Current electricity

Ohm’s Law:
Introduction;

Ohm's Law was introduced by Georg Simon Ohm’s.

Statement:

According to this law current I is directly proportional to voltageV whenever temperatureT is kept
constant.

Explanation;

 If voltage V is applied across a conductor

 current I flows through it
 In such case current I is directly proportional to voltage V when temperature of circuit is kept
constant

Mathematically:

I α V

I = V/R

Where R is resistivity constant and is equal to 1/R

 It depends on nature, dimension and physical state of conductor

Graphical Representation;

Plot any two of these variables against each other while keeping the third variable constant.
Here are some common graphical representations:

1. Voltage vs. Current (V-I Graph)

 Graph Type: Linear

 X-Axis: Current (I)
 Y-Axis: Voltage (V)
 Slope: The slope of the line is equal to the resistance (R).
 Graph: A straight line passing through the origin with slope R.

2. Current vs. Voltage (I-V Graph)

 Graph Type: Linear

 X-Axis: Voltage (V)
 Y-Axis: Current (I)
 Slope: The slope of the line is 1R .
 Graph: A straight line passing through the origin with slope 1R

1|Page
Current electricity
3. Voltage vs. Resistance (V-R Graph)

 Graph Type: Linear if current is constant.

 X-Axis: Resistance (R)
 Y-Axis: Voltage (V)
 Graph: A straight line if current is constant.

4. Current vs. Resistance (I-R Graph)

 Graph Type: Hyperbolic if voltage is constant.

 X-Axis: Resistance (R)
 Y-Axis: Current (I)
 Graph: A curve that shows the inverse relationship between current and resistance.

2|Page
Current electricity
Electrical resistance
Introduction

Electrical resistance is a measure of how much an object opposes the flow of electric current
through it. It is a fundamental property of electrical circuits and materials.

Statement

 Definition: Electrical resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current in a material.
The greater the resistance, the less current will flow for a given voltage.
 Units: The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Explanation

 Ohm's Law states that the voltage VVV across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current III flowing through it, with the resistance RRR being the constant of proportionality

Mathematical;

V=I×R

R=VI

3. Factors Affecting Resistance

 Material: Different materials have different intrinsic resistivities. Conductors, like copper and
aluminum, have low resistance, while insulators, like rubber and glass, have high resistance.
 Length: Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor. A longer conductor
has more resistance.
 Cross-sectional Area: Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
conductor. A thicker conductor has less resistance.
 Temperature: For most materials, resistance increases with temperature. This is particularly
true for conductors, where increased temperature leads to more collisions between
electrons and atoms.

4. Resistivity

 Resistivity (ρ): Resistivity is a material-specific property that quantifies how strongly a given
material opposes the flow of electric current. The resistance RRR of a conductor can be
calculated using the formula:
R=ρ×LA
 ρ\rho is the resistivity of the material (measured in ohm-meters, Ω·m),
 L is the length of the conductor,
 A is the cross-sectional area.

Effect of temperature on resistance;

3|Page
Current electricity
 The resistance of material changes with changes in temperature.
 Effect varies according to the type of material.
 The resistance of conductor increases with increase of temperature.
 The resistance of electrolyte, insulator and semiconductor decreases with increase in
temperature

Mathematical;

 Consider a conductor having initial resistance Rᴼ and final resistance RT.

 The final resistance is ∆R which is directly proportional to temperature T.

∆R α RT - Rᴼ - - - -(1)

∆R α RᴼT - - - - (2)

Combining both equations

RT - Rᴼ α Rᴼ T

RT - Rᴼ = α Rᴼ T

α is constant known as temperature co-efficient

RT = Rᴼ + α Rᴼ T - - - - (3)

Taking Rᴼ common in eq (3)

RT = Rᴼ( 1 + α T)

4|Page
Current electricity
Wire wound variable resistors
Wire-wound variable resistors are a type of resistor where the resistance can be adjusted by the
user. They are made by winding a wire) around an insulating core. The resistance is varied by moving
a contact along the length of the wire.

Types of Wire-Wound Variable Resistors

Rheostats:
A rheostat is a type of variable resistor designed to control the current flowing through a
circuit by adjusting the resistance. Rheostats are typically used to control current in a circuit.

Explanation

Construction

 Resistive Element: The resistive element is typically made of a coil of wire, often
nichrome, wound around an insulating ceramic core. The resistance of the wire
material is crucial in determining the rheostat's overall performance.
 Wiper or Slider: The rheostat includes a movable contact known as a wiper or slider.
This wiper moves along the length of the resistive element, altering the effective
resistance between the wiper and one of the fixed terminals.
 Terminals: A rheostat usually has two terminals, one connected to an end of the
resistive element and the other connected to the wiper. Some designs may have a third
terminal connected to the other end of the resistive element, but only two terminals
are typically used in the circuit.

Working

 As the wiper moves along the resistive element, it changes the length of the wire
through which the current flows. Moving the wiper closer to one end of the coil
decreases the resistance (and increases the current), while moving it towards the other
end increases the resistance (and decreases the current).
 Rheostats are often manually operated, using a knob or lever that moves the wiper.

5|Page
Current electricity
Potential divider:
A potential divider, also known as a voltage divider, is an electrical circuit used to divide the input
voltage into smaller output voltages. It typically consists of two resistors connected in series across a
voltage supply. The output voltage is taken from the junction between the two resistors.

Explanation

When two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series across a voltage source Vin , the voltage drop
across each resistor is proportional to its resistance.

Construction

A potentiometer consists of the following components:

1. Resistive Element:
o The resistive element is the core component and can be made of materials like
carbon composition, metal film, or a conductive plastic. It is a long, narrow
strip or track, usually in a circular (rotary potentiometer) or linear (slider
potentiometer) configuration.
2. Wiper (Sliding Contact):
o The wiper is a movable contact that slides over the resistive element. By
moving the wiper, you change the point at which the output is taken from the
resistive element, thereby adjusting the resistance and the voltage.
3. Terminals:
o There are three terminals:
1. Two Fixed Terminals: Connected to the ends of the resistive element.
2. One Adjustable Terminal: Connected to the wiper. This terminal
provides the adjustable output voltage.

Working;

When you apply a voltage across the two fixed terminals of the potentiometer, the entire resistive
element drops the applied voltage. By adjusting the wiper position, you change the effective
resistance between the wiper and the terminals, altering the output voltage at the wiper terminal.

6|Page
Current electricity
Electromotive force;
Electromotive force (EMF) is a fundamental concept in electricity and electronics. It refers to
the energy provided by a source, like a battery or generator, to drive electric charge through a
circuit. Essentially, it's the voltage generated by a source that pushes electrons through a
circuit, creating an electric current.

Definition:

EMF is the voltage developed by a source when no current is flowing. It’s the potential
difference between the terminals of the source.

Sources of EMF:

Common sources include batteries, solar cells, and generators. Each generates EMF in
different ways:

o Batteries: Convert chemical energy into electrical energy.

o Solar Cells: Convert light energy into electrical energy.
o Generators: Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy using
electromagnetic induction.

Measurement: EMF is measured in volts (V). In a simple circuit, it represents the maximum
potential difference between the terminals of the source.

Relation to Internal Resistance: In real-world applications, a source has internal resistance,

which can affect the actual voltage available to the circuit. The EMF is the ideal voltage
without considering these losses.

Mathematical:

The EMF (ε) can be represented as:

EMF=V+I⋅R

where V is the terminal voltage, I is the current, and R is the internal resistance of the
source.

Understanding EMF is crucial for designing and analyzing electrical circuits, as it helps in
calculating how much voltage is available to drive current and how internal resistance affects
performance.

7|Page
Current electricity
Thermocouple
Introduction to Thermocouples

Definition: A thermocouple is a temperature measurement device consisting of two

dissimilar metals joined at one end. It generates a voltage (electromotive force, or EMF)
when there is a temperature difference between the joined end (hot junction) and the other
end (cold junction).

Basic Principle: The voltage generated is a result of the Seebeck effect, which occurs due to
the difference in thermoelectric properties of the two metals.

2. Construction of a Thermocouple

Metals Used;

Two different metals or alloys are used. The choice depends on the temperature range and
application. Common metals include:

o Chromel (Nickel-Chromium)
o Alumel (Nickel-Aluminum)
o Iron
o Copper
o Constantan (Copper-Nickel)

Junction Types:

o Hot Junction: The end where the two metals are joined and exposed to the
temperature being measured.
o Cold Junction: The other end of the metal wires connected to the measurement
device or maintained at a reference temperature.

Insulation and Sheathing: Wires may be insulated with materials like ceramic, fiberglass, or
plastic and the thermocouple may be enclosed in a protective sheath to withstand harsh
environments.

8|Page
Current electricity

3. Working Principle

Seebeck Effect: When the hot junction is exposed to a temperature, a voltage is generated
due to the difference in electrical potential between the two metals. This voltage is
proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions.

Voltage Measurement: The voltage generated is very small and is measured with a
voltmeter or other measuring device. The temperature is then calculated using calibration
data specific to the type of thermocouple.

9|Page
Current electricity
Kirchhoff’s law;
Introduction;

This law was introduced by German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff.

Explanation;

When we are dealing with complex circuit , which have more than one resistor , to solve such circuit
ohms law cannot be use .As ohms law deal with circuits have only one resistor

Types;

1. Kirchhoff’s current law

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Kirchhoff’s current law

Statement;

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that the total current entering a junction (or node) in an
electrical circuit is equal to the total current leaving the junction. This is based on the principle of
conservation of electric charge.

Explanation;

Construction

Imagine a simple circuit with a junction (node) where three currents meet:

 I1 and I4is the current entering the junction.

 I2and I3are the currents leaving the junction.
 The currents I1, and I3 flow through the resistors R1, R2, and R3 respectively.
 The junction where the currents meet is where KCL will be applied.

 KCL states that the sum of currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of
currents leaving the junction.

Mathematical;

I1+ I2+I3+I4= 0

As we said I1 and I4 are entering current so we take them positive

And I2and I3are leaving current so we take them negative

I1+ I2-I3-I4= 0

10 | P a g e
Current electricity
I1+ I2 = I3+I4

Hence we proved that entering current is equal to leaving current.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Statement;

It states that the sum of the electrical potential differences (voltages) around any closed loop or
mesh in a circuit is equal to zero. This law is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

Explanation;

Construction

 Consider a simple series circuit with a voltage source and two resistors
 The loop includes the voltage source and the resistors.
 V1 is the voltage source (e.g., a battery).
 R1 and R2 are resistors connected in series.
 Voltage rise (from the positive to the negative terminal of a source) is considered
positive.
 Voltage drop (across a resistor) is considered negative.

Mathematical;
Ɛ1+ Ɛ2+V1+V2=0

As rise in voltage is taken positive and drop in voltage is taken negative

Ɛ1-Ɛ2-V1-V2=0

Ɛ1- Ɛ2 = V1+V2

V = IR

Ɛ1- Ɛ2 = IR + IR
∑ Ɛ = ∑IR

11 | P a g e
Current electricity
Wheatstone bridge
Introduction

It was introduce by wheat stone a mathematician.

Statement

The Wheatstone bridge is a classic electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance

Explanation;

Construction

1. Four Resistors:

 Two Known Resistors (R1 and R2): These resistors have known and accurate
resistances.
 One Variable Resistor (R3): Also known as a rheostat or a decade box, it is used to
adjust the bridge and achieve balance.
 One Unknown Resistor (Rx): The resistance you want to measure.

2. A Galvanometer:

A sensitive instrument used to detect the current and measure the potential difference
between the two points of the bridge.

3. A Battery or Power Source:

Provides the necessary voltage for the bridge circuit.

4. Connecting Wires:

For connecting the components together.

Working;

Apply Voltage:

Connect a voltage source across the bridge, applying voltage between points C and D.

Measure Voltage Across the Galvanometer:

A galvanometer (or sensitive voltmeter) is connected between points A and B. The

galvanometer measures the potential difference between these two points.

12 | P a g e
Current electricity
Adjust for Balance:

Adjust the variable resistor R3 (or use precise values for known resistors) until the
galvanometer shows zero deflection, indicating no voltage difference between A and
B. This condition is known as the bridge being "balanced."

Balanced Condition:

When the bridge is balanced, the ratio of the resistances in one leg equals the ratio in
the other

Calculate the Unknown Resistance:

Rearrange the balanced bridge equation to solve for the unknown resistance

13 | P a g e
Current electricity

Mathematical;

I1P = I2R- - - - - (1)

I1Q = I2X- - - - - (2)

Dividing equation 2 over 1

I1P = I2R

I1Q I2X

P= R

Q X

P= 1

RQ X

Taking reciprocal

RQ = X

14 | P a g e
Current electricity
Q1.A heavy duty battery of a truck maintains a current of 3A for 24hours. How much charge flows
from the battery during this time?

Q2.while analyzing a circuit the internal resistance of E.M.F sources is ignored. Why?

ANS.

the internal resistance of the E.M.F sources is very small compared to the resistances of the other
components in the circuit. For instance, a standard battery might have an internal resistance of a few
ohms, while the resistances in the circuit might be much higher. In such cases, the effect of internal
resistance on the overall circuit behavior is minimal and can be reasonably neglected.

Q3. If aluminium and copper wire has same length and same resistance which one has larger
diameter?

ANS.

the aluminium wire will have a larger diameter than the copper wire if they have the same length
and resistance. This is because aluminium has a higher resistivity, so to achieve the same resistance
with aluminium, a larger cross-sectional area (and thus a larger diameter) is needed compared to
copper.

R=ρL/ A

where:

 ρ\rhoρ is the resistivity of the material,

 L is the length of the wire,
 A is the cross-sectional area of the wire.

15 | P a g e
Current electricity
Q4.Under what circumstances potential difference of battery exceed it’s e.m.f?

ANS.

When a battery is being charged, there are specific circumstances under which the potential
difference (voltage) across the battery's terminals can exceed its electromotive force (E.M.F). This
happens because the battery is in a different operational state compared to when it is discharging.

Hence, The potential difference across a battery’s terminals can exceed its E.M.F during charging due
to the external voltage applied by the charger being higher than the battery's E.M.F. This higher
voltage is necessary to drive current into the battery and to overcome its internal resistance.

Q5.what is the difference between an e.m.f and P.D?

ANS.

1. E.M.F:
oDefinition: The E.M.F is the total voltage provided by a source, such as a
battery or generator, when no current is flowing. It represents the energy per
unit charge generated by the source.
o Location: Measured across the terminals of the source when the circuit is
open (i.e., no current flows).
2. Formula: It is the maximum possible voltage available, given by
E.M.F=Vterminal+I⋅r
3. P.D (Potential Difference):
o Definition: The potential difference is the voltage across two points in a
circuit where current is flowing. It reflects the work done per unit charge as it
moves between those two points.
o Location: Measured across any two points in the circuit, including across the
terminals of the load or other components, when current is flowing.
o Formula: In a loaded circuit, the potential difference across the terminals of a
battery is V=E.M.F−I⋅

In a circuit, E.M.F is the maximum voltage the source can provide under no
load conditions, while P.D is the voltage actually measured across components
or terminals when current flows, which is generally less than the E.M.F due to
internal resistance.

Q6.How the op rule and junction rule are based on principle of conservation of energy?

ANS.

The Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), often referred to as the loop rule, and the
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), also known as the junction rule, are both grounded in
fundamental conservation principles:

1. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (Loop Rule):

o Principle: Based on the conservation of energy.

16 | P a g e
Current electricity
oExplanation: KVL states that the sum of all electrical potential differences
(voltages) around any closed loop in a circuit must be zero. This is because, in
a closed loop, the total energy supplied by the sources (like batteries) must
equal the total energy used by the components (like resistors). Energy supplied
to the circuit is used up in overcoming the potential drops across components,
and thus the net change in potential around the loop is zero.
2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (Junction Rule):
o Principle: Based on the conservation of charge.
o Explanation: KCL states that the total current entering a junction must equal
the total current leaving the junction. This reflects the conservation of electric
charge; charge cannot be created or destroyed at a junction. Therefore, the sum
of currents at a junction must be balanced, ensuring that all charges entering
are accounted for by those leaving.

Q7.Why rise in temperature of a conductor is accompanied by rise in resistance?

ANS.

As the temperature of a conductor increases, the atoms in the conductor vibrate more
intensely. This heightened vibration causes more frequent collisions between the free
electrons and the vibrating atoms, which slows the flow of electrons.

1. Increased Atomic Vibration: Higher temperatures lead to increased vibrations of the

atoms in the conductor's lattice structure.
2. More Electron Scattering: As atoms vibrate more, they cause more frequent
scattering of the free-moving electrons.
3. Increased Resistive Effects: The increased scattering results in a higher resistance
because it becomes harder for electrons to flow through the material.

Q8.Does the direction of e.m.f provided by a battery depends on the direction of current flows
through the battery?

ANS.

No, the direction of the electromotive force (E.M.F) provided by a battery does not depend on the
direction of current flow through the battery. The E.M.F of a battery is a fixed property determined
by the chemical reactions occurring inside the battery.

However, current direction depends on the external circuit configuration and can flow from the
positive to the negative terminal of the battery when the battery is connected in a particular way.

17 | P a g e
Current electricity
Q9.Voltage are always measured between two points. Why?

ANS.

Voltage is always measured between two points because it represents the difference in electric
potential between those points. because this difference determines the amount of work needed to
move a charge between those points.

Q10. Is every e.m.f a potential difference. is every potential difference an emf ?

ANS.

 Is every e.m.f. a potential difference?

 Yes. e.m.f. is a type of potential difference. Specifically, it's the potential difference
across the terminals of a power source when no current flows through the circuit.

 Is every potential difference an e.m.f.?

 No. Not every potential difference is an e.m.f. Potential differences occur across any
two points in a circuit where there is a difference in energy per unit charge, such as
across a resistor, capacitor, or any other component. These are not e.m.f. but are
instead the result of the circuit's current flow and the components' resistances.

Q11.How much charge flow in a pocket calculator each minute when current is 0.0001A?

ANS.

Q12.when wheat stone bridge is balanced then no current flows through the galvanometer why?

ANS.

When this condition is met, the potential difference between the two midpoints (where the
galvanometer is connected) is zero. Since current flows due to a potential difference, if there
is no potential difference across the galvanometer, no current will flow through it.

In other words, when the bridge is balanced, the voltage at the points where the galvanometer
is connected is equal, resulting in no driving force (voltage difference) for current to flow
through the galvanometer.

18 | P a g e