3.

SELECTION AND DEFINITION OF THE RESEARCH

PROBLEM
 Meaning of research problem
 Criteria of a good problem
 Research objectives
 Hypothesis
Introduction
The research process starts by formulating a research problem. Students as well as
beginner researchers often find it extremely difficult or frustrating to formulate a research
problem. Sometimes it is also painful and laborious process even for experienced
researchers.
There is no reason why students or beginning researchers should be frustrated by the
process of selecting a research problem. It is important to understand that there is no limit
to the number of good researcher problems that can be identified and studied. This is
because knowledge in any field is infinite and we process only a portion of it.
Steps in identifying a research problem
1. Identify the broad area that one is interested in
Such an area should be related to the professional interests and goals of the researcher.
For example one may select broad areas such as: low-cost housing, nutrition status of
children in Kenya, productivity of workers in industries, small-scale industries, marketing
in non-profit firms, social responsibility marketing etc.
2. Identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of the research study
This implies that the researcher should narrow down from the broad area to a specific
problem. In selecting a specific problem, the researcher should consider the key factors
that help in identifying a researchable problem
The research problem should be an important one. An important research problem is one
that should:
 Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area
 Challenge some commonly held truism
 Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies
 Cover reasonable scope, e.g. not too narrow or too general
Certain factors determine the scope of a research study. These include:

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  The time available to carry it out
 The money available to carry it out
 The availability of equipment-if needed-to carry it out
 The availability of subjects or units of study

Research problem is not capable of research because of the following reasons:

i) Too broad and general
If it is too broad and general that it cannot be effectively researched with the available
resources of time, money, personnel, technology and so on. In this case it is necessary for
the researcher to read, probe and think more about the problem in order to develop insight
that may help to gradually breakdown the problem to a more specific and researchable
scope.
ii) It’s vaguely and not clearly defined and stated.
The concept of a research problem is so important that is should not be taken for granted.
Misconception of what constitutes a research problem and lack of knowledge or skills as
to how to define a research problem are often the causes of poorly defined problems. In
research the concept of a problem requires very special meaning. Not any problem can be
a research problem.
iii) There is no available information
To a researcher, available information is information in previous research and not what
people say, think or belief. People’s thoughts or ideas no matter how sensible or
appealing, are more speculations if they have not passed the task of empirical analysis.
Therefore, as part of the problem definition, the researcher also needs to show what is
available in previous research to help in pointing out the informational gap which needs
to be filled. That gap in a nutshell is a problem to be addressed.
Ways of identifying a specific research problem from the broad area
A problem for research may be identified in any one of the following ways:
1. Suggestions or assignment from experienced researchers
This is because experienced researchers know what has been done and what need to be
done in their fields. Sometimes such researchers have ongoing research projects part of

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which they may lack the time or other resources to carryout and would appreciate if
others would take up such parts for research.
2. Personal and professional experiences
A person may come across a problem in his or her work place for which there is no
answer. For example one may realize that some feature of the profession or its practice is
less than effective or sufficient and conclude that a good research study may help correct
the situation. This is mostly used in applied researches.
3. The available literature
This can stimulate research in several ways:
a. The literature sometimes points to a relatively unexplored area or suggest a topic in
need of further development through research.
b. Sometime it may be evident from the literature that more are contradictions or
ambiguities among accumulated studies and writings on a given problem. Such
discrepancies suggest the need for a study that may help to resolve the uncertainties.
c. A researcher reading on a subject may discover that a new approach is probably
needed to solve an old problem even if the problem has been well studied in the past.
This is particularly so if the researcher feels that something about the problem
remains elusive and if discovered may lead to a different understanding of the
problem or phenomenon.
d. Similarly a researcher when reading the literature might be struck by a finding which
seems to be dissonant with his own experience. This may require a study to resolve
the dissonance e.g. Galileo.
e. Reading the literature may simply stimulate curiosity about a subject. This happens
when the researcher begins to wonder about what would happen if something else is
done in a given situation.
Selecting a research problem through literature is the scholarly approach to problem
identification and usually provides the most interesting and motivating research to work
on. This is because the choice of the research problem is dictated by the researchers own
interest and not imposed on him.
4. Existing theories

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An existing theory in an area is good source of a research problem. A theory contains
generalizations and hypothesized principles which can be scientifically tested. Such tests
can be done through the research process. This leads to validation of existing
generalizations or principles. The theory is a source of research studies as long as such
studies are theory based.
5. Discussions with experts
Discussions on general topics in class, seminars or workshops are a source of problems
that could be researched. These discussions may involve experienced researchers in
particular areas that one could be interested in.
6. Previous research studies
Previous research studies in the field of interest usually indicate areas of further research.
A review of such studies provides the researcher with researchable projects.
7. Replication
Replicating a study involves carrying out a research project that has been done
previously. In this case, the problem and the procedures of the research are identical to a
study that has been previously done. Replication is done to find out whether the findings
hold over time and across regions.
8. The media
Issues which are frequently reported in the media can also form the basis of a research
problem. Such issues are usually discussed in public forum and are therefore important to
the majority of the people.
Stating the problem
A problem statement is a specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the study.
A research study usually starts with a brief introductory section. In this section, the
researcher introduces briefly the general area of study. The researcher then narrows down
to the specific problem to be studied.
In general, a good problem statement has the following characteristics:
 It is written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s interest is captured
immediately.
 The specific problem identified in the problem statement is objectively
researchable

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  The scope of the specific research problem is indicated
 The importance of the study in adding new knowledge is stated clearly
 The problem statement must give the purpose of the study
Stating the purpose
In stating the problem statement, the researcher introduces the general area and then
narrows down to a specific problem. In defining the specific problem, the researcher
conveys the focus of the research study in one or two sentences. This is referred to as the
purpose of the study.
The purpose crystallizes the researcher’s inquiry into a particular area of knowledge in
the given field. Purpose of research should be given carefully thought out because it is
the centre of research study. If it accurately expressed, the research process will be
carried with a lot of ease. However when it is poorly formulated and stated, the
researcher will not be able to seek the desired answers.
Novice researchers often make the mistake of expressing the purpose in a very general
manner. Topic phrases such as the following should not be used in stating the purpose:
 Using incentives in secondary schools
 Shortage of low-cost public transport in Kenya
 Nutrition in slum children in Kenya
These topic phrases would need to be narrowed down to specific purpose statements in
order to facilitate the research process. The statement on the purpose of the study should
meet the following criteria:
1. The purpose must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner.
2. The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the study
3. Where possible, the relationships among the variables should be stated
4. The purpose should state the target population
5. The variables and target population given in the purpose should be consistent with the
variables and target population operationalized in the methodology section of the
study.
The following are examples of purpose statements that might appear in a problem
statement section:

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1. The purpose of the study is to investigate the management skills of women in small-
scale businesses in Kenya.
2. The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of three types of cattle feed on
productivity of milk in cows in Kenya.
3. The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of alcohol on reaction time of
heavy truck drivers in Kenya.
4. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of high school curriculum on
career choices of women in public and private universities in Kenya.
5. The purpose of this study is to investigate the awareness and attitude of executives of
medium scale industries in Kenya regarding social responsibility
6. The purpose of this study is to determine the major horticultural marketing problems
in Kenya.
In stating the purpose of the study, a researcher must choose the right words in order to
convey the focus of the study effectively. The purpose should not merely be implied by
the tone of the introduction, neither should the reader be left guessing which of the
sentences in the introductory section expresses the purpose. The researcher should also
avoid the use of biased or subjective words or sentences expressing the purpose. Such
biased words include: to show, to prove, to confirm, to verify, to check, to demonstrate,
to indicate, to validate, to explain and to illustrate.
The researcher should instead use neutral words like: to determine, to compare, to
investigate, to differentiate, to explore, to find out, to examine, to inquire, to establish and
to test.
Stating the objectives
An objective is any kind of the desired end or condition. Objectives in research studies
refer to specific aspects of the phenomenon under study that the researcher desires to
bring out at the end of the research study. They are those specific issues within the scope
of the stated purpose that the researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study.
Objectives help the researcher to keep to the scope of the study by defining the area of
knowledge that the researcher is focusing on.
For example, a researcher may want to carry out a study on the factors that contribute to
malnutrition of children in Kenya. The objectives of such a study would be to:

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1. Establish the socioeconomic status of the parents of malnourished children
2. Explore how knowledgeable the parents are about nutrition in children.
3. Identify the steps taken by parents to curb malnutrition in their families
4. Identify the common causes of malnutrition.
Example 2
Purpose
The purpose of the study is to explore the influence of management skills on the
performance of small scale businesses owned by women in rural areas of Kenya.
Objectives
1. To identify the socioeconomic status of small scale businesswomen in rural areas of
Kenya
2. To investigate the saving practices of women in rural areas of Kenya
3. To determine the level of knowledge of management processes among women in
rural areas in Kenya
4. To investigate the sources of information on management processes in rural areas in
Kenya
Like the purpose the objectives should be stated in neutral verbs or phrases. The can also
be stated in question form as some authors suggest e.g. what is the socioeconomic status
of small scale businesswomen in rural areas of Kenya?
Objectives are also important because they help in guiding the researcher in formulating
testable hypothesis.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a proposition when it is formulated for empirical testing. A hypothesis
can be defined as a logically conjectured (forming a guess about something based on how
it seems and not the proof) relationship between two or more variables expressed in the
form of testable statements e.g. AIDS is caused by HIV, HIV infection leads to AIDS.
A hypothesis is a declarative statement of a tentative and conjectural nature (a guess and
not proof).
Hypotheses are also described a statements in which we assign variables to cases. A case
in this sense is the entity or thing the hypothesis talks about. The variable is the
characteristic, trait, or attribute that, in the hypothesis, is imputed to the case. For

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example: Executive Kiarie (case) has higher than average achievement motivation
(variable). If hypothesis is based on more than one case, it would be a generalization e.g.
Executives at Nation media group (cases) have higher than average achievement
motivation (variable).
Types of hypotheses
1) Descriptive hypothesis
These are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form or distribution of some
variables. E.g. The current unemployment rate in Kenya exceeds 40% of the labour
force.” Note that it is describing Kenya (case) and the variable is unemployment. Other
examples include:
Kenyan municipal councils are experiencing budget deficit difficulties.
Ninety percent of shareholders at Kengen favour increasing the company’s cash dividend.
In the first illustration, “municipal council” is the case and “budget problem” is the
variable. In the second example, Kengen is the “case” and “shareholders attitude toward
increased dividends” is the variable.
Researchers can use research questions instead of descriptive hypotheses e.g. instead of
above hypotheses the researcher might state the following questions: what is
unemployment rate in Kenya? Are municipal councils in Kenya experiencing budget
deficit difficulties? Do shareholders of Kengen favour an increased cash dividend?
Both of the formats are acceptable but hypotheses have several advantages e.g.
(i) Hypothesis encourages researchers to crystallize their thinking about the likely
relationships to be found.
(ii) They encourage researchers to think about the implications of a supported or
rejected finding.
(iii) They are useful for testing statistical significance.
2. Relational hypothesis
These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to
some case.
“Dubai cars are perceived by Kenyans to be of lower quality than domestic cars” note
case- Kenyans and the variables – Dubai & Quality
Types of relational hypothesis

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i) Correlational relationship
This states merely that the variables occur together in some specified manner without
implying that one causes the other. Such weak claims are often made when we believe
there are more basic causal forces that affect both variables or when we do not have
enough evidence to claim a stronger linkage.
Examples:-
i) Women are brighter than men.
ii) The Japanese are better managers than Americans.
iii) Young workers (under age of 35 years of age) are less productive than those who
are 35 years or older
iv) People in Machakos give the president a more favourable rating than do people in
Kitale.
ii) Explanatory or causal hypothesis.
These are hypotheses that imply that the existence of one variable or a change in one
variable causes or affects the other variable. The causal variable is called the independent
variable (IV) and the other variable the dependent variable (DV). The IV need not be the
sole reason for the existence of, or change in, the DV. Examples of explanatory
hypothesis are:
i) An increase in population leads to more consumption.
ii) The promotional campaign led to increased sales.
iii) An increase in income leads to an increase in income saved
iv) Loyalty to a particular supermarket store increases the probability of purchasing
private brands sponsored by that store.
The role of hypothesis in research
In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions:

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o It guides the direction of the study. It limits what shall be studied and what shall not.
For example, in the hypothesis “husbands and wives agree in their perceptions of
their respective roles in purchase decisions”. The hypothesis specifies who shall be
studied, in the context they shall be studied (their consumer decision making), and
what shall be studied (their individual perceptions of their roles).

o It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not. In the above hypothesis we
are interested only in the roles that are assumed in the purchase or consumer decision
making situation. The study should therefore not involve itself in seeking information
about other types of roles husbands and wives might play.

o It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate. The nature
of above hypothesis suggests that the best research design is a survey. The most
practical means of ascertaining the perceptions of people is to ask them in one way or
the other.

o It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result. The perceptions of
husbands and wives will differ depending on age, social class, background,
personality and other factors not associated with their differences of sex. Thus, these
factors can be used in classifying the data obtained.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions. These conditions include:

o Adequate for its purpose. For a descriptive hypothesis, this means that it clearly states
the condition, size, or distribution of some variable in terms of values meaningful to
the research task. For explanatory hypothesis, it must explain the facts that give rise
to the need for explanation.

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o Testable. A hypothesis is not testable if it calls for techniques that are not available
with the present state of the art. It is also un-testable if it calls for an explanation that
defies known physical or psychological laws. Explanatory hypothesis are also un-
testable if there are no consequences or derivatives that can be deduced for testing
purposes.

o Better than its rivals. A better hypothesis has a greater range. It explains more facts
and a greater variety of facts than do others. The better hypothesis is one that
informed judges accept as being the most likely. Their opinions can be highly
subjective but depend chiefly on their judgment of which hypothesis fits best with
other information. Finally, the better hypothesis is the simple one requiring few
conditions or assumptions.

Theory
A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions or propositions that
are advanced to explain and predict phenomenon or facts.
It can also be defined as an abstraction of reality. Abstraction is the mental activity of
deriving or defining common theoretical concepts from a set of empirical objects.
Thus a theory can be viewed as a conceptual mapping of reality.
Importance of theory in research
 It narrows the range of facts we need to study.
 It suggests which research approaches are likely to yield greatest meaning. Any
problem may be studied in a number of different ways, and theory suggests which
ways are likely to yield that greatest meaning.
 It suggests a system for the researcher to impose on data in order to classify them
in the most meaningful way.
 It summarizes what is known about an object of study and states the uniformities
that lie beyond the immediate observation.
 It is used to predict further facts that should be found.
Differences between theory and hypothesis
It is difficult to distinguish between theory and hypothesis since both involve concepts,
definitions, and relationships among variables. The basic differences are in the level of

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complexity and abstraction. Theories tend to be abstract and involve multiple variables,
while hypothesis tend to be simple, two variable propositions involving concrete
instances.
Models
A model is a representation of reality. It is used in research to represent phenomena
through the use of analogy (likeness). Models differ from theories in that a theory’s role
is explanation whereas a model’s role is representation.
Types of models
(ii) Descriptive models
These models describe elements in a system. E.g. a distribution network model
describing movement of inventory from the factory to the various destinations. They
allow visualization of numerous variables and relationships.
(iii) Predictive models
They forecast future events.
(iv) Explicative models
Extend the application of well developed theories or improve our understanding of their
concepts.
(v) Simulation models
They represent real life situations or the structural relationships of concepts.

(vi) Static models

They represent a system at one point in time e.g. Monte Carlo simulation models
(vii) Dynamic models
Represent the evolution of a system over time.

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