Demerits: 1 tis very costly and time Consuming, 2. It is very difficult, when the sons are eae umber of persons to be interviewed is large and the persons a 3. Personal prejudice and bias are greater Under this method} 2. Indirect Oral Interviews: [Under this method the inve Inder thi stigator o other third parties who are ca a facts witnesses or neighbours or friends or some ipable of suppl ferred if th ired i ee lying the necessary information. This method is hee oken Sees as 'S on addiction or cause of fire or theft or murder etc, Ifa fire . he persons living i i es: eee eee ort) living in neighbourhoods and witnesses are likely to het In some = Police interrogated thied parties who are supposed to have knowledge of a the oF & murder and get some clues. Enquiry committees appointed by governments generally Bet People’s views and all possible details of facts relating to the enqui {This method is suitable whenever dire ‘ See 1 would be J : ‘ct sources do not exist or cannot be relied upon or would be unwilling to part with the information ¢ o LThe validity of the results depends upon a few factors, whose evidence is being recorded,'the ability of the interviewer third parties by means of appropriate questions and cross examin: interviewed. For the success of this method one person or one upon, such as the nature of the person to draw out information from the ations, and the number of persons group alone should not be relied information from correspondents: : - 7 {ime investigator appoints local agents or comespondents in-different places and compiles the info rmation sent by them. Information’s to ‘Newspapers and some departments of Government come by this method. The advantage of this method is that it is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigations. But it may not ensure accurate results because the correspondents are likely to be negligent, prejudiced and biased. This method is adopted in those cases wher be collected periodically from a wide area for a long times information’s are to Mailed questionnaire method: (Under this method a list of questions is prepared and is sent to all the informants by post. The Hist of questions is technically called questionaire: A covering letter accompanying the questionnaire explains the purpose of the investigation and the importance of correct information and requests the informants to fill in the blank spaces provided and to return the form within a specified time. This method is appropriate in those eases where the informants are literates and are spread over a wide area) Merits: l. Itis relatively cheap. 2. It is preferable when the informants are spread over the wide area. 11 Mi. Karuppasamy, M.Sc., M.Phil, 'A~ 211 Applied Statistics aeDemerits: a ifthe greatest limitation is that the reply the questions. informants should be literates who are able i able to ung 2. Its possible that some of the persons who receive the questionnaires d a 10 not return th, rem, 3. Itis difficult to verify the correctness ofthe information's furnished by the | tespondent ‘) meet the informany, ichedules sent through Enumerato: / (Under this method enumeratrs or interviewers ake the schedule, filling their replies. Often distinction is made between the schedule and a schedule is filled by the interviewers in a face-to-face situation with the informant Ao is filled by the informant whom he receives and returns by post. It is suitable for cxteninene’t Merits: y | {n can be adopted even if the informants are illiterates, 2. Answers for questions of personal and pecuniary nature can be collected. 3. Non-response is minimum as enumerators go personally and contact the informants. 4. The information’s collected are reliable. The enumerators can be properly trained for the som 5. It is most popular methods.J Demerits: iit is the costliest method. L if) 2. Extensive training is to be given te ihe enumerators for collecting correct and unif information. 3. Interviewing requires experience. Unskilled investigators are likely to fil in their wort] Merits and Demerits of primary data: 1 The colletion of data by the metho method of personal survey is possible ony - igator i i ing the enumerator is bound covered’ by the investigator is small. Collection of data by sending tent i erator record correct information expensive,)Care should be taken twice that the enumerat the informants. istributing. and ole 2.{collection of primary data by framing a schedules oF distributing Loa is i : ed in shorter time. questionnaires by post is less expensive and can be comple J e or the questions 3. Suppose the questions are embarrassing or of eral sevurate ant into personnel affairs of individuals, then the schedules may not De © information and hence this method is unsuitable. on 7 , ected £9" | 4 {the ~— collected for primary data is mete reliable than those <® secondary data. ch Se » se. Karuppasamny ‘STA~211 Applied Statistics - gdsources of Secon In most of the studies th, information on all related issues and a vast amount of published inform; statistics are constantly in a classified under two head: investigator finds it. impracticable to collect first-hand aS such he makes use of the data collected by others. [There is ‘ation from which statistical studies may be made and fresh State Of production, The sources of secondary data can broadly be - (1. Pubtished s 4 UU. Published sources 2. Un published sources. | 1, Published sources: G The various sources of published data are (UNO) United Nations Organization, and International Monetary Fund, International Finance Corporation and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). | 4). Central and State Governments such as the Report of the ‘Tendon Committee and Pay Commission. (C-S.0) Central Statistical Organization, Department of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, National Sample Survey Organization (N.S.S.0), Labour Bureau, Ministry of Labour, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation Ministry of Commerce and Ministry of Defences. The Indian Army Statistical Organization (I.A.S.0). ©){Some of the important Publications are Census of India, Statistical Abstract of India. and Annual Survey of Industries, Agricultural Statistics of India, National Income Statist 4). Semi — Government Organizations such as Institute of Foreign Trade, New Delhi. Economics and Statistics Department of Reserve Bank of India, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics - Poona, 6){ Institutions such as Indian Statistical Institute Calcutta and New Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi , Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India, Calcutta. Institute of Chartered Financial Analysis “of India, It should be noted that the’ publications mentioned above vary with regard to the Periodically of publication. Some are published at regular intervals (yéarly, monthly, weekly etc.,) whereas others are ad hoc publications, ie., with no regularity about periodicity of publications. 2. Unpublished Sources: [All statistical material is not always published. There are various sources of unpublished data such as records maintained by various Government and private offices, studies made by esearch institutions, scholars, etc. Such sources can also be used where necessary. Banks collect certain particulars while giving advances, Stock Exchange get details of the Projects of the companies and Government offices gather necessary information during registration issue of permits, Licenses, ee. They can provide the necessary data for others 2B K.M. Karuppasamy, M.Sc., M.Phil. STA~211 Applied stati} Merits and Demerits of Secondary Data: ) 1 [Secondary data is cheap to obtain. Many government publications are relatively cy Uiraries stock quantities of secondary data produced by the government, by companies 4 organizations. ea ay oth 2. Large quantities of secondary di | lata can be got through internet. | 3. Much of the secondary data available has been collected for many years and therefore i cant used to plot trends. 1 4, Secondary data is of value to: + The government ~ help in making decisions and planning policy?) tos 5. Business and industry — in areas such as marketing, and sales in order to appreciate the gener: economic and social conditions and to provide information on competitors. | 6. Research organizations — by providing social, economical and industrial information. GLlassification and Tabulation _Llassification: i [rhe collected data, also known as raw data or ungrouped data are always in ane organized form and need to be organized and presented in meaningful and readily comprehensiti form in order to facilitate further statistical analysis.|It i, therefore, essential for an investigator: condense a mass of data into more and more comprehensible and assailable form. (Fhe process grouping into different classes or sub classes according to some characteristics is known + classification) tabulation is concerned with the systematic arrangement and presentation > classified dafa. Thus classification is the first step in tabulation, (For Example, leters in the post office are classified according to their destinat Delhi, Madurai, Bangalore, Mumbai etc., ! sbatunvey i [Objects of Classification: i The following are main objectives of classifying the data: 4 1. It condenses the mass of data in an casily assailable form. : 2. It eliminates unnecessary details. 3. It facilitates comparison and highlights the significant aspect of data, | 4.1 enables one to get a mental picture of the information and helps in drawing infers 5. Ithelps in the statistical treatment of the information collected. ’ } ypes of Classification: | Statistical data are classifi types of elssification namely f , i are four) ied in respect of their characteristics Broadly fnere are four 4) Chronological classification b) Geographical classification i alitative classifi . J c) Qualitative classification 8) Quantitative elassitiaton J q . 14 STA~211 Applied Statistics KM. Keruppasomy, MSC," c > |v » Chronological classification: In chronological classifi expressed in years, months, we OE IT ——— cation the collected data are arranged according to the order of time For example, the data related sanoct@ the data is generally classified in ascending order of time. always subjected to chronologic Example: ~ The estimates of birth rat ical | tes in India during 1970 — 76 are Year {1970 [1971 1972 [1973 | 1974-1975 1976 ae 36.8 36.9 36.6 | 34.6 | 34.5 35.2 | 34.2 { b) Geographical classificatio L In this type of classification th place. For instance, the production of in different countries ete.; oe Country | America [China [Denmark | France [India Yield of wheat in | 1925 893 225 439 862 (kg/acre) ith population, sales of a firm, imports and exports of a country are data are classified according to geographical region or f paddy in different states in India, production of wheat | c) Qualitative classification: sex, literacy, religion, employment etc., such attributes cannot be measured along with a scale. In this type of classification data are classified on the basis of same attributes or aye For example, if the population to be classified in respect to one attribute, say sex. then we can clas into “employed’ or ‘unemployed’ on the basis of another attribute “employment” ify them into two namely that of males and females. Siniilarly, they can also be classified Thus when the classification is done with respect to one attribute, which is dichotomous in nature, two classes are formed, one possessing the attribute and the other not possessing the attribute. This type of classification is called simple or dichotomous classification. A simple classification may be shown as under |“ x: Population Male Femate fy population simultaneously [pe classification, where two or more attributes are considered and several classes are formed, is called a m With respect to two al respect to “sex” into ‘males’ and “females * employment” and * unem| ron Population are classified into four classes nanifold classification) For example, if ributes, e.g. sex and employment, then population are first classified with jamely.. ‘ach of these classes may then be further classified into, ployment’ on the basis of attribute * employment” and as such () Male employed (ii) Male unemployed _ (ii) Female employed (jy) Female unemployed STA~211 Applied Statistics 15 K.M, Karuppasainy, M.Sc,, M.Phil,> Stil the classification may be farther extended by considering other atibuts ike tah status ete. This can be explained by the following chart os ~ Population t —l1, ~~ 1, Employed Unemployed Employed Unemptoyea | 4) Quantitative classification: j Male Female } (e Quantitative classification refers to the classification of data according to so chafacteristes that can be measurgd such as height, weight, etc,)For example the students college may be classified accordinglto weight as given below. i Weight (in | 90t0 100100 “to ] 110 to] 120 to] 13010] 140 to tonal Tbs) 110 120 130 140 150 | No. of 30 200 260 360 90 40 1000 Students In this type of classification there are two elements, in the above example, and (ji) the frequency in the number students having weights ranging from 90 to 100 Ib, 200 stu. 100 to 110 Ib and so on. namely (i) the variable (.¢) the weig of students in each class. There are 5) dents having weight ranging between Tabulation: | _Jabulation: . | j [rebutation is the process of ‘summarizing classified or grouped data in the form of a te So that itis easily understood)and an investigator is quickly able to locate the desired in, {A table is a systematic arrangement o} a f classified data in columns and rows"] i Thus statistical table makes it possible forthe investigator to present a huge mass of in a detaileé and orderly form] It facilitates comparison and often reveals caters patterns in &! ich ere otherwise not obvious {Classification and ‘Tabulation’ Jas a matter of fcifae | distinct processes.] Actually they” go together. |Before tabulation data are classified and th displayed under different columns and rows ofa table. ] | Advantages of Tabulation: we . Statistical data arranged in a tabular form serve following objectives: | (uttsimptitis complex data and the data presented are easily understood] 2. IC facilitates comparison of related fuets It facilitates computation of Various statistical measures like averages, dispst® correlation ete] _ il a tc 4. It presents facts in minimum possible space and unnecessary repetitions and exp! are avoided. Moreover; th the needed information can be easily located. | . th 5. Tabuiated data are good for references and they make it easier to present the inform” in the form of graphs and | aa 16 aC STA-221 Applied Statistics i K.M. Karuppasamy, MSC ceea aring a Table: : The making of a compact table ion needed f : ¢ itself an art. This should contain all the information within the smallest possible the cz What[the purpose of tabulation] is(and how the tabulated information is to be used are the main Points to be kept in mind while preparing for a statistical table. An ideal table should consist of the following main parts: __}. Table number 2 Title of the table 4. Stubs or row designation <3. Captions or column headings 3, Body ofthe table 6. Footnotes 7. Sources of data] Table Number: [A {able should be numbered for easy reference and identification. This number, if possible, should-be written in the centre at the top of the table, Sometimes it is also written just before the title of the ) Tifle: . Ca good table should have a clearly worded, brief but unambiguous title explaining the nature of data contained in the table,. It should also state arrangement of data and the period Sovered. The title should be placed centrally on the top ofa table just below the table neste (or Just after table number in the same line} Captions or column Headings: _Laptions or co leadings: Captions in a table stand for br Captions may involve headings and sul be given for each column,)Usually, tabulated in the columns. ief and self explanatory headings of vertical columns. 'b-headings as well. The unit of data contained should also a relatively less important and shorter classification should be Stubs or Row Designatic {stubs stands for brief and self explanatory. headings of horizontal rows,)Normally, a relatively more important classification is given in rows. Also a,varicble with a large number of classes is usually represented in rows. For example, rows may stand for score of classes and columns for data related to sex of students. In the process, there will be many rows for scores classes but only two columns for male and female students. Bos ze Che body of the table contains the numerical information of frequency of observations in the different cells} This arrangement of data is according to the description of captions and stubs. _Aootnotes: ¢ for explanation of any fact or information r iven at the foot of the table for bm includ nt Boke ‘which needs some explanati 1} Thus, they are meant for explaining or providing further details about the data that have not been covered in title, captions and stubs. Sores of data: Lastly one should also mention the source of information from which data are taken, This thor, volume, page and the year of publication. This ferably include the name of the author, Ne, page | y Pi dada pee ice the data contained in the table is of ‘primary or secondary’ nature. v7 STA~211 Applied Statistics © K.M: Karuppasamy, M.Sc., M.Phil,a odel structure of a table is given below: Table Number —_ Title of the Table Heading AG ~ | - | | Foot notes: “Sources Note: |] } _ Requirements of a Good Table: q A good statistical table is not merely a careless grouping of columns and rows but shou bbe such that it summarizes the total information in‘an easily accessible form in minimum post space. Thus while preparing a table, one must have a clear idea of the information to be presente, the facts to be compared and he points to be stressed. i Though, there is no hard and fast rule for forming a table yet a few general point should be sl mind: [2. A table should be carefully prepared so that it is easily understandabie. } H ot A table should be formed in keeping with the objects of statistical eng 3. A table should be formed.so as to suit the size of the paper. But such an adjustm: should not be at the cost of legibility. ! {. Ifthe figures iz tlie table are large, they should be suitably rounded or approximated | method of approximation and units of measurements too should be specified. 5. Rows and columns in a table should be sumberedand certain figures to be stressed be put'in * box’ or ‘circle’ or in bold letters. (6. The arrangements of rows and columns should be in a logical and systematic order. 7 arrangement may be alphabetical, chronological or according to size. j 7. The rows and columns are separated by Fr double or thick lines to represent vatit classes and sub-classes used. The corresponding [proportions or percentages should be 8i¥€™, adjoining rows and columns to enable comparison}A vertical expansion of the table is ge ‘more convenient than the horizontal one. | vat The averages or totals of different rows should be given at the right of the table and of columns at the bottom of the table. Totals for every sub-class too should be mentioned, 9. In case itis not possible to accommodate all the information in a single table, it is better” two or more related tables, ‘Type of Table 1 he Tables can be classified according to thei : of istic ig to their purpose, stage of enquiry, nature O' number of characteristics used (On the basis of the number of characteristics, tbles ™ classified as follows!) . 38 we STA-211 Applied Statisties KM. Karuppasarny, MSC J1. Simple or one-way table 2. Two way table: > -:4 +3: Manifold table. = ? _Simple or one-way Table: _ asians or one-way table is the simplest table which contains data of one characteristic below may E nen te — Construct and simple to follow) For example, the blank table given ‘ow the number of adults in different éccupations in a locality. 7p ne Humber of adults in different occupations in a locality Occupations No. Of Adults Total way Table: {La table, which contains data on two characteristics is called a two-way table. In such case, therefore, cither stub or caption is divided into two co-ordinate parts) In the given-table, as an example the caption may be further divided in respect of * sex’ . This subdivision is shown in two- way table, which now contains two characteristics namely, occupation and sex. _ Are number of adults in a locality in respect of occupation and sex Mare Female Total Manifold ‘Vabie: Thus, more and more complex tables can be forined by including other characteristics. For example, we miay further classify the caption sub-headings in the above table in respect of “marital status”, “* religion” and “socio-economic status” etc. [A-table. which has more than two characteristics of data is considered as a manifold tabte] For instance, table shown below shows three characteristics namely, occupation, sex and marital status. ‘Occupation ‘No. of Adults Total] a a a MOL U [foar| MU [Feit] Fort 4 Foot note: M Stands for Married and U stands for unmarried. Manifold tables, though complex are good in practice as these enable full information to be incorporated and facilitate analysis of all related facts. Stil, as a normal practice, not more than four characteristics should be represented in one table to avoid confusion, Other related tables may be formed to show the remaining characteristi K.M. Keruppasamy, f4\Sc,, Mt STA~ 211 Applied Statistics_/itterence between Classification and Tabulation: | Classification 1. This is the process of dividing the data into Homogeneous subgroup 2. This condenses the mass of data and facilitates to grasp the nature 3. This foreruns tabulation 4, This is a process of analysis of data. 5. Careful planning for tabulation is necessary even at this stage. a i Tabulation | 1. This is the process of arranging the —~ classified data systematically in rows and } columns of a table. | | | | 2. This provides the data a readily referable and almost permanent form. 3, This completes an important stage of enumeration, 4. This is a process of presentation of data, 5. This is mechanical function after classification. | _/RIAGRAMATIC AND GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION Introduction: In the previous chapter, we have discussed the techniques of classification and tabulati:_ that help in summarizing the collected data and presenting them in a systematic manner. Hower these forms of presentation do not always prove to be interesting to the common man,{One of most convincing and appealing ways in which statistical results may be presented is throw diagrams and grap] sh Moreover(even a layman who has nothing to do with numbers can also understan diagrams.) Evidencé of this can be found in newspapers, magazines, journals, advertisement. ¢ is chapter to illustrate some of the major types of diagrams and gop frequently used in presenting statistical data. Diagrams: fa diagram is a visual form for presentation of statistical data, highlighting their basic f and relationship) If we draw diagrams on the basis of the data collected they will understood and appreciated by all. It is readily intelligible and save a considerable amount 0! and energy. _Aienificance of Diagrams and Graphs: ((Diserams and graphs are extremely usefill because of the following reasons, 1. They are attractive and impressive, 3. They make comparison possible 5. They have universal utility, 7. They have a great memorizing effect . ust one diagram is enough to represent a given data more effectively ts 2. They make data simple and intelligible: 4, They save time and labour. | 6. They give more information) |General rules for constructing diagrams: ‘The construction of diagrams is an art, which ean be acquired through practice. However, observance of some general Suidelines can help in making them more attractive and effective. The diagrammatic presentation of st ‘tistical facts will be advantageous provided the following rules are observed in drawing diagrams, (1. A diagram should be neatly drawn and attractive, 2. “The measurements of geometrical figures used in diagram should be accurate and proportional. 3. The size of the diagrams should match the size of the Paper. 4. Every diagram must have a suitable but short heading. 5. The scale should be mentioned in the diagram. ©. Diagrams should be neatly as well as accurately drawn with’ the help of drawing instruments, 7. Index must be Biven for identification so that the reader.can éasily make out the meaning of the diagram. 8. Footnote must be given at the bottom of the diagram. | 9. Economy in cost and energy should be exercised in drawing diagram. ! _Dspes of diagrams: . : | In practice, a very large variety of diagrams are in use and new ones are constantly being _ Sdded. For the sake of convenience and simplicity, they may be divided under the following heads: (21: One-dimensional diagrams * 2. Two-dimensional diagrams 3. Three-dimensional diagrams © 4, Pictograms anid Cartograms] One-dimensional diagrams: In such diagrams, only one-dimensional measurement, ie. height is used and the width is not considered. These diagrams are in the form of bar or line charts and can be classified as : 1. Line Diagram 2, Simple Bar Diagram 3. Multiple Bar Diagram 4, Sub-divided Bar Diagram 5, Percentage Bar Diagram] _Line Bingram: Line diagram is used in ease where there are many items to be shown and there is not much/of difference in their values. Such diagram is prepared by drawing a vertical line for ene item according to the scale, The distance between lines is Kept uniform. Line diagram moke, comparison easy, but it is less attractive Jhws Y i J _/ Simple Bar Diagram: _ ([Simpte bar diagram can be drawn either on horizontal or vertical base, but bars horizontal base more common. Bars must be uniform width and intervening space between rust be equal. While constructing a simple bar diagram, the scale is determined on the basis oft highest value in the series. | To make the diagram attractive, the bars can be coloured{ Bar diagram are used in busin is that they can present cx] and economies|However, [an important limitation of such diagrams is one classification or one category of data] For example, while presenting the population for the five decades, one can only depict the total population in the simple bar diagrams, and not its « wise distribution. Example: Represent the following data by a bar diagram. a Year Toor [1992 | 1993 [1994 | 1995 Production (intonnes) [45 [40 [42 [55 |59 i Solutions —— Simple Bar Diagram oo —— fe = Multiple Bar Diagram: two or more sets of statistical data. Bars * for comparison. In order to distinguish b Multiple bar diagram is used for comparing Id be different types of crossings or dostifg constricted side by side to represent the set of values ‘ed or there shoul they may be cither differently colour should tte, An index is also prepared to identify the meaning of different colours or dotting] Example: Draw a multiple bar diagram forthe following data. {Year 1998 7999 2000 2001 Profit before 195 200 165 140 tax (in Jakhs) Profit after tax 80 87 45 32 | (in ik) Ei ee wet STA 221 Applied Statistics K.M. Karuppasamy, MSCSolution: Z Muttipte Sar Diagram 480. 60. 440. 320. 400. Bo. so. 0. 20. Prof (in Ps) 1998 1999 2000 200% Profit before tax Profit ator tax ivided Bar Diagram: (y2 compantnr Bay Aiag-omy {in a sub-divided bar diagram, the bar is sub-divided into various in proportion to the values given in the data and the whole bar represent the total. Such diagrams are also called Component Bar diagrams. The sub divisions are distinguished by different colours or erossings or dotting. ‘The main defect of such a diagram is that all the parts do not one to compare accurately the various components of the data. ) ¢ a cominon base to enable Example: Represent-the following data by a sub-divided bar diagram, Monthly expenditure Expenditure items Food ‘Clothing Education jousing Rent ‘Miscellaneous Solution ve Sub-divided Bar Diagram Monthly expendture (In) Expenditure tom Dclothing Education 23 K.M. Karuppasamy, M.Sc,, M.Phil, STA~211 Applied StatisticsSTA 211 Applied Statistics * \ Percentage bar diagram: | {rs is another form of component bar diagram] Here the Components are no: th | values bat percentages of the whole.\The main difference between the sub-divided bar diagram) ub-divided bar diag percentage bar diagram is that nthe former the bars are of different heights since thei tg be different whereas in the latter the bars are of equal height since ac! h bar Pee 100 preg ’ In the ease of data having sub-division, percentage bar diagram will be more appealing thay divided bar diagram) | _ Example: Represent the following data by a percentage bar diagram. Particular Factory A__|_ Factory B Selling Price. 400 650 | ‘Quantity Sold 240 365 ‘Wages 3500 3000 Materials 2100 3500 Miscellaneous 1400 2100 _Splaton! Conver the glen values ino peroentage as lava: Convert the given values into percentages as follows: ? Ss Particulars Factory A Factory B wy Rs. % Rs. % as ‘Selling Price 400 3 650 6 ‘> ‘Quantity Sold 240 3 365 3 4 ‘Wazes 3500 46 5000 a3 ‘Materials 2100 28 3500 Ora ‘Miscellaneous 14001 18 2100 18 [Fotat 7640| 100 | 11615 | 100 Sub-divided PercentageBar Diagram 10 8 \ Percentages oS88e Factory A Factory B Particulars A o-dimensional Diagrams: In one-dimensio diagrams the area repre: account. Such diagrams area diagrams are: nal diagrams, only nts the data and are also called area Jength @ is taken into account. But{in two-dime"™™” so the length and breadth have both to be tsk" diagrams or surface diagrams. The importatt 1. Rectangles 2. Squares ck Pie-diagrams” 2 af K.M. Karuppasamy, MSC" eee osRectangles: “ Rectangles are used te represent the relative magnitude ef two or more values. The arca of the rectangles is kept in proportion te the values. Rectangles ‘are placed side by side for comparison.) When two sets of figures are to be represented by rectangles, either of the two methods may be adopted. mn y recine We may represent the figures as they are given or may convert them to percentages and then subdivide the length into Various components. Thus the percentage sub-divided rectangular diagram is more popular than sub-divided rectangular since it enables comparison to be made on a percentage basis. Example: Represent the following data by sub-divided percentage rectangular diagram. a Family A ‘i Items of Expenditure (ncome pee Secone Gncome Rs.8000) Food 2000 2500 Clothing. 1000. 2000 House Rent 200. 1000 Fuel and lighting 300 300) Miscellaneous #00 2000 Total 3000 ‘3000 Solution: The items of expenditure will be converted into percentage as shown below: i Family A Family B Htems of Expenditure | = = F Food 2000_| 40 |~2500_| 31 Clothing 1000_| 20 | 2000_[- 25 House Rent soo [16 | 1000_ |= 13 Fuel and Lighting 400 8 500 | 6 Miscellaneous 300_| 16 | 3000; 25 (otal A SUBDIVIDED PERCENTAGE RECTANGULAR DIAGRAM Pecage \ ° Sa ‘Fam 8 (0-8000) GFood Holothing Blouse Rent EIFuel and Lighting GIMiscetianeous Be Squares: ccectansotar method of digrammari presentation is dificult to use where the values of (the rectangular See eral 1g. a square dingram is very simple. One has to take the , ‘ ‘The meth very sin ca aa a wales of erjous item that are to be shown in the diagrams and then select a square root of the va suitable scale to draw the squares. 25, K.M. Katuppasamy, MSc., M.Phil, STA~211 Applied StatisticsExample : Yield of rice in Kgs, per acre of five countries are 7 Country [USA [Australia [UK [Canada] Tndia i Yield of rice ‘ in Kgs per|6400 | 1600 | 2500 | 3600 | 4900 | | acre . Represent the above data by Square diagram. : Solution: _To draw the square diagram we calculate as follows: : A o Yield | 'Squareroot | Sie of the Sosa ———|-—saon 0 a | 1600 = z 2500 3 23 3600 30 3 4900 $0 35 oem 3.5m, = 2san 3em USA AUST = UKs CANADA _INDIA Pie Diagram or Circular Diagram: ~ 7 { Another way of preparing a two-dimensional diagram isin the form of circles. In diagrams, both the total and the component parts or sectors can be shown. The area of a circk proportional to the square of its radius} é While making comparisons, pie diagrams should be used on a percentage basis and not an absolute basis|In constructing a pie diagram the first step is to prepare the data so that vari components values can be transposed into corresponding degrees on the circle] (The second step is to draw a circle of appropriate size with a compass.) The size of radias depends upon the available space and other factors of presentation. {ine third step measure points on the eiscle and representing the size of each sector with the help of a protracter_ Example: ! Draw a Pie diagram for the following data of production of sugar in quintals of vari counties. ! [counsy ) _ Production of “] ! Country | suena tne ceeds) ! Cuba’ | 62 _| : i 47 | 35 ! 16, 5 ! 7 i Solution: The values are expressed in terms of degree as follows. i ‘a |_ Production of Sugar ! ‘ount Country | Quintats STA~ 221 Applied StatisticsPle Diagram fmcuba Australia Dindia lexJapan Egypt _Jiveoedimensional diagrams: [Three-dimensional diagrams, also known as volume diagram, consist of cubes, cylinders, spheres. etc. In such diagrams three things, namely length, width and height have to be taken into secount| OF al the figures, making of cubes is easy. Side of a cube is drawn in proportion to the cube rodt of the magnitude of data. 79 Cubes of figures can be ascertained with the help of logarithms. The logarithm of the figures can be divided by 3 and the antilog of that value will be the cube-root, Example: Represent the following data by volume diagram, am Category ‘Number of Students Under graduate 64000 Post graduate 27000 c Professionals 8000 : Solutio: The sides of cubes can be determined as follows 7 ‘Number of a Category penienet Cube root Undergraduate 64000 40 Postgraduate 27000 a 30 Professional 8000 1 20 4com 3cm 2em — undergraduate Postgraduate professional Fishogen ms and Cartograms: Pictograms are not abstract presentation such as lines or bars but really depict the kind of data we are dealing with [Pictures are attractive and easy to comprehend and as such this method is particularly useful in presenting statistics to the layman, When Pictograms are used, data are represented through a pictorial symbol that is carefully selecte al maps are used to givé quantitative information as a geographical ‘ent 4'cm 3 cm 2 cm 80 spatial distributions, The quantities on the ch as through shades or colours or dots or placing pictogram in (Cartograms or statistic basis. They are used to repres map can be shown in many ways SU cach geographical unit”) 27hs Srp Graphs: [A graphis a visual form of presentation of statistical data. A graph is more attractive y table of figure.) Even a common man can understand the message of data from the g. Comparisons can be made between two or more phenomena very casily with the help of a However here we shall discuss only(some important types of sraphsT which are popular and they are (1. Histogram 2. Frequeney Polygon 3.Frequency Curve 4. Ogive 5. Lorenz Cun) Histogram: 2 (A histogram is a bar chart or graph showing the frequency of occurrence of each valu the variable being analyzed. In histogram, data are plotted as a series of rectangles. Class int are shown on the “X-axis’ and the frequencies on the “Y-axis” \The height of each rectangle represents the frequency of the class interval. Each r is formed with the other so as to give a continuous picture. Such a graph is also called stair block diagram”), 7 a ' However, we cannot construct a histogram for distribution with open-end classes. It is quite misleading if the distribution has unequal intervals and suitable adjustments in frequ are not madi Example: Draw a histogram for the following data. a Daily Wapes ‘Number of Workers 0-50 8 50-100 16, eel 100-150, 27 150-200 19 200-250 10, ‘250-300, 6 Solution: S verocnasn ote tot Oatiy wegen in Rad Frequency Polygon: AL \we mark the midpoints of the top horizontal sides of the rectangles in a histos™™™” Join them by a straight tine, the figure so formed is called a Frequency Polygon. This is do" the assumption that the frequencies in a class interval are evenly distributed throughout th ° The area ofthe polygon is equal to the area ofthe histogram, because the area left ousife equal to the area included in } Mt Km. Karuppasarn, MS iB STA~211 Applied StatisticsExample: Draw a frequency polygon forthe following data” Weight 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 | 55-60 [ke) __| No off 4 7 student 10 18 14 8 | eles Frequency Curve: [atthe middle point of the upper boundaries of the rectangles of a histogram is corrected by a smoot fechand curve, then that diagram is called frequency curve. The curve should begin and end at the base line Example: Draw a frequency curve for the following data, a Monthly Wages ‘No. of family f Gn Rey, ‘0=1600) ar 1000-2000. 35 2000-3000. 36 ‘3000-4000, rae 4000-5000, —_ ‘5000-6000 —a0 ‘6000-7000 25 7000-8000 14 Solution: ~ _ ft Ogives: oe i q a frequency distribution {in some cases For a sel ervations, we know how (0 construct a rae iy eee of observations less than a given value or more than given value. This i obtssned by a accumulating (adding) the fequencies up to (or above) the give value, This accumulated frequency is called cumulative frequency. ") ie: sted ii ible is called cumulative frequency table. e uencies are then listed ina tat ‘is ca r The Coe cana ea by plotting cumulative frequencies is ealled cumulative frequency curve table curve or an ogive. 29 KM. Karuppasamy, M.Sc, t.Phil, | Sta—211 Applied statistics ee ?here are two methods of constructing ogive namely: q 1. The ‘less than ogive’ method t 2, The ‘more than ogive’ method. } less than ogive method we start with the upper limits of th se When these frequencies arc plotted, we get arising curve. in mits of the classes and from th ™ore thay © he total frequencies Mop . \ In frequeticie we start with the lower i Frequency of each class] When these frequencies are ploted we get a deci e 4 ning cur Example: f a ives for the following d:ata Draw the O; Gass 720-30 130-40 [40-50 [50-60 | 60-70 | interval | Frequency | 4 6 3 25__(| 32 Solutior a Class Lessthan | More than Limit Ogive Osive 20 0 > | oy 4 106 L. 40 10 100 [|___50 23, 87 60 48 a = 80 oe I 80 99 71 90 107 3 L100. 1 110 0 Ogives AY ‘x axis lem = 10 units y axis Tem = 10 waits oseesssassgag \ cont ee wes wo we we we wo wo ee Class Umit Lorenz Curve: 7 id Lorenz e it - vas intro Maxon, SNe is 9 graphical method of studying dispersion 1 05 Max.O'Lorent rest Economist anastasia, to sty the distoution of weit ly the variability inthe distribution of profits, wages, eve™™™ © kam. Keruppase™ _d STA~211 Applied Stal( pone ceceilly used to study the degree of inequality in the distribution of income ca vn variable i euttties or between differem periods It is a percentage of cumulative values © one variable in combined wi Fi iabl hi ‘th the perc values in other variable and thet pehicpe hy Percentage of cumulative values i \The curve starts from the origin (0,0) and ends at (100,100). If the wealth, revenue, land ete are equally distributed areng the people of the country, then the Lorenz curve will be the diagonal of the square.)But this is highly impossible{ The deviation of the Lorenz curve from the diagonal shows how the wealth, revenue, lang ete are not equally distributed among people. ] Example: In the following table, Profit camed is given from the number of companies belonging to two areas A and B. Draw in the : i ene same diagram their Lorenz curves and interpret them, (Profit carned Gin thousands) _ Profits z 22 2g 3 ae 32 2 ze | 28 g = Se /éE bb is 5 T 3 26 31 4 13 65 96 12 23 89 | 185 22 a2 110 1295 36 65 450 54 |25 | 119 82 630_|_76_|18 |137 [94 830 [100 8 [145 | 100 z- Ro ee vee —- z- 3 ~ 31 etnies K.M. Karuppasamy, M.Sc., M.Phil,[The differences between a graph and a diagram are given in the following tabi a) . > | Graph {Graph consists of points, lines and eurves, 2Ahis is drawn on a graph sheet. 3, Numerical variation is in two direction and zZ ‘scales are chosen for both the axes. 4, Mathematical relation between two variables is shown by regression lines. Best possible curves givén by the method of least squares can be drawn. De kess attractive and requires more attention {0 understand. ‘6AWVidely used in statistical analysis, presentation of data and research. Trends and tendencies are known. Z-Quartiles, Median, mode, etc., can be found. 8. Useful for analysis of time series, business fexecasting, interpolation, extrapolation and inverse interpolation. Diagram __| Diagram is a geometrical shape such as too~\ circle, ete., , Graph sheet is not required. | Numerical variation is usually in one direction and so, mostly, scale is needed for that axis alone. Mainly useful for visual comparisons. More attractive and easier to understand the nature of the data. Widely used in advertisements and publicities. Trends and tendencies of the datz are not obvious. Quartiles, Median and Mode cannot be found. Not useful for analysis of time series, business forecasting, interpolation, extrapolation and inverse interpolation.