenic (As), and antimony (Sb).
 Group 16 : This group is also known as the oxygen group. It contains elements such as oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium
(Se), and tellurium (Te).
 Group 17 : This group is also known as the halogens. It contains elements such as fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine
(Br), and iodine (I).
 Group 18 : This group is also known as the noble gases. It contains elements such as helium (He), neon (Ne), argon
(Ar), and xenon (Xe).

Transition Metals
The transition metals are a group of elements that are located in the middle of the periodic table. They are characterized by
their partially filled d-orbitals and their ability to form stable, coloured compounds.

 First Transition Series : This series includes elements such as scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium
(Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn).

 Second Transition Series : This series includes elements such as yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb),
molybdenum (Mo), technetium (Tc), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd).

 Third Transition Series : This series includes elements such as lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr),
neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy),
holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), lutetium (Lu).

Lanthanides and Actinides

The lanthanides and actinides are two series of elements that are located at the bottom of the periodic table. They are
characterized by their partially filled f-orbitals and their ability to form stable, colored compounds.

 Lanthanides : This series includes elements such as lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium
(Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium
(Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), lutetium (Lu).

 Actinides : This series includes elements such as actinium (Ac), thorium (Th), protactinium (Pa), uranium (U),
neptunium (Np), plutonium (Pu), americium (Am), curium (Cm), berkelium (Bk), californium (Cf), einsteinium (Es),
fermium (Fm), mendelevium (Md), nobelium (No), lawrencium (Lr).

Exceptions:
Atomic Radius Exceptions:
 Oxygen (O) is larger than Nitrogen (N)
 Fluorine (F) is smaller than Neon (Ne)
 Chlorine (Cl) is larger than Argon (Ar)
 Bromine (Br) is larger than Krypton (Kr)
 Iodine (I) is larger than Xenon (Xe)

Electronegativity Exceptions:
 Nitrogen (N) is more electronegative than Carbon (C)
 Oxygen (O) is more electronegative than Nitrogen (N)
 Chlorine (Cl) is more electronegative than Phosphorus (P)
 Bromine (Br) is more electronegative than Sulfur (S)
 Iodine (I) is more electronegative than Selenium (Se)

Ionization Energy Exceptions:

 Boron (B) has a higher ionization energy than Carbon (C)
 Oxygen (O) has a higher ionization energy than Nitrogen (N)
 Fluorine (F) has a higher ionization energy than Neon (Ne)
 Chlorine (Cl) has a higher ionization energy than Argon (Ar)
 Bromine (Br) has a higher ionization energy than Krypton (Kr)

Electron Affinity Exceptions:

 Nitrogen (N) has a higher electron affinity than Carbon (C)
 Oxygen (O) has a higher electron affinity than Nitrogen (N)
 Fluorine (F) has a higher electron affinity than Neon (Ne)
 Chlorine (Cl) has a higher electron affinity than Argon (Ar)
  Bromine (Br) has a higher electron affinity than Krypton (Kr)

Metallic Character Exceptions:

 Hydrogen (H) exhibits some metallic character
 Carbon (C) exhibits some metallic character in its allotropes (e.g., graphite)
 Nitrogen (N) exhibits some metallic character in its allotropes (e.g., nitrides)
 Phosphorus (P) exhibits some metallic character in its allotropes (e.g., phosphides)

Other Exceptions:
 Helium (He) is a noble gas, but it doesn't fit the trend of increasing atomic radius down a group
 Lanthanum (La) and Actinium (Ac) are often placed at the beginning of their respective series, but are technically part
of the periods they belong to
 Hydrogen (H) is usually placed at the top of the periodic table, but it doesn't fit neatly into any category
 The Lanthanides and Actinides are inner transition metals, but they don't fit the traditional categories of metals, non-
metals, and metalloids
 The super heavy elements (e.g., Livermorium, Nihonium, Flerovium, Moscovium, Tennessine, Oganesson) have
unique properties due to their instability and limited data
 The atomic masses of some elements (e.g., Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen) are not whole numbers due to the presence of
isotopes with different masses.

Definition of Ionization Potential

Ionization potential (IP) is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom or molecule in the
gaseous state, forming a positive ion. It is expressed in electron volts (eV) or kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).

 First Ionization Potential

o The first ionization potential (IP1) is the energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a
neutral atom or molecule, forming a positive ion.
o For example, the first ionization potential of sodium (Na) is 495.8 kJ/mol or 5.14 eV. This means that 495.8
kJ/mol or 5.14 eV of energy is required to remove the outermost electron from a sodium atom, forming a
sodium ion (Na+).
 Second Ionization Potential
o The second ionization potential (IP2) is the energy required to remove an electron from a positive ion,
forming a doubly charged positive ion.
o For example, the second ionization potential of sodium (Na) is 4562 kJ/mol or 47.29 eV. This means that 4562
kJ/mol or 47.29 eV of energy is required to remove the second electron from a sodium ion (Na+), forming a
doubly charged sodium ion (Na2+).
 Successive ionization potentials:
o Successive ionization potentials are the energies required to remove multiple electrons from an atom
or molecule, one after the other. In other words, they are the energies required to ionize an atom or
molecule multiple times.

Trends in Ionization Potential

The ionization potential generally increases across a period (from left to right) and decreases down a group (from top to
bottom) in the periodic table.

Across a Period: As you move from left to right across a period, the atomic radius decreases and the effective nuclear charge
increases. This makes it harder to remove an electron, resulting in a higher ionization potential.

Down a Group: As you move from top to bottom down a group, the atomic radius increases and the effective nuclear charge
decreases. This makes it easier to remove an electron, resulting in a lower ionization potential.
FACTORS AFFECTING IONIZATION POTENTIAL
The ionization potential is affected by several factors, including atomic radius, effective nuclear charge, shielding effect, and
electron configuration.

 Atomic Radius: The atomic radius is inversely proportional to the ionization potential. As the atomic radius increases,
the ionization potential decreases.
 Effective Nuclear Charge: The effective nuclear charge is directly proportional to the ionization potential. As the
effective nuclear charge increases, the ionization potential increases.
 Shielding Effect: The shielding effect is the reduction in the effective nuclear charge due to the presence of inner
electrons. The shielding effect decreases as you move from left to right across a period, resulting in an increase in the
effective nuclear charge and ionization potential.
 Electron Configuration: The electron configuration affects the ionization potential by determining the number and
distribution of electrons in an atom. Electrons in the same energy level have similar ionization potentials, while
electrons in different energy levels have different ionization potentials.

Units of Ionization Potential

Ionization potential is typically measured in units of energy, such as:
 Electronvolts (eV)
 Kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol)
 Joules per mole (J/mol)

Importance of Ionization Potential/ ( Electron affinity )

Ionization potential is important in various areas of chemistry and physics:

 Chemical reactivity: Ionization potential affects the reactivity of an element, with elements having a low ionization
potential being more reactive.
 Electron affinity: Ionization potential is related to electron affinity, which is the energy released when an electron is
added to an atom or molecule.
 Spectroscopy: Ionization potential is used in spectroscopy to study the energy levels of atoms and molecules.
 Materials science: Ionization potential is important in the study of materials and their properties.

Examples and Applications

Alkali metals: Alkali metals have a low ionization potential, making them highly reactive.

Noble gases: Noble gases have a high ionization potential, making them unreactive.

Semiconductors: Ionization potential is important in the study of semiconductors and their applications in electronics.

Atmospheric science: Ionization potential is used to study the ionization of gases in the atmosphere.

What is Electronegativity?
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom in a covalent bond to attract electrons towards itself. It is a scale that
measures the degree to which an atom pulls shared electrons towards itself.
Electronegativity Scale
The most commonly used electronegativity scale is the Pauling scale, which ranges from 0 to 4.0. The higher the
electronegativity value , the greater the atom's ability to attract electrons.

Trends in Electronegativity
Electronegativity exhibits periodic trends across the periodic table:

 Increase across a period: Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period due to the increase in nuclear
charge and decrease in atomic size.
 Decrease down a group: Electronegativity decreases down a group due to the increase in atomic size and shielding.

Factors Affecting Electronegativity

Several factors affect the electronegativity of an element:

 Atomic size: As the atomic size decreases, the electronegativity increases.

 Nuclear charge: As the nuclear charge increases, the electronegativity increases.
 Electron configuration: The electron configuration of an element affects its electronegativity. Elements with a full
outer energy level (noble gases) have a low electronegativity, while elements with an incomplete outer energy level
have a higher electronegativity.

Importance of Electronegativity
Electronegativity is important in various areas of chemistry:

 Polarity of molecules: Electronegativity affects the polarity of molecules, with molecules having a large difference in
electronegativity between atoms being polar.
 Bond type: Electronegativity affects the type of bond formed between atoms, with high electronegativity differences
resulting in ionic bonds and low electronegativity differences resulting in covalent bonds.
 Reactivity: Electronegativity affects the reactivity of an element, with elements having a high electronegativity being
more reactive.
 Physical properties: Electronegativity affects the physical properties of a substance, such as its boiling point and
melting point.

Examples and Applications

 Fluorine (F): Fluorine has a high electronegativity, making it highly reactive.
 Cesium (Cs): Cesium has a low electronegativity, making it highly reactive.
 Water (H2O): The electronegativity difference between oxygen and hydrogen in water results in a polar molecule.
 Semiconductors: Electronegativity is important in the study of semiconductors and their applications in electronics.